Lecture 2

Lecture 2
Mechanical Properties of Materials

KQA7007
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Andri Andriyana Failure of Materials in Service
Center of Advanced Materials
KQK7006
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics
Lecture 1 Lecture 3 Lecture 5
Stress and Strain Tensors Failure Criteria for Yielding Fatigue Failure
1 2 3 4 5
Lecture 2 Lecture 4
Mechanical Properties of Materials Principle of Fracture Mechanics
Buckling phenomenon
2.1 Structure of Metals
Lecture Outline
2.2 Description of Mechanical Properties
KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service

Buckling phenomenon
Structure of Metals
2.1

General Introduction
When cooled from their melting state, materials can be classified based on their
atomic arrangement:
o  Crystalline materials
Arranged following a periodic/repetitive array (long-range order)
Example: metals, alloys
o  Non-crystalline (amorphous) materials

Arranged in a random manner
Example: polymers
KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service / KQK7006 Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics Assoc. Prof. Dr. Andri Andriyana 5
Structure of Crystals in Metals
Properties of a metal depend on the

crystal structure, i.e. the manner in which
atoms are spatially arranged
Cubic Hexagonal
Each crystal structure is composed of Cubic unit cell

unit cells, i.e. small repeat entities
Principal Crystal Structures of Metals
90% of the metals have either Body Centered Cubic (BCC), Face Centered Cubic
(FCC) or Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) crystal structure
BCC FCC HCP
BCC Crystal Structure
o  Each central atom is surrounded by 8 nearest neighbors

o  BCC has a coordination number of 8
o  Each unit cell has 2 equivalent number of atoms
o  Atomic Packing Factor (APF) = 0.68
BCC Crystal Structure
FCC Crystal Structure

o  FCC has a coordination number of 12
FCC Crystal Structure
HCP Crystal Structure

o  HCP has a coordination number of 12
HCP Crystal Structure
Close-Pack Crystal Structures: FCC vs HCP
Close-Pack Crystal Structures: FCC vs HCP
A-B-A-B-A-B-A A-B-C-A-B-C-A
(HCP) (FCC)
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) and Theoretical Density
Atomic Packing Factor Theoretical Density

Ratio between volume of atoms in unit cell Ratio between the mass and the total
and the total volume of unit cell volume of unit cell
VA nA
APF = ρV =
VUC VUC N A
VA : Volume of atoms in unit cell n : Equivalent number of atoms in unit cell

VUC : Total volume of unit cell A : Atomic weight (g/mol)
NA : Avogadro’s number (6.022 x1023 atoms/mol)
Example 1 5 minutes
Question
Show that the Atomic Packing Factor (APF) for the FCC and BCC unit cells are 0.74
and 0.68 respectively
FCC BCC
Example 2 15 minutes
Question
Niobium has an atomic radius of 0.143nm and a theoretical density of 8.57g/cm3.
Determine whether it has an FCC or BCC crystal structure. Atomic weight of Niobium is
92.19 g/mol.
Single crystal vs polycrystalline metals
Polycrystalline
Composed of a collection of many small
crystal or grains
Single crystal
Perfect periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms (single grain)
Grain boundaries
Single crystal vs polycrystalline metals
Single crystal Polycrystalline
Buckling phenomenon
Description of Mechanical Properties

2.1

Tension tests
Various types of tension test machine
Tension tests
Applied load
o  During the test, the tension specimen

is pulled gradually
o  As the applied load increases, the
specimen length is measured
o  The change of specimen length
(deformation) is measured using
extensometer or from the distance
between two grips
o  The amount of applied load is
measured using load cell
o  The load-deformation diagram can
be plotted
Load-deformation diagram
1.  As the load is applied, there is a range in which the

deformation is linearly related to the load
2.  Noticeably larger deformations in response to
relatively small increases in load
3.  As the load is continually increased, stretching in
Necking
Necking the specimen will be obvious
4.  At some point, a maximum load intensity will be
reached
5.  Immediately following this peak, the specimen will
begin to narrow and elongate markedly at one
specific location (necking), causing the load acting
in the specimen to decrease
6.  Shortly thereafter, the specimen will fracture
Remarks
The load-deformation diagram that are obtained in the tension test provide
information about only one specific size of specimen. Consequently, the
diagram will be different if the specimen size is different (even though the
specimen is made of the same material)
The test results will be more useful if they are generalized into a stress-strain
diagram since the obtained diagram is independent of specimen size. It
depends only on the type of material
Stress-strain diagram
How to plot stress-strain diagram
Necking
Necking
Stress
Since gage length (initial length of specimen) and specimen
cross-sectional area are constant, the shape of load-deformation
and stress-strain diagrams will be the same. However, their
values will be different
Strain
Typical stress-strain diagrams
Elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and shear modulus
Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus (E) - GPa

Stiffness, i.e. resistance of materials to elastic
deformation
Poisson’s ratio (ν) - unitless

Ratio between lateral to axial strains
Shear modulus (G) - GPa

Shear stiffness, i.e. resistance of materials to elastic
shear deformation
Elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and shear modulus
ε lateral E
ν =− G=
ε axial 2(1 +ν )
Question
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long
axis of a cylindrical brass rod having a diameter
of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the force
required to produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm reduction in
diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic. The
modulus of elasticity of brass is 100 GPa,
Poisson’s ratio is 0.35.
Yield strength and tensile/ultimate strength
Yield strength (σy) - MPa

Stress level at which significant plastic deformation
occurs. By convention, it is the stress at 0.2% plastic
strain
Tensile/ultimate strength (TS) - MPa

Maximum engineering stress that can be sustained by
the materials
Ductility
Ductility
Measure of materials ability to deform plastically without
fracture
Percent elongation
⎛ l f − l0 ⎞ lf : Length at fracture (m)

% EL = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅100
⎝ l0 ⎠ l0 : Initial length (m)
Percent area reduction

⎛ A0 − Af ⎞ A f : Area at fracture (m2)
% AR = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅100
⎝ A0 ⎠ A0 : Initial area (m2)
Toughness
Toughness - J/m3
Capacity of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.
In other word, it is simply the energy per unit volume
required to break the material
εf
K c = ∫ σ dε
0
Stress-strain curves for selected metals
Example 4 3 minutes
Question
The mechanical properties of certain materials are listed in the table below.
o  Which material will experience the greatest percent area reduction?
o  Which material is the strongest?
o  Which is the stiffest?
Elastic and plastic deformations
Elastic deformation
o  Deformation is non-permanent, i.e. material returns to its
initial shape after the removal of load
o  Corresponds to the stretching of interatomic bonds, thus
involving only small changes in the interatomic spacing
ε = εe + ε p
Plastic deformation
Slope = E
o  Deformation is permanent, i.e. material does not returns
to its initial shape after the removal of load
o  Corresponds to the breaking of interatomic bonds,
followed by reforming bonds with new neighbors
εe : Elastic strain (unitless)
εp : Plastic strain (unitless)
Elastic and plastic deformations
Elastic deformation Plastic deformation
Single shear
Double shear
Buckling phenomenon
2.1 Structure of Metals
Summary
2.2 Description of Mechanical Properties

Thomas Young was a British polymath who made notable contributions to the fields of vision,
light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical harmony, and Egyptology. Young has
been described as "The Last Man Who Knew Everything". His work informed that later done by
William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, James Clerk Maxwell, and Albert Einstein. Young is
credited with establishing the wave theory of light, in contrast to the particle theory of Isaac Newton.
Young's work was subsequently supported by the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel.
Young described the characterization of elasticity that came to be known as Young's modulus
(elastic modulus), in 1807, and further described it in his Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy
and the Mechanical Arts. However, the first use of the concept of Young's modulus in experiments
was by Giordano Riccati in 1782, predating Young by 25 years. Furthermore, the idea can be traced
to a paper by Leonhard Euler published in 1727, some 80 years before Thomas Young's 1807 paper.
Young's Modulus (elastic modulus) allowed, for the first time, prediction of the strain in a component subject to a known
stress (and vice versa). Prior to Young's contribution, engineers were required to apply Hooke's F = kx relationship to identify
the deformation (x) of a body subject to a known load (F), where the constant (k) is a function of both the geometry and
material under consideration. Finding k required physical testing for any new component, as the F = kx relationship is a
function of both geometry and material. Young's Modulus depends only on the material, not its geometry, thus allowing a
revolution in engineering strategies.
~ Thomas Young (1773-1829). Edited from Wikipedia ~

Siméon Denis Poisson was a French mathematician, engineer, and physicist who made
many scientific advances. In the field of mechanics of materials, a quantity called Poisson’s ratio
is named after him. It is a measure of the expansion or contraction of a material in directions
perpendicular to the direction of loading.
During his early academic carreer, he was mentored by the famous Joseph-Louis Lagrange and
Pierre-Simon Laplace. As a scientific worker, his productivity has rarely been equaled.
Notwithstanding his many official duties, he found time to publish more than three hundred works,
several of them extensive treatises, and many of them memoirs dealing with the most abstruse
branches of pure mathematics, applied mathematics, mathematical physics, and rational
mechanics. François Arago attributed to him the quote, "Life is good for only two things: doing
mathematics and teaching it".
Poisson's name is attached to a wide variety of ideas, for example: Poisson's integral, Poisson's equation in potential theory,
Poisson brackets in differential equations, Poisson's ratio in elasticity, and Poisson's constant in electricity. However, he was
not highly regarded by other French mathematicians either during his lifetime or after his death. His reputation was
guaranteed by the esteem that he was held in by foreign mathematicians who seemed more able than his own colleagues to
recognise the importance of his ideas. Poisson himself was completely dedicated to mathematics..
~ Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840). Edited from Wikipedia ~

Contact
Vision motivates, sustains and dispels doubt

~ Thomas Young ~

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Lecture 2

Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.1 Structure of Metals

2.2 Description of Mechanical Properties

KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service

KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service

o Non-crystalline (amorphous) materials

Properties of a metal depend on the

Each crystal structure is composed of Cubic unit cell

BCC FCC HCP

o Each central atom is surrounded by 8 nearest neighbors

o Each central atom is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors

o Each central atom is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors

Atomic Packing Factor Theoretical Density

VA : Volume of atoms in unit cell n : Equivalent number of atoms in unit cell

Single crystal Polycrystalline

Description of Mechanical Properties

KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service

Various types of tension test machine

o During the test, the tension specimen

1. As the load is applied, there is a range in which the

How to plot stress-strain diagram

Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus (E) - GPa

Poisson’s ratio (ν) - unitless

Shear modulus (G) - GPa

Yield strength (σy) - MPa

Tensile/ultimate strength (TS) - MPa

⎛ l f − l0 ⎞ lf : Length at fracture (m)

Percent area reduction

Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

2.1 Structure of Metals

2.2 Description of Mechanical Properties

KQA7007 Failure of Materials in Service

~ Thomas Young (1773-1829). Edited from Wikipedia ~

~ Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840). Edited from Wikipedia ~

Vision motivates, sustains and dispels doubt

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o  Non-crystalline (amorphous) materials

o  Each central atom is surrounded by 8 nearest neighbors

o  Each central atom is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors

o  Each central atom is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors

o  During the test, the tension specimen

1.  As the load is applied, there is a range in which the