TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE, INDURI

Basic Thermodynamics
UG11T4205

IMU Question & Answer

CADET NAME:

YEAR: 1st B-Tech ME Sem: Two DIVISION:

IMU NO : SESSION:
 UNIT 1
Part I
Thermodynamics Definition and 1st Law of thermodynamics

Q. Explain System, boundary, surrounding

System is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space
Boundary: The actual or hypothetical envelope enclosing the system is the
boundary of the system.
The boundary may be fixed or it may move, as and when a system containing a
gas is compressed or expanded.
The boundary may be real or imaginary.
Surrounding: Anything outside boundary is surrounding

Q. What is property of a system? Give examples

All measurable characteristics of a system are known as properties.
Ex: Pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, energy, enthalpy, entropy, KE,
PE,

Q. Define Intensive and Extensive properties with example

Extensive property: Those properties which depend on mass are known as
extensive properties.
Ex. volume, energy, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.
Intensive property: Those properties which don't depend or independent on mass
are known as intensive properties.
Ex. pressure, temperature, density, viscosity.
Specific Properties: extensive properties per unit mass are specific properties or
intensive properties
Ex. Sp internal energy, sp. enthalpy, sp. entropy, sp. Volume
Q. Define a thermodynamic system. Differentiate between open system, closed
system and an isolated system
A system or thermodynamics system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed
region of space chosen for study.
Open system: An open system is one in which matter as well as energy flows into
or out of the system
mostof the engineering systems are open.
It is also known as control volume
Ex: Pump, turbine, most of the engineering systems are open.
Closed system: If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it
is called a closed system.
It is also known as control mass
Ex: gas contained piston cylinder
Isolated system: An isolated system is that system in which neither energy nor
matter exchange with any other system or with environment(surrounding)

Q. Explain homogeneous system and heterogeneous system?

Homogeneous system: A system that consists of a single-phase is termed a
homogeneous system.
Ex. A mixture of air and water vapor, Water + Nitric acid
 heterogeneous system: A system that consists of two or more phases is
called a heterogeneous system
Ex. Water + Steam, Ice + Water

Q. Explain 1) State 2) Process 3) Cycle

State: State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or
measured by its properties.
Or
each unique condition of a system is called a state.
Process: A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in a state or an
energy transfer at a steady state. A process may be non-flow in which a fixed
mass within the defined boundary is undergoing a change of state.

Cycle
Cycle: Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed
a cycle.
OR
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end
of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Q. What is State Postulate
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.
Ex. Temperature and pressure, however, are independent properties for single-
phase systems, but are dependent properties for multiphase systems.

Q. What is ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Q. What is mean by macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy

Macroscopic: The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as
a whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies
Microscopic: The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are
independent of outside reference frames.
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U.
Q. Compare heat and work
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or
a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference. That is, an
energy interaction is heat only if it takes place because of a temperature
difference.
Heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy between systems
Work: if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must
be work
Work transfer is the transfer of mechanical energy between two systems
Similarities between heat and work
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat
or work has no meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
Dissimilarities:
1. In heat transfer temperature difference is required.
2. In a stable system there cannot be work transfer, however, there is no
restriction for the transfer of heat.
3. The sole effect external to the system could be reduced to rise of a weight
but in the case of a heat transfer other effects are also observed.

Q. Define path function and point function with example.

Path Function: The certain properties which are located on the graph with the
help of area are called path function.
Path function are inexact differentials.
Ex: Heat and work.
Point Function: The properties which are located on the graph with the help of
point are called point function.
Point functions are exact differentials.
Ex: Pressure, Volume etc

Q. Define first law of thermodynamics.

When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to
the system from the surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its
surroundings.

∮ 𝝏𝑸 = ∮ 𝝏𝑾

OR
Heat and work are mutually convertible but since energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, the total energy associated with an energy conversion remains
constant

Q. Prove that energy as property of system

Consider a system which changes its state from state 1 to state 2 by following the
path L, and returns from state 2 to state 1 by following the path M as shown in Fig.
So the system undergoes a cycle.
Writing the first law for path L
QL = ΔEL + WL .............(1)
and for path M
QM = ΔEM + WM …………(2)
The processes L and M together constitute a cycle, for which

∮ ∂Q = ∮ ∂W

WL + WM = QL + QM
QL – WL = WM – QM……(3)
Therefore, from equation 1,2 and 3
 ΔEL = – ΔEM ........(4)
Similarly, had the system returned from state 2 to state 1 by following the path N
instead of path M
ΔEL = – ΔEN ........(5)
From equations (4) and (5),
ΔEM = ΔEN
Thus, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the
same, whatever path the system may follow in undergoing that change of state.
Hence, it is a point function and a property of the system.

Q. Define Specific heat, Cp and Cv

Specific heat: It is amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree or by one kelvin
Unit: kJ/kgK
It is denoted by C
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝑑𝑇
specific heat at constant volume (Cv): It is amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is
maintained constant
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
specific heat at constant pressure (Cp): It is amount of energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇

Q. Why specific heat for solids and liquids are identical

A substance whose specific volume (or density) is constant is called an
incompressible substance. The specific volumes of solids and liquids essentially
remain constant during a process. Therefore, liquids and solids can be
approximated as incompressible substances without sacrificing much in
accuracy.
therefore, constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances, hence both specific heats can be represented by a
single symbol c.

Q. Prove Cp-Cv = R
Q. 32. Establish relations among Cp, Cv and γ of a perfect gas
Consider a perfect gas being heated at constant pressure from T1 to T2.
According to non-flow equation,
Q = (U2 – U1) + W
Also for a perfect gas,
U2 – U1 = mcv (T2 – T1)
Q = mcv (T2 – T1) + W
In a constant pressure process, the work done by the fluid,
W = p (V2 – V1)
= mR (T2 – T1)
On substituting
Q = mcv (T2 – T1) + mR (T2 – T1) = m(cv + R) (T2 – T1)
But for a constant pressure process,
 Q = mcp (T2 – T1)
By equating the two expressions, we have
m(cv + R)(T2 – T1) = mcp(T2 – T1)
∴ cv + R = cp
or
cp – cv = R

Q. Prove γ=1+R/Cv
Let have relation between Cp, Cv and R
cp – cv = R…..(1)
Dividing both sides by cv, we get
𝐶𝑝 𝑅
−1= … … … . . (2)
𝐶𝑣 𝑐𝑣
Where
𝐶𝑝
= 𝛾
𝐶𝑣
Putting in equation 2
𝑅
𝛾−1=
𝑐𝑣

𝑅
𝛾 = 1+
𝑐𝑣
Hence proved
Similarly divide by Cp to equation 1
𝐶𝑣 𝑅
1− =
𝐶𝑝 𝑐𝑝
1 𝑅
1− =
𝛾 𝑐𝑝
 𝛾−1 𝑅
=
𝛾 𝑐𝑝
𝑅. 𝛾
𝑐𝑝 =
𝛾−1
Q. What is Internal Energy
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U.
Internal energy is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular
activity and can be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of
the molecules.

Q. State Joules law

“The internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of the absolute temperature
only.”
i.e., u = f(T)
To evaluate this function let 1 kg of a perfect gas be heated at constant volume.
According to non-flow energy equation,
dQ = du + dW
dW = 0, since volume remains constant
∴ dQ = du
At constant volume for a perfect gas, for 1 kg we have
dQ = cvdT
∴ dQ = du = cvdT
and integrating u = cv T + K
K being constant.
According to Joule’s law u = f(T), which means that internal energy varies linearly
with absolute temperature.

Q. Define Enthalpy
It is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system.
It is the sum of internal energy (u) and pressure volume product (pv)
H = U + pV (unit: kJ)
Specific enthalpy: It is the enthalpy per unit mass of a system
h = u +pv (unit: kJ/kg) …….(1)

For a perfect gas,

Referring equation 1,
h = u + pv
= cvT + RT [ ideal gas equation pv = RT]
= (cv + R) T
= cpT [cp = cv + R]
i.e., h = cpT
and H = mcpT.

Q. Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and the change in internal
energy ΔU in the first-law relation can be combined into one term, ΔH, for a
constant-pressure process
By first law of thermodynamics
Consider gas in piston cylinder arrangement, where piston is free move on
expansion and compression of gas
By first law of thermodynamics
Q = ΔU + W

Here W = boundary work as piston is moving

Q = (U2-U1) + Wb
2
Q = (U2-U1) + ∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉

Q = (U2-U1) + p(V2-V1)

Q = (U2-U1) + pV2 - pV1

Q = (U2 +pV2) – (U1 + pV1)

 As we know that H = U +pV

Q = H2 – H1

Q = ΔH (kJ)

Q = Δh (kJ/kg)

Q. How to PV Diagram for any process

1 – A’ Constant pressure Expansion (n = 0)

1 – A Constant pressure compression (n = 0)
1- B’ Constant temperature expansion (n = 1)
1 – B Constant temperature compression (n = 1)
1- C’ Adiabatic expansion (n = γ)
1 – C Adiabatic compression (n = γ)
1- D’ Constant Volume heat rejection (n = ∞)
1- D Constant Volume heat addition (n = ∞)

Note:
During expansion process gas volume increases, and during compression volume
decreases
During heat addition process pressure increases, and decreases during heat
rejection
For polytopic as n changes curve changes.
 UNIT 1
Part II
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)

Q. What are assumption of SFEE

(i) The mass flow through the system remains constant.
(ii) Fluid is uniform in composition.
(iii) The only interaction between the system and surroundings are work and
heat.
(iv) The state of fluid at any point remains constant with time.
(v) In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow energies are considered.

Q. Derive SFEE

Fig shows a schematic flow process for an open system. An open system is one in
which both mass and energy may cross the boundaries. A wide interchange of
energy may take place within an open system.
Let the system be an automatic engine with the inlet manifold at the first state
point and exhaust pipe as the second point. There would be an interchange of
chemical energy in the fuel, kinetic energy of moving particles, internal energy of
gas and heat transferred and shaft work within the system.
There is no variation of flow of mass or energy with time across the boundaries of
the system the steady flow will prevail. The conditions may pass through the cyclic
or non-cyclic changes within the system. As a result, the mass entering the system
equals the mass leaving, also energy entering the system equals energy leaving.
The steady flow equation can be expressed as follows :

𝐶12 𝐶22
𝑢1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 + + 𝑔𝑍1 + 𝑄 = 𝑢2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 + + 𝑔𝑍2 + 𝑊
2 2

𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣 = ℎ

𝐶12 𝐶22
ℎ1 + + 𝑔𝑍1 + 𝑄 = ℎ2 + + 𝑔𝑍2 + 𝑊
2 2
where,
Q = Heat supplied (or entering the boundary) per kg of fluid,
W = Work done by (or work coming out of the boundary) 1 kg of fluid,
C = Velocity of fluid,
Z = Height above datum,
p = Pressure of the fluid,
u = Internal energy per kg of fluid, and
pv = flow work
 Unit II
Pure Substance
Q. What is mean by pure substance?

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure

substance.
Ex: Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, air, mixture of ice and water

Q. Explain phase change process of pure substance

Q. Draw P-v and T-v diagram of Phase change process
Consider a piston–cylinder device containing liquid water at 20°C and 1 atm
pressure as shown in fig a, state1. Under these conditions, water exists in the liquid
phase, and it is called a compressed liquid, or a subcooled liquid, meaning that
it is not about to vaporize.

Heat is now transferred to the water until its temperature rises. As the temperature
rises, the liquid water expands slightly, and so its specific volume increases.
As more heat is transferred, the temperature keeps rising until it reaches 100°C as
shown in fig b, state2. At this point water is still a liquid, but any heat addition will
cause some of the liquid to vaporize. That is, a phase-change process from liquid
to vapor is about to take place. A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a
saturated liquid. Therefore, state 2 is a saturated liquid state.

Once boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until the liquid is completely
vaporized. That is, the temperature will remain constant during the entire phase-
change process if the pressure is held constant. At one point of phase change,
we find that piston cylinder will have half vapor and half liquid that is state is 3, fig
c.

As we continue transferring heat, the vaporization process continues until the last
drop of liquid is vaporized (state 4) Fig d. At this point, the entire cylinder is filled
with vapor that is on the borderline of the liquid phase.

Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the vapor to condense (phase
change from vapor to liquid). A vapor that is about to condense is called a
saturated vapor. Therefore, state 4 is a saturated vapor state. A substance at
states between 2 and 4 is referred to as a saturated liquid–vapor mixture.
 Fig d
Fig a Fig b Fig c

T – v diagram of phase change process when pressure kept constant

P – v diagram of phase change process when pressure kept constant
Q. Define Critical point and triple point

Critical point: it is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and saturated
vapor states are identical
For water critical point properties are
Pcr = 22.06 MPa, Tcr = 373.95°C, and vcr = 0.003106 m3/kg.
Note: refer P-v and T-v diagram
Triple point: under some conditions all three phases (solid, liquid and gas) of a
pure substance coexist in equilibrium is called triple point
OR
The triple point is merely the point of intersection of sublimation and vaporization
curves.

On P-v or T-v diagrams, these triple-phase states form a line called the triple line.
It is line because at same pressure and temperature substance will have different
specific volume.
The triple line appears as a point on the P-T diagrams and, therefore, is often
called the triple point

For water, the triple-point temperature and pressure are 0.01°C and 0.6117 kPa,
respectively

Q. State the phase rule for pure substance

Q. State Gibbs phase rule

the number of independent variables associated with a multicomponent,

multiphase system is given by the Gibbs phase rule

Gibbs phase rule tell us number intensive properties required to fix the equilibrium
state of a pure substance
P+F=C+2
P = Number of phases
F = Degree of freedom / number of independent variables
C = Number of components

Ex. Substance is water

P=1
C=1
Putting in Gibbs phase equation
1 + F = 1+2
F=2

It means two independent intensive properties (like pressure, temp, sp. Volume,
sp. enthalpy) are required to fix equilibrium state of water

Q. what is dryness fraction of vapour?

It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to the mass of steam
containing it. I
it is usually expressed by the symbol ‘x’
𝑚𝑔
𝑥=
𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓

𝑚𝑔 = mass of vapour / gas

𝑚𝑓 = mass of liquid

For saturated liquid dryness fraction is 0 and for saturated vapour / dry vapour is 1

Q. What is sensible heat and latent heat?

Sensible Heat: When a substance is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added.
The increase in heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed from
a substance and its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called sensible
heat.

latent heat: it is energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in

its physical state (phase) that occurs without changing its temperature
Q. Write equation of state for a perfect gas
The equation of the state for a perfect gas is thus given by the equation
pv = RT
or for m kg, occupying V m3,
pV = mRT
p = pressure
V = Volume
m = mass
R = Gas constant
T = temperature

Q. Write Van der Waals’ equation

Van der Waals’ equation (for a real gas) may be written as:
𝑎
(𝑝 + ) (𝑣 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑣2
P = pressure
V= specific volume
R = Gas constant
T = temperature

The constants a and b are specific constants and depend upon the type of the
fluid

Q. Write Virial equation of state

𝑝𝑣
= 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑝 + 𝐴2 𝑝2 + 𝐴3 𝑝3 + ⋯ …
𝑅𝑇

where A0, A1, ... and B0, B1, ... are called the virial co-efficient which are functions
of temperature only.
 UNIT III
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Q. What is reversible process?

A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving

any trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings are
returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse process.

 The net heat and net work exchange between the system and the
surroundings is zero for the combined (original and reverse) process.
Q. What is irreversible process?
Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.
Q. What is Irreversibility?
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibility.

 Ex: friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across
a finite temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of
solids, and chemical reactions.
Q. What is thermal energy reservoir, source and sink?

A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x

specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature. Such a body is called a thermal energy
reservoir, or just a reservoir.

 Ex: large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers, the atmospheric air
Source: A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source
Sink: one that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink
Q. What is Heat Engine, Refrigerator, and Heat Pump

Heat Engine(HE) Refrigerator (R) Heat Pump (HP)

Wnet = QH - QL Wnet = QH - QL Wnet = QH - QL

Wnet 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂/𝑃 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂/𝑃

ɳ ther = COP R = COP HP =
QH − QL 𝐼/𝑃 𝐼/𝑃

QL QL Q𝐻
ɳ ther = 1 − COP R = COP HP =
QH 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡

QL Q𝐻
COP R = COP HP =
QH − QL QH − QL

Q. State Second Laws of Thermodynamics

Kelvin–Planck Statement:

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
OR
No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent
Clausius Statement:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces
no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a
higher-temperature body.

Q. Prove that (COP)HP = (COP)R + 1 OR

Q. Prove that COP of Heat pump is greater than COP of refrigerator by one
(COP)R is given as
QL
COP R = … … … … … (1)
QH − QL
(COP)HP is given as
Q𝐻
COP HP = … … … … … . . (2)
QH − QL

Adding 1 on both side of equation 1

QL
COP R + 1 = +1
QH − QL
QL + QH − QL
COP R + 1 =
QH − QL
QH
COP R + 1 =
QH − QL
From equation 2
COP R + 1 = COP HP
Hence proved
Note: Draw line diagram of refrigerator and Heat Pump

Q. Define PMM I and PMM II

PMM I: There can be no machine which would continuously supply mechanical
work without some form of energy disappearing simultaneously, such a fictitious
machine is called a perpetual motion machine of the first kind (PMM I)
OR
A device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is
called a perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1)
PMM II:
A machine whose efficiency is 100%, such fictitious machine is called PMM II
OR
A device that violates the second law of thermodynamics is called a perpetual-
motion machine of the second kind (PMM II)

Q. Derive relation for Carnot cycle.

The four reversible processes that make up the Carnot cycle are as follows

a) reversible isothermal expansion 1-2

b) reversible adiabatic expansion 2-3
c) reversible isothermal compression 3-4
d) reversible adiabatic compression 4-1

Consider a closed system that consists of a gas contained in an adiabatic piston–

cylinder device as shown in fig. which is performed in an engine cylinder the head
of which is supposed alternatively to be perfect conductor or a perfect insulator
of a heat. Heat is caused to flow into the cylinder by the application of high
temperature energy source to the cylinder head during expansion, and to flow
from the cylinder by the application of a lower temperature energy source to the
head during compression
 P-V diagram
T-S diagram

Derivation of carnot cycle

Work done during isothermal expansion process 1-2

𝑣2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) … … … (1)
𝑣1

Here v2 > v1

Work done is by the system, therefore it is positive

Applying first law of thermodynamics

Q = ⅆu + W

For isothermal process; ⅆu = 0

Q1 = Q1−2 = W1−2 … … … (2)

Work done during adiabatic process 2-3

𝑛𝑅(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝐿 )
𝑊2−3 = … … … (3)
𝛾−1

As process 2-3 is expansion process again work done is by the system and it is
positive

Work done doing isothermal compression process 3-4

𝑣4
𝑊3−4 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 𝑙𝑛 ( ) … … … (4)
𝑣3

As it is the compression process work done is on the system and therefore it is

negative

here 𝑣4 < 𝑣3
𝑣4
𝑊3−4 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑣3
𝑣3
𝑊3−4 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 ( ) … … … (5)
𝑣4

Work done during adiabatic compression process 4-1

𝑛𝑅(𝑇𝐿 − 𝑇ℎ )
𝑊4−1 =
𝛾−1

Work done on the system therefore it is negative

𝑛𝑅(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝐿 )
𝑊4−1 = … … … . (6)
𝛾−1

Efficiency of cannot cycle is given by

𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 − 𝑊3−4 − 𝑊4−1

𝜂= … … … (7)
𝑄1

𝑛𝑅(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝐿 ) 𝑛𝑅(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝐿 )
𝑊2−3 − 𝑊4−1 = −
𝛾−1 𝛾−1

𝑊2−3 − 𝑊4−1 = 0 … … … (8)

Putting equation 8 in 7
 𝑊1−2 − 𝑊3−4
𝜂=
𝑄1

From equation 2 we have

𝑄1 = 𝑊1−2

𝑊3−4
𝜂 = 1−
𝑄1
𝑣
𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln (𝑣3 )
4
𝜂 = 1− 𝑣 … … … . (9)
𝑛𝑅𝑇ℎ ln ( 2 )
𝑣1

Relation between T and V for the process 2- 3 and process 4-1

𝑇ℎ ⋅ 𝑣2𝑌−1 = 𝑇𝐿 ⋅ 𝑣3𝑌−1
𝛾−1 𝛾⋅1
𝑇𝐿 ⋅ 𝑣4 = 𝑇ℎ ⋅ 𝑣1

𝑣2 𝛾−1 𝑣3 𝛾⋅1
( ) =( )
𝑣1 𝑣4
𝑣2 𝑣3
=
𝑣1 𝑣4

Putting above relation in equation 9

𝑣
𝑇𝐿 ln (𝑣3 )
4
𝜂 = 1− 𝑣
𝑇ℎ ln (𝑣2 )
1

𝑣
𝑇𝐿 𝑙𝑛 (𝑣2 )
1
𝜂 = 1− 𝑣
𝑇ℎ 𝑙𝑛 (𝑣2 )
1

𝑻𝑳
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝒉

Q. State Carnot principals or Carnot theorem

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
 2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.

Q. What is entropy and SI unit of entropy

Entropy is, the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is
unavailable for doing useful work
OR
entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.
OR

Unit: kJ/kg K
Q. Define compressibility factor

compressibility factor: gases deviate from ideal-gas behavior significantly at

states near the saturation region and the critical point. This deviation from ideal-
gas behavior at a given temperature and pressure can accurately be accounted
for by the introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor

Q. Define entropy with T-s diagram

“Entropy may also be defined as the thermal property of a substance which
remains constant when substance is expanded or compressed adiabatically in a
cylinder”.

If entropy is plotted-horizontally and absolute temperature vertically the diagram

so obtained is called temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram.
If working fluid receives a small amount of heat dQ in an elementary portion ab
of an operation AB when temperature is T, and if dQ is represented by the shaded
area of which T is the mean ordinate, the width of the figure must be dQ/T.

T B

b
a

s
SA SB

This is called ‘increment of entropy’ and is denoted by dS. The total heat received
by the operation will be given by the area under the curve AB and (SB – SA) will
be corresponding increase of entropy.

Q. Write Characteristics of entropy

1. It increases when heat is supplied irrespective of the fact whether
temperature changes or not.
2. It decreases when heat is removed whether temperature changes or
not.
3. It remains unchanged in all adiabatic frictionless processes.
4. It increases if temperature of heat is lowered without work being done
as in a throttling process.