1: Training and Development: Training is an organised procedure which brings about a semi-permanent change in

behaviour, for a definite purpose. The three main areas involved are skills, knowledge and attitudes but always with a definite purpose in
mind.
1.2 Objectives and Beneficiaries of Training
It is useful at this point to look at the significant objectives of a training scheme; (i) Meeting manpower needs: When skills of a specific order
are required, it is often impracticable for a concern to recruit skilled personnel from the open market. So do-ityourself is the only way. (ii)
Reduced learning time: When skills and knowledge are systematically taught, the trainees
are brought to efficient performance more quickly than if they had to proceed by trial and error. (iii) Improved performance: The elimination
of incorrect working procedures and poor work habits by skilled trainees ensure that only the best methods are taught. (iv) Reduced
wastage: Material and equipment costs can be often cut by the implementation of an efficient training scheme. (v) Less absenteeism: A major
cause of staying at home from work, particularly with new staff, comes from not a clear knowledge of one’s duties and how to perform them.
(vi) Fewer accidents: Accidents among untrained persons are three times more than those among the trained staff. (vii) Benefits to
employees: Any increase in job skills adds to the market value of the trainee, and can lead advancement both within and outside the
company. There is also the opportunity for the employee of increased earnings in some instances, and a job satisfaction that results from
being performed correctly for the first time.
1.2.1 Beneficiaries of Training
The beneficiaries of training are: 1. Organization: Gets more effective in decision-making and problem-solving. Improve the morale of
the workforce. Helps people identify the organizational goal. Aids in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty and better
attitude. Aids in improving productivity and quality of work. Aids in understanding and carrying out organizational policies. Aids
in organizational development. Creates an appropriate climate for growth and communication. Helps employees adjust to change.
2. Employees:
Increases job satisfaction and recognition. Moves a person towards personal goals while improving interactive skills. Helps in
eliminating fear of attempting new tasks. Provides the trainee an avenue for growth. Through training and development, motivational
variables of recognition, achievement, growth, responsibility and advancement are internalised and operationalised. Provides
information for improving leadership, communication skills and attitudes. Helps to handle stress, tension , frustration and conflict.
3. Personnel and Human Relations:
Improve inter-personnel skills. Improves morale. Builds cohesiveness in groups. Makes the organization a better place to work
and live. Provides information on other governmental laws and administrative policies.
1.3.1 Stakeholders in Training and Development
The stakeholders’ in training and development are categorized into several classes.
(a) The sponsors of training and development are senior managers. (b) The clients of training and development are business planners. Line
managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. (c) The participants or the trainees are those who actually undergo the
processes. (d) The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff. (e) And the providers or the Trainers are specialists in the field. Each of
these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and motivations of the others.
1.4 Problems and Future Trends in Training
Training is influenced by trends in other disciplines, demographics, politics, technology and a number of other domains. In this connection,
the critical uncertainties confronting training are as under: 1. Competition for the expertise elite: what is training role in developing
increasingly competent and expert workers? 2. Globalization: How will training and development balance the boundaries of time, space,
geography and culture while maintaining its focus on developing work place expertise? 3. Locus of Control: How will training strike a
balance between ever demanding organizations and individuals? 4. Marketability of Knowledge: What is the role and responsibility of
training in developing, sharing, transferring and protecting organizational knowledge? 5. Next Age: How can training assure that it is flexible
enough as a discipline to respond effectively to the demands of a variety of ages and the priorities they will bring? 6. Technological
Explosion: How will the roles of training and development shift in the context of a highly automated technologically demanding work place?
There are significant changes taking place in the field of training and development. Technology is now becoming a core driver of learning
systems and development of employees. Businesses become both global and virtual in many of their operation
Difference Between Training and Development: The basic difference between training and development is that a company
organizes training programs that help employees improve their knowledge and skills in order to meet the demands of their
jobs. Development, on the other hand, is not immediately tied to work requirements; rather, it focuses on the long-term
development of individual personnel. Training is the process of teaching them the fundamental skills they need to do their
jobs whereas, development is the process of training managers and professionals on how to improve their knowledge,
abilities, and attitudes in order to be better prepared for future positions. Let us now check the difference between training
and development listed in the table below.
Training Development
Employees are given the opportunity to acquire skills, competencies, and Development is a term used to describe a procedure that aids in the
learning in accordance with post-duty obligations through training. understanding of an employee's overall growth and improvement of abilities.
Training is provided to employees to improve their work performances. It is done to prepare employees for future challenges. 
It is short-term.  It is long-term.
Philosophical, theoretical, and educational notions are all included in the term
Only technical and mechanical operations are covered through training.
"development."
It changes the skill level. It changes behavioral skills.
Development mostly relates to the implementation of previously taught
Generally, training entails acquiring new skills and updating existing ones. 
sessions as well as the discovery of new ones

2: Strategic Training
2.2 Strategic Training and Development Process
Strategic training is a part of an ongoing process of professional development or simply about learning specific skill. It can improve people’s
skills and knowledge and also help them carry out their job effectively. It is the process, directed towards agreed sometimes called learning
outcomes – from training and the person being trained participates with the activity, rather than simply receiving. It usually involves
participation. The following are the steps necessary in the strategic training and development process:
Organizational Objectives Needs Assessment Is There a Gap? Training Objectives Select the Trainees Select the Training
Methods and Mode Choose a Means of Evaluating Administer Training Evaluate the Training
Training Methods :- There are two broad types of training available to small businesses: on-the-job and off-the-job techniques. Individual
circumstances and the ‘who,’ ‘what’ and ‘why’ of your training programme determine which method to use.
2.3 Organisational Factors Influencing Training
Training programmes fail not always because of lack of KSAs (Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes) but sometimes it is because of the
organizational forces also. These forces also hold back the transfer of training, and learning. Therefore, it is important to keep in check those
forces. The key organizational forces that drive the successful transfer of training are: (a) Peer support: Peer support can also help in transfer
of training. (b) Supervisor support: can affect their employees’ learning in number of ways. (c) Trainer support: can also have a positive
impact on the transfer of training. Gone are the days, when the trainers’ role used to get over once the training programme is done.
Trainers’ role is now extended to the work place too. Besides training, the trainer’s role is to keep a check on how trainees are performing
and help them and discuss with them if they encounter any problem in the workplace. (d) Climate: Apart from supervisor support, peers
support, trainer support, Climate factor also comprises of company polices, the attitude of upper management towards employee, towards
training. If these factors are positive then the climate will also support the transfer of training. It is the organization’s foremost duty to make
the employees realize through these factors that adequate amount of time and resources are spent on them for their professional and
personal development. (e) Culture: also has its impact over the transfer of training. If the culture of the organization provides enough
opportunities to its employees to implement what they have learnt in the workplace and provide them a variety of others factors such as,
social support, challenging jobs, etc., then the likelihood of the transfer of training increases. (f) Rewards systems: If the learning outcome
that helps in achieving the objectives is linked to reward system then the probability of the success of training would increase.
2.4.1 Models of Organising Training Department
Training is a sub-system of the organization because the departments such as, marketing and sales, HR, production, finance, etc., depends on
training for its survival. Training is a transforming process that requires some input and in turn it produces output in the form of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes (KSAs).
The three model of organizing training are:
1. System Model 2. Instructional System Development Model 3. Transitional Model
System Model of Training
The system model consists of five phases and should be repeated on a regular basis to make further improvements. The training should
achieve the purpose of helping employees to perform their work to required standards. The steps involved in System Model of training are
as follows: 1. Analyse and identify the training needs i.e. to analyse the department, job, employees requirement, who needs training, what
do they need to learn, estimating training cost, etc. The next step is to develop a performance measure on the basis of which actual
performance would be evaluated. 2. Design and provide training to meet identified needs. This step requires developing objectives of
training, identifying the learning steps, sequencing and structuring the contents. 3. Develop: This phase requires listing the activities in the
training programme that will assist the participants to learn, selecting delivery method, examining the training material, validating
information to be imparted to make sure it accomplishes all the goals and objectives. 4. Implementing is the hardest part of the system
because one wrong step can lead to the failure of whole training programme. 5. Evaluating each phase so as to make sure it has achieved its
aim in terms of subsequent work performance. Making necessary amendments to any of the previous stage in orderto remedy or improve
failure practices.
Instructional System Development (ISD) Model
This model is widely used nowadays in the organization because it is concerned with the training need on the job performance. Training
objectives are defined on the basis of job responsibilities and job description and on the basis of the defined objectives individual progress
is measured. This model also helps in determining and developing the favourable strategies, sequencing the content, and delivering media
for the types of training objectives to be achieved. The Instructional System Development model comprises of five stages:
1. Analysis: This phase consists of training need assessment, job analysis, and target audience analysis. 2. Planning: This phase consists of
setting goal of the learning outcome, instructional objectives that measures behaviour of a participant after the training, types of training
material, media selection, methods of evaluating the trainee, trainer and the training programme, strategies to impart knowledge i.e.
selection of content, sequencing of content, etc. 3. Development: This phase translates design decisions into training material. It consists of
developing course material for the trainer including handouts, workbooks, visual aids, demonstration props, etc., course material for the
trainee including handouts of summary. 4. Execution: This phase focuses on logistical arrangements, such as arranging speakers,
equipments, benches, podium, food facilities, cooling, lighting, parking, and other training accessories. 5. Evaluation: The purpose of this
phase is to make sure that the training programme has achieved its aim in terms of subsequent work performance. This phase consists of
identifying strengths and weaknesses and making necessary amendments to any of the previous stage in order to remedy or improve failure
practices.
Transitional Model
The transitional model focuses on the organization as a whole. The outer loop describes the vision, mission and values of the organization on
the basis of which training model i.e. inner loop is executed.
Vision focuses on the milestones that the organization would like to achieve after the defined point of time. A vision statement tells that
where the organization sees itself few years down the line. A vision may include setting a role mode, or bringing some internal
transformation, or may be promising to meet some other deadlines.
Mission explains the reason of organizational existence. It identifies the position in the community. The reason of developing a mission
statement is to motivate, inspire, and inform the employees regarding the organization. The mission statement tells about the identity that
how the organization would like to be viewed by the customers, employees, and all other stakeholders.
Values is the translation of vision and mission into communicable ideals. It reflects the deeply held values of the organization and is
independent of current industry environment.
2.5 Outsourcing Training
Outsourcing in training could be total or in part. In total outsourcing, the company has to do just two things namely nominating the trainers
and paying the training fees. Partial outsourcing becomes inevitable when the organization has some training resources but doesn’t have all
the required resources. If it is decided to outsource the training programme, then finalizing the outsourcing organization would be an
important decision. Following are the major factors to be taken into account for choosing an outsourcing organization for training:
Who are their present clients? What is the core competency of this training organization? What are the advantages in cost savings,
meeting time deadlines, and suitability to our business needs? Post-training support available if any Any other reasons to be recorded
in writing.
4.1 Factors affecting Training Design
Designing and Management of training programmes, Singh (1989), defined as the “Process of developing efficient and skilled manpower of
an organisation, by effectively co-ordination all the essential components of training programs, in a very congenial organizing an effective
training programmes, as mentioned earlier, are: Training and preparation, course content, course design, teaching aids/audio-visual aids,
training methods, team building, organisational climate, monitoring and evaluation and follow up of the training programmes. Management
is the process of getting maximum production, income & profits by utilizing/coordination available resources/components. There are so
many components which are essential for organizing and designing an effective training programme. The most important and essential
components for organizing and designing effective training programs are:
1.Training need assessment 2. Training objectives 3. Course planning and preparation 4. Course content 5. Course design 6. Teaching
aids/audio visual aids 7. Training methods 8. Team building 9. Organisational climate 10. Monitoring and evaluation 11. Follow-up of
training programmes.
4.2 Budgeting
The top management always looks at the loss and profit of any activity. The objectives of the strategies are only divided on the basis of cost
justifications or viability aspect of the activities in terms of resources.
4.2.1 Budget Allocation
Basically there are two methods of allocating the budget on HRD/T & D activities:
(i) All cost on HRD/T & D activities observed by HRD department are recorded at one place in the corporate office. (ii) All the costs are
assigned to HRD department who has to record and control it. The HRD budget normally covers the following:
(a) Cost of staffing (b) Cost of planning (c) Cost of TNI & TNA (d) Cost of appraisal (e) Cost of recruitment or selection (f) Cost of testing
progress (g) Cost of trails (h) Cost of running programme (i) Cost of valediction (j) Cost of training materials & training aids. (k) Cost of
revising and re-testing (l) Cost of publishing or awarding (m) Cost of updating competence (n) Cost of feed back system.

5: Training Implementation
5.1 Implementation Approach
A programme can be implemented in three major ways namely by buying (i.e. outsourcing) the programme or making it (i.e. conducting in-
house) or by a mixture of outsourcing and making yourself activities which can be called as blended or hybrid approach. Each option has got
its own inherent advantages and disadvantages. But to chose one of them requires analyzing a set of factors which are as under:
Making or Buying Decision
1. Number of people to be trained: If the number of people to be trained is more; then develop in-house yourself, if they are few then have it
outsourced. If it has to be conducted only once, outsource the same. If it has to be repeated several times then make it yourself.
2. Expertise available and required: If in-house expertise is available, consider not to buy from external agency. Expertise that is not available
internally can be outsourced. 3. Cost benefit analysis: If developing in-house is cheaper, then don’t outsource it. If a programme is to be
administered to several employees, then the cost per head may come down. 4. Nature of learning: If the intended learning is specific and/or
confidential to your organizational advantage, then don’t outsource it. 5. Infrastructure available and required: If the required infrastructure
is already available in the company, then consider developing in-house. 6. Time deadlines: What is the time available and required? If the
learning is time sensitive and sufficient time is not available for training, the entire group of identified people within in the available time,
then consider outsourcing.
5.2 Implementation of In-house Programme
In the event of deciding to conduct the training programme in-house, the challenge of full implementation emerges. The entire gamut of
implementation activities can be classified into blocking the dates, mobilizing the resources, managing the contingencies and executing the
programme. Figure below shows the activities involved in training implementation.
5.2.1 Blocking the Dates
Training implementation function begins with blocking appropriate dates once the design is ready. There are so many stakeholders involved
in a training activity like the trainees, the trainers, the organization or sponsor, the service providers and even the customers who depend
upon the services of the trainees.
When to block dates: Dates have to be blocked for any training programme at least 90-120 days in advance, particularly if the programme is
heavily dependent upon outside resources, right from venue to the resource persons.
From the trainee perspective, the training should not be held during periods wherein lot of intervening holidays are going to come. This may
happen if training programmes are arranged during the Diwali festival in India or Christmas in America.
The employer would say that normally training should not be held during the busy business season of January –March quarter; it should be
arranged when necessitated most from the business perspective, ideal if loss of mandays due to training is minimized, say by organizing
the programme on weekends like Friday-Saturday or Saturday-Sunday.
Trainers/resource persons would be happy to participate if the programme is conducted on the days they are not engaged elsewhere. If
trainer’s date and your date don’t match with each other no doubt the trainer will loose an assignment, but you as an organizer will also face
serious problems if the said trainer happens to be person of exceptional skills/expertise, which cannot be found easily in many other trainers.
5.2.2 Mobilizing the Resources
Financial resources: Training resources of course, does involve financial resources but goes beyond by touching the human resources, material
resources and infrastructure resources. The reason why a training manager has to focus seriously on resource mobilization is because money
alone cannot obtain all the other training resources.
5.2.3 Managing Contingencies
After the programme is started many other problems may crop up. Example: The audio visuals may not; seating arrangements may not be
good and the food and snacks may be disliked by trainees. What will you do if the chartered vehicle fails to arrive, if the confirmed trainer
don’t turn up, if the blocked premises was wrongly allotted to some body else. Keep ready a set of standby vendors who can be summoned
at short notice in such emergencies. You may have got the confirmation of service providers about 90 days before the training. It is quite
natural for some of them to forget commitments made to you. Therefore, remind them once again at least 15 days in advance, requesting
them to keep ready the confirmed equipments, services on the agreed date. For each service/equipment required, prepare a list of at least
five vendors with up to date contact details.
5.2.4 Executing the Programme
The excellence in execution occurs if all the above planned activities come live in action on all the training days. In other words, the
confirmed trainees and trainers should turn up for the programme, the training hall and laboratory facilities should be available, the service
providers should render the services on time without diluting the quality and the desired learning should occur as per the plan.
Purchases and Photocopies
There may be involved small purchases and photocopying activities during the programme. The purchases could be stationery items and
folders for the trainees as also for the trainers; bouquets and mementos for the trainers and any other necessary items that may be needed for
the training.
Catering Arrangements: Make sure that proper catering arrangements are made. Proper arrangements means that lunch and tea are served as
per the appointed time, they are delicious, fresh and hygienic, accommodations are made for the special needs of disadvantaged trainees,
like those who want sugarless tea, dry bread or vegetarian dishes. Catering arrangements are very important and any negligence in this
regard would upset the whole programme. Understand the sensitivities of vegetarians and non-vegetarians.
Concluding the Programme: Conclude the programme on a happy note. Obtain the feedback from the trainees about the programme and
answer if the trainees need any clarifications.
5.3 Logistical Arrangements
Training Site: The training site is the physical location where it is delivered. It may be owned or rented premises. If it is owned then the
issues to be considered are: is it an exclusive facility built for training purpose, or a multipurpose auditorium requiring additional
arrangements, is it available on the identified date, how to book the venue, what is the space requirement and space availability, like
classrooms and lodging rooms both in size and number. Whether the venue has basic facilities like catering, lodging, toilets, rest rooms,
audio visual aids, photocopying, library etc. Where is its location and from where are the major part of trainees coming. If 45 out of total 50
trainees are from North India and training centre is located in Bangalore; are we not saving the travel and lodging cost by hiring a rented
premises in New Delhi? What are the limitations of having the programme in rented premises at New Delhi? How good are the
transportation facilities? What further arrangements are to be made?
5.4 Physical Arrangements
Seating Arrangement
The seating should be flexible enough to rearrange them easily for different activities like individual assignment, group discussion, etc. Some
of the ideal seating models are suggested below. The U-shaped and oval-shaped seating arrangements are good for training up to 25-30
people. The basic advantage of these two seating approaches is that trainees can see each other while interacting and at the same time look at
the trainer. But larger number of trainees like 50 to 70 cannot be accommodated. The round table seating method is suitable when the
training method involves a lot of group activities. But if this method is used while assessing trainees for individual competencies, then there
are possibilities of trainees helping each other or copying from each other.
Breakout Rooms
Breakout rooms are small rooms (for up to 10 people) measuring about 200 to 300 square feet located adjacent to training hall. Breakout
rooms can be used by teams of trainees for confidential assignments. Find out the number of breakout rooms needed and have them
arranged with, chairs, charts, boards, and projectors.
6: Learning Theories
6.1 Learning Theory
Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills,
knowledge, and attitudes. Over the years, many theories have attempted to explain how people learn. Even though psychologists and
educators are not in complete agreement,.
6.1.1 Behaviourism Theory
Behaviourists believe that animals, including humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviourism stresses the importance of having a
particular form of behaviour reinforced by someone, other than the trainee, to shape or control what is learnt. Frequent, positive
reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning.
6.1.2 Cognitive Theory
Much of the recent psychological thinking and experimentation in education includes some facets of the cognitive theory. This is true in basic
as well as more advanced training programmes. Unlike behaviourism, the cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the student’s
mind. Learning is not just a change in behaviour; it is a change in the way a student thinks, understands, or feels. There are several branches
of cognitive theory. Two of the major theories may broadly be classified as the information processing model and the social interaction
model.
6.1.3 Combined Approach
Both the behaviourist and the cognitive approaches are useful learning theories. A reasonable way to plan, manage, and conduct aviation
training is to include the best features of each major theory. This provides a way to measure behavioural outcomes and promote cognitive
learning. The combined approach is not simple, but neither is learning.
6.1.4 Facilitation Theory
It is best known as an American psychologist and the founder of ‘client-centered’ or ‘non-directed’ psychotherapy, a widely influential,
humanistic approach. Rogers maintained that all human beings have a natural desire to learn. He defined two categories of learning:
meaningless, or cognitive learning (e.g., memorizing multiplication tables) and significant, or experiential (applied knowledge which
addresses the needs and wants of the learner, (e.g., performing first aid on one’s child).
6.2 Theories of Forgetting
A consideration of why people forget may point the way to help them remember. Several theories account for forgetting, including disuse,
interference, and repression.
Disuse
The theory of disuse suggests that a person forgets those things that are not used. The high school or college graduate is saddened by the
lack of factual data retained several years after graduation. Since the things that are remembered are those used on the job, a person
concludes that forgetting is the result of disuse.
Interference
The basis of the interference theory is that people forget something because a certain experience has overshadowed it, or that the learning of
similar things has intervened. This theory might explain how the range of experiences after graduation from school causes a person to forget
or to lose knowledge
Repression
repression due to the submersion of ideas into the subconscious mind. Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety may be treated this
way by the individual, but not intentionally. It is subconscious and protective. The repression theory does not appear to account for much
forgetfulness of the kind discussed, but it does tend to explain some cases.
6.2.1 Retention of Learning
The following discussion emphasizes five principles which are generally accepted as having a direct application to remembering.
Praise stimulates learning: Recall is promoted by association: Favourable attitudes aid retention: Learning with all our senses
is most effective: Meaningful repetition aids recall:
6.2.2 Improving Learning Motivation is necessary for learning. The motivation can be anything. It can be money in the
form of increments or status in the form of a promotion or it can be an expectation to be acclaimed in public. Rewarded behaviour is learned.
It will be repeated under a similar condition in future.
Feedback: A learner learns effectively if he comes to know of the result of his efforts. This feedback in order to be effective should be given as
soon as possible.
Participation: More a learner participates in the learning situation, more he learns. This is specially true of skill learning.
6.2.3 Human Learning and Memory
Modern work on human learning and memory focuses on the cognitive processes people use in storing and retrieving information.
One information-processing model considers memory to be divided into several stages: the sensory register, the short-term store with its
rehearsal buffer, and the long-term store. Information is held for a few seconds in the sensory systems themselves. This storage
function of the sensory channels is called the sensory register. Information in the long-term store is held for days months, years, or a
lifetime. The capacity of the long-term store has no known limit. The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon indicates that information is
organised in longterm memory.
6.3 Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning refers to how much or how well the new knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired during training actually result in on-
the-job behaviour change. Changes in behaviour and performance equate to learning transfer.
(a) Importance: Transfer of learning is important for many reasons. First, learning is useless unless it is applied. Unless learners apply what
they learned, the organization wastes time, money, and effort on training.
(b) When to be Measured: The type of training dictates the time frame required for determining transfer. Technical training and on-the-job
training, on the one hand, should usually be immediately applicable and should therefore, lend itself to immediate measurement of transfer.
Interpersonal skills training and cultural awareness training, on the other hand, are usually not immediately applicable, and some time may
be required before measurement of transfer is appropriate or possible. (c) Direct Observation Methods: One way to measure transfer of
learning is by direct observation of learners at some point after training. The observer may be the trainer, the supervisor, or some external
evaluator. The observer sets out to determine how much or how well learners have applied on the job what they learnt in training. (d)
Learning Self-Assessment: Learner’s self-assessment usually works well because learners are ideally positioned to determine how much and
how well they have applied what they have learned to their jobs. (e) Interviews and Focus Groups: Alternative methods for collecting
information include one-on-one interviews and focus group sessions. The format of interviews or focus groups may be highly structured
with specific questions, or open-ended and more like discussions or conversations. (f) The Transfer or Training Evaluation Model: In 1995
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, published an executive summary describing a model called the Transfer of Training Evaluation Model
(TOTEM). (g) Barriers to the Transfer of Learning: Consider four key potential barriers to transfer of learning:
The learner’s supervisor may not allow use of the new skills or will not provide the tools necessary for using the new skills. The
learner may not remember how to perform them. The corporate culture may not support application. It may simply be easier to “do it
the old way.”

7: Learning in Training
7.1.1 Principles of Learning
There are several types of learning situation, each with its own way of producing learning. Psychologists have named these kinds of learning
as (i) classical conditioning, (ii) operant conditioning, and (iii) cognitive learning.
The essential operation in classical conditioning is a pairing of two stimuli, conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. The first one
elicits only a general alerting, and not a specific response. The second one consistently elicits a specific response. This response from
unconditioned stimulus is called unconditioned response.
This is another learning situation considered distinct from classical conditioning. Reinforcement is the key word for understanding operant
conditioning. A reinforcer is any stimulus or situation that strengthens the response which precedes it. Example: Praise for a child’s
achievement and a well done from the boss for some accomplishment.
7.1.2 Cognitive Learning
Many of the learning situations for human beings will not fall under classical and operant conditioning. People learn something by simply
being exposed to it.
7.3 Designing Effective Training Programs
The effectiveness of Training can be defined in terms of learning being quick and sustained, effectively used, leading to creativity, and the
development of a capacity for self-learning. The following conditions are conducive to such learning:
Authentic and open system at the training institution Non-threatening climate Challenging learning tasks Collaborative
arrangements for mutual support of learning Organization of graduated experiences of challenging successes Mechanisms for
supportive and quick feedback Opportunities to practise skills learned Opportunities to apply learning Opportunities for and
encouragement of self-learning Opportunities and support for experimentation Emphasis on learning through discovery Indirect
and liberating influence of the trainer through minimum guidance Trainer’s human values and faith in humanity Trainer’s high
expectations from learners and an openness to examine his own needs Trainer’s competence
7.3.2 Factors Affecting the Learning Process
When the trainee finds it easier to learn the new task because of previous experience we call this a positive transfer
7.4 The Learning Cycle
The cycle has four parts - EXPERIENCING (a learner has some concrete experience or is helped to have experience during a training
programme), followed by PROCESSING (reflecting on and analyzing the experience individually or in a group), followed by
GENERALIZING (abstract conceptualization based on the experience and formation of a tentative theory, or the way to explain the data),
followed by APPLYING (active experimentation, i.e., trying out the new behaviour or using it in day-to-day work). This is followed by a
new experience, and the cycle continues.
7.4.1 Principles of Learning Process
Sight, Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, Sense Of Muscular Feel , Perception(Perception is not the same as the use of the senses, since
perceiving something implies that we attach meaning to the stimulus, and can relate it to the previous incoming information) .
7.4.2 Learning Process
The various elements involved in the process of learning are, (i) the training/teaching organization, (ii) and the technology of training/learning, (iii) the
trainer/teacher and, (iv) the learner.
All these four elements are important. Each of these can be treated as a system or a sub-system. (i) The training/teaching organization, including the
training/teaching group, can be called the endosystem. This system has its own dynamics. The main function of this system is to maximize the
motivation for learning by creating the culture and climate conducive to such motivation.
(ii) The system of the teaching/training technology is concerned with the mechanics of teaching/training. Methodology and aids help in
various aspects of learning. However, the main function of this system is to help assimilation and stabilization of learning
through practices and application.
(iii) The trainer/teacher is certainly an important person in this whole cycle, and is the main representative of the influence system. Although
other elements also produce influence, the main impact is made by the teacher/trainer through his behaviour, values, and competence. The
way the trainer/teacher influences the learner may determine the effectiveness of learning to a great extent.
(iv) The last, but certainly the most important element in the process of learning is the learner. The learner makes use of the other systems.
His main function is the development and effective use of processes. Process is the dynamic system of various procedures used in
assimilating, internalizing, using, and creating learning. This system may therefore becalled the process system.
7.4.4 Factors Affecting the Learning Process
Knowledge of Results: Length of Learning Sessions: Part versus Whole Learning: Logical Sequence: Depth of Impression:
Repetition: Association of Ideas: Transfer of Learning: