The document discusses the concepts of fracture and fracture mechanics, detailing the types of fractures (brittle and ductile), their initiation and propagation processes, and the role of stress concentrations and flaws in material failure. It introduces Griffith's theory for brittle fracture and the stress intensity approach to analyze crack behavior, emphasizing the importance of material properties and loading conditions. Additionally, it covers the modifications needed for ductile materials and the critical parameters for predicting fracture behavior in engineering applications.
The document discusses the concepts of fracture and fracture mechanics, detailing the types of fractures (brittle and ductile), their initiation and propagation processes, and the role of stress concentrations and flaws in material failure. It introduces Griffith's theory for brittle fracture and the stress intensity approach to analyze crack behavior, emphasizing the importance of material properties and loading conditions. Additionally, it covers the modifications needed for ductile materials and the critical parameters for predicting fracture behavior in engineering applications.
The document discusses the concepts of fracture and fracture mechanics, detailing the types of fractures (brittle and ductile), their initiation and propagation processes, and the role of stress concentrations and flaws in material failure. It introduces Griffith's theory for brittle fracture and the stress intensity approach to analyze crack behavior, emphasizing the importance of material properties and loading conditions. Additionally, it covers the modifications needed for ductile materials and the critical parameters for predicting fracture behavior in engineering applications.
The document discusses the concepts of fracture and fracture mechanics, detailing the types of fractures (brittle and ductile), their initiation and propagation processes, and the role of stress concentrations and flaws in material failure. It introduces Griffith's theory for brittle fracture and the stress intensity approach to analyze crack behavior, emphasizing the importance of material properties and loading conditions. Additionally, it covers the modifications needed for ductile materials and the critical parameters for predicting fracture behavior in engineering applications.
Fracture Mechanics Fractured vessel in dry dock Bilge keel from which the fracture initiated
In 1979, the Kurdistan oil tanker broke completely
in two while sailing in the North Atlantic
The combination of warm oil in the tanker with cold water in contact with the outer hull produced substantial thermal stresses. The fracture initiated from a bilge keel that was improperly welded. The weld failed to penetrate the structural detail, resulting in a severe stress concentration. Although the hull steel had adequate toughness to prevent fracture initiation, it failed to stop the propagating crack Fracture
What is Fracture? Separation of an object under stress Results in two or more new surfaces
How does fracture proceed?
Crack initiation Crack propagation Types of Fracture
Brittle / Fast Fracture
Structural elements fail with little or no plastic deformation Often sudden failure; no prior warning Usually strain is < 5%
Ductile Fracture Appreciable plastic deformation occurs prior to and during the fracture process Classification of Types of Fracture
Based on strain to fracture
Ductile or brittle
Crystallographic mode of fracture
Shear – extensive slip on an active slip plane Cleavage – little or no slip Appearance of fracture surface Fibrous (shear) or granular (cleavage) Classification of Types of Fracture Examples
Some types and causes for engineering fractures
Low temperature tensile fracture Separation of atomic bonds under static loading High temperature tensile fracture Atomic bond separation assisted by diffusional flow Fatigue fracture Cyclic stress induced Embrittlement Environmentally aided fracture Hydrogen embrittlement Fracture Mechanics
FRACTURE MECHANICS is the science of predicting the load
carrying capabilities of structures and components containing cracks
It is based on a mathematical description of the stress field
that surrounds a crack in a loaded body
Categories
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and
Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM)
Fracture Mechanics
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Crack tip is sharp and there is only a small amount of plastic deformation at or near the crack tip
LEFM is used for high-strength metals, such as high-strength steels,
titanium, and aluminum alloys
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics
Used when the crack tip is not sharp and there is some crack tip plasticity (blunting)
EPFM is used in the design of materials, such as lower-strength,
higher-toughness steels Why do Materials Fail?
Are typical loading conditions severe enough to rupture
interatomic bonds? NO Since we know the stress that is required to break bonds, why do materials fail in service? DEFECTS or FLAWS Concentrate stress locally, levels are high enough to rupture the bonds
So are material perfect?
For almost all engineering materials, there is always some statistical distribution of flaws Griffith Theory for Brittle Fracture Griffith’s Theory of Brittle Fracture
Fracture strength of a solid should be a function of the cohesive forces
that hold the atoms together
Using this criterion, the theoretical cohesive strength of a brittle elastic
solid can be estimated to be in the range of E/10, where E is the modulus of elasticity
However, the true fracture strengths of real materials are much lower, normally 10 to as much as 1000 times below their theoretical values
In the 1920s, A.A.Griffith, while testing glass rods, observed that the longer the rod, the lower the strength
This led to the idea that the strength variation in the glass rods was due to defects, primarily surface defects. As the rods became longer, there was a higher probability of encountering a flaw Stress Concentrators
Defects act as stress concentrators
Defect Free Solid Defect in Solid
Forces are Forces concentrate distributed evenly in local region
Stress distribution Causes stress
is uniform concentration Stress Concentration
Consider an elliptical crack in a large plate
𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 stress at the ends of the major axis of crack 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 average stress away from the crack 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑐 = 1+ 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑏 The radius of curvature at the end of the crack is 𝑏2 𝜌= ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 1 + 2 𝜌 Stress Concentration
For very sharp cracks (where c>>𝜌), we can neglect the 1 in bracket, thus 𝑐 𝑐 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 2 = 2𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜌 𝜌
The term in bracket represents the Stress Concentration Factor
𝑐 𝐾𝑇 = 2 𝜌
Then 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐾𝑇
As crack length increases or the radius of curvature decreases, 𝐾𝑇 increases and thus 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 increases At fracture 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜍𝑇𝐶𝑆 and 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝜍𝑓 What is the stress concentration factor for a round hole? Stress Distribution Around Flaws
𝐹 𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐴
𝑐 𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜍𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜌 Fracture Process Summary
Flaws concentrate stress
When concentrated stress reaches 𝜍𝑇𝐶𝑆 bonds
break at crack tip and crack propagates
Fracture related to stress concentration factor
Griffith Theory for Brittle Fracture
Developed a criterion for the elliptical crack in a plate using an
energy balance approach
Two things happen when a crack propagates:
Elastic strain energy is released in a volume of material, and two
new
Crack surfaces are created, which represent a surface-energy
term
Crack will propagate when the elastic energy released as a
result of crack propagation exceeds the energy required to propagate the crack Energy Balance
As the crack extends, new surface area (dc) is created. There is an
elastic strain energy term, 𝛾𝑠 , associated with this new area Energy Balance
For an infinitely large plate containing an elliptical crack, the elastic
strain energy released due to presence of a crack is 𝜋𝜍 2 𝑐 2 𝑡 𝑈𝐸 = − 𝐸 where 2c is the length of the centre of the crack and t is the thickness of the material
The increase in surface energy of the plate due to an increase in
crack length 𝑈𝑆 = 2𝑐2𝑡𝛾𝑆 = 4𝑐𝑡𝛾𝑆
where 𝛾𝑆 is the surface energy for a brittle material
Energy Balance
Thus 𝜋𝜍 2 𝑐 2 𝑡 ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝑆 = − + 4𝑐𝑡𝛾𝑆 𝐸 the crack will propagate under a constant applied stress σ if an incremental increase in crack length produces no change in the total energy of the system; i.e. the increased surface energy is compensated by a decrease in elastic strain energy.
The equilibrium crack length (𝑐 ∗ ) can be determined by differentiating the potential
energy expression w.r.t half crack length c and setting the result equal to zero 𝑑∆𝑈 2𝜋𝜍 2 𝑐𝑡 =0=− + 4𝑡𝛾𝑆 𝑑𝑐 𝐸
2𝐸𝛾𝑆 𝜍= 𝜋𝑐
which gives the stress required to propagate a crack of length c in a brittle material Energy Balance
2𝐸𝛾𝑆 2𝐸𝛾𝑆 𝜍𝐹 = 𝜍𝐹 = 𝜋𝑐 𝜋𝑐(1 − 𝜈 2 )
Plane Stress Plane Strain
(Biaxial stress) (Triaxial stress)
Thus we can calculate the maximum tolerable crack dimension (i.e.
flaw size) for a given state of stress OR The maximum allowable stress if the maximum crack dimension is known
These equations only apply to brittle elastic solids
For plastic solids, other relationships must be developed Fracture in Ductile Materials What about Ductile Materials?
Even metals that fail in a completely brittle fashion undergo some
plastic deformation prior to fracture The fracture strengths of a material that yields before fracture > that for a perfectly brittle elastic solid
Why?
Plastic deformation at the root of the crack increases the radius of
curvature at the crack tip Reduces stress concentration at crack tip This increases the fracture strength of the material Fracture in Ductile Materials
Orowon (1952) suggested that a plastic work term, 𝛾𝑃 ,should be
added to the Griffith equation to make it applicable to metallic materials 𝛾𝑃 represents the plastic work necessary to extend the crack front The modified Griffith equations becomes
2𝐸(𝛾𝑆 +𝛾𝑃 ) 𝜍𝐹 = 𝜋𝑐
For ductile materials i.e. metals and most polymers
𝛾𝑆 ≈ 10−4 𝛾𝑃 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛾𝑃 ≫ 𝛾𝑆
Thus we can neglect 𝛾𝑆 in ductile materials
Fracture in Ductile Materials
Irwin (1958) replaced the 2(𝛾𝑆 +𝛾𝑃 ) in Orowan’s modification
with 𝐺 where 𝐺 is defined as the Strain Energy Release Rate or crack extension force
𝐸𝐺 𝜍= 𝜋𝑐
The parameter 𝐺 represents the rate of transfer of energy from
the elastic stress field to the crack extension process Fracture in Ductile Materials
The critical value of 𝐺 that makes the crack propagate to
fracture is 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑐 is Critical Strain Energy Release Rate also known as toughness or crack resistance force 𝐺𝑐 is a material parameter
The conditions for crack growth can be represented as
𝜍𝐹 𝜋𝑐 = 𝐸𝐺𝑐
Represents the driving force
for crack propagation Stress Intensity Approach Stress Intensity Approach
Let 𝐾𝑐 = 𝜍𝐹 𝜋𝑐 In general we can state
𝐾 ≈ 𝜍 𝜋𝑐
When 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑐 , unstable crack growth occurs leading to fracture
𝐾𝑐 is a material parameter known as the Fracture Toughness
where 𝐾 is Stress Intensity Factor
Thus 𝐾𝑐 is independent of 𝜍 or 𝑐 Stress Intensity Approach
Value of 𝐾𝑐 depend upon many factors including
Type of loading on the crack face
The material being loaded
Geometry of the sample or structure???
Stress Intensity Approach
Modes of Fracture in Fracture Mechanics
Mode I Mode II Mode III
Tensile Fracture Shear Fracture Out of Plane Shear Fracture Forces open crack tip 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝑐 , 𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑐 Tearing 𝐾𝐼𝑐 , 𝐺𝐼𝑐 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑐 , 𝐺𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑐 Stresses at Crack Tip Stress Analysis at Crack Tip
Introduce a crack → redistribution of stress
Westergaard (1939) and Irwin (1957) related stresses in front of a crack tip to the stress intensity
𝜍𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝜋𝑐 𝜍𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 𝐹(𝜃) 2𝜋𝑟
𝐾 𝜍𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 𝐹(𝜃) 2𝜋𝑟 Stress Analysis at Crack Tip
𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃 𝜍𝑥𝑥 = cos 1 − sin − sin 2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2 𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃 𝜍𝑦𝑦 = cos 1 + sin − sin 2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = sin cos cos 2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
For plane stress
𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜍𝑧𝑧 = 0
General Expression
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 𝑌𝜍𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝜋𝑐𝑐
Plane strain Depends on Critical crack
fracture specimen length toughness and crack geometry
Allows calculation of maximum allowable stress for a given
flaw size Design Philosophy
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 𝑌𝜍𝑐 𝜋𝑐
Material Design stress Allowable
Property: flaw size Material Selection
Allows calculation of maximum allowable crack size for a
given stress Fracture toughness and failure mechanism Typical Fracture Behaviour of Materials Energy Balance
Total energy of the cracked plate
𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈𝑂 + 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑊𝐿 + 𝑈𝑆 + 𝑄 where 𝑈𝑂 = elastic energy of uncracked plate (constant) 𝑈𝐸 = change in elastic energy when crack is introduced 𝑈𝑆 = surface energy resulting from formation of two new crack faces 𝑊𝐿 = work done by external forces (load x displacement) 𝑄 = other energies which are not part of internal energy (e.g. kinetic energy, thermal energy, acoustic energy, etc.)
