ME0201 THERMODYNAMICS

(P.SUNDARAM, Asst. Prof - SRM University)

UNIT – 1 BASIC CONCEPT OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics -It is the study of heat and work transfer.

Aspects (Approaches) of Thermodynamics

1. Microscopic Aspect Molecular level and its statistical analysis
2. Macroscopic Aspect Lumped or bulk or quantum level analysis (Effect of molecules)

Thermodynamic System
A specified quantity of matter or space which is under focused attention for thermodynamic
analysis.
System has boundary and everything external to that boundary and system is called as Surrounding.
Universe = System + Surrounding
Homogeneous -A system consisting of a single phase
Heterogeneous -A system consisting of more than one phase

Types of TD system
1. Open System Both Energy and Mass can cross the system boundary
e.g. Boiler, Turbine, Pump, Compressor, Nozzle, condenser
2. Closed System Only Energy transfer and No mass transfer
e.g. Electric heater,
3. Isolated System No interaction between the system and surroundings. Fixed mass and
energy, there is no mass or energy transfer across the system boundary.

Control volume Certain fixed region or volume in space surrounding system.

Control surface The surface of control volume.

Properties of System
Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical conditions may be described,
e.g- V, P &T.
1. Intensive Property Independent of Mass e.g. Pressure, Temperature.
2. Extensive Property Depend upon mass e.g. Volume, Energy

Basic Properties: Pressure (p), volume(v), Temperature(T)

Pressure is the force acting on the given area, p = F / A . Unit is bar or Pa or N/m2 or (bar =105pa)
Volume is the space occupied by the given mass, v = Area x Length . Unit- m3 or cc(cm3)
Temperature is the measure of hot or cold condition, Unit is K(Kelvin) or 0C (Celsius)

Density Mass contained in the given volume, ρ= mass/volume. Unit- kg/m3

Specific Volume The volume occupied by the given mass, v = 1/ρ. Unit – m3 /kg
Internal Energy Energy of molecules due to its temperature, U = m Cv T (kJ)
Enthalpy Total energy of system and it’s a sum of internal energy (u) and flow
energy (pv) i.e. h = u + p v (kJ/kg)
Entropy A measure of degradation of energy (or )
A degree of measure of available or unavailable energy. dS = dQ / T (kJ/kg-K)
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State A condition/ moment of system at a given instant.
One or more property will describe the state. E.g. T for hot or cold state
Change of state: Any operation in which one or more properties changes of sys.
Path of system: The succession of state passed through change of state.(or)
The consecutive traces of the changes of state.
Process The path is completely specified the change of state during an energy transfer.
A process can have many different paths. A series of change of state such that initial
state identical with the final state.
Cyclic Process The process having same initial and final states.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium No change in the state of the system. It consists of following,

1. Mechanical Equilibrium No unbalanced forces in the system
2. Thermal Equilibrium No temperature differences in the system
3. Chemical Equilibrium No chemical reaction the system. (Stable chemically)

Quasi-static Process The very slow process consists of many equilibrium states. Ideal process.

Reversible Process The process having the same path (traces of states) travel while reversed. Both
the system and the surroundings may be restored to their initial states, without
effect in the rest of universe.

Irreversible Process Almost all the real or actual processes are irreversible. (Non-equilibrium)
Energy Loss occurs during the real processes.

Non-Flow Process Processes involved in closed system. The property of the mass contained in the
system is changed during the process.
Flow Processes A process involved with mass transfer is called (Steady Flow).

Path function It depend on path followed during a process as well as end states. (i.e.V, P &T)
Point function It depend on the state only. (i.e. Work &heat)

Forms of Energy
1. Stored Energy: Energy Stored inside the system e.g. Potential Energy, K.E., Chemical Energy,..
2. Transit Energy: Energy in motion and crosses the boundary e.g. Heat, Work

Work It’s one of the basic modes of energy transfer. The work is done by a force as it acts
upon a body moving in the direction of force.
Heat The form of energy that is transferred across a boundary by virtue of a temperature
difference.
Specific heat The amount of heat required to rise a unit mass of the substance through a unit rise in
temperature. C= Q/m. Δt J/kg.K

Laws of thermodynamics
1. Zeroth Law When bodies at different temperatures come in contact with each
other; they will reach an equilibrium temperature with each other.
2. First Law The heat and the work are mutually convertible in a cyclic process.
In a cyclic process the net heat transfer is equal to the network transfer.

Limitation of Ist Law The efficiency of energy conversion is not clearly defined/ quantified
It does not specify the direction of flow of heat &work.
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Use of TD Laws Zeroth Law is the basis for temperature measurement
First Law defines the law of conservation of energy
Basic Relations
Specific Heat ratio γ = Cp/ Cv
Gas Constant R = Cp – Cv , R = Universal Gas Constant/ Mol.Wt. = Ru / M
Equation of state p v = RT ( p-Pr., v – Sp. Vol., T – Temp., R = Constant)
General Gas Equ. P v /T = constant
Internal Energy u = Cv T (kJ/kg) or U = m Cv T (kJ) or ΔU = m Cv ΔT
Enthalpy h = Cp T(kJ/kg) or H = m Cp T or ΔH = m Cp ΔT
Entropy Change dS = dQ/T ( dQ – heat Transfer, T – Absolute temp.)
Mass balance (Continuity Equation) m = ρ A V (ρ - density, A – Area, V- Velocity)

FIRST LAW APPLIED TO NON-FLOW PROCESSES

a. Reversible Process;
1. Isochoric Process, Volume = constant in that process, i.e. v1 = v2 or V= C
2. Isobaric Process , Pressure = constant in that process, i.e. p1 = p2 or p= C
3. Isothermal Process, Temp = constant in that process, i.e. T1 = T2 or T= C
4. Isentropic Process, Entropy = constant, s1= s2 , pvγ = constant
5. Polytrophic Process, pvn = constant
6. Adiabatic Process, Heat transfer (q) is zero. pvγ = constant
b. Irreversible Process;
Free expansion- The expansion of a gas against vacuum. There is no work transfer involved.

Relations for Non-Flow Process (or) Closed systems

Process Work Done, Internal Heat Enthalpy

p-v-T
(reversible) W Energy, dU Transfer, Q Change, dH

Isochoric, v=C p1/T1 = p2/T2 0 m Cv (T2-T1) m Cv (T2-T1) m Cp (T2-T1)

Isobaric, p=C V1/T1 = V2/T2 P(v2-v1) m Cv (T2-T1) m Cp (T2-T1) m Cp (T2-T1)

Isothermal,T=C
p1V1 = p2V2 p1V1 ln(v2/v1) 0 p1V1 ln(v2/v1) 0
PV= C
Isentropic, T2/T1 =
(p1V1- p2V2) /
pVγ = C (p2/p1) (γ-1)/ γ = m Cv (T2-T1) 0 m Cp (T2-T1)
Adiabatic also (v1/v2) (γ-1) (γ-1)

T2/T1 = (γ-n)(p1V1-
Polytrophic, (p1V1- p2V2) /
(p2/p1) (n-1)/ n m Cv (T2-T1) p2V2) / m Cp (T2-T1)
pVn = C (n-1)
= (v1/v2) (n-1) ((n-1) (γ-1))

Note: Remember the dU will be same formula, dH also same formula for all applications.
The Work and Heat have different formulae.
Work Done in Flow and Non-flow Process:
The Work in the non-flow process, w = ∫ p dV
Basic Gas Laws
Gay-Lussac Law, p/T = constant or p1/T1 = p2/T2
Charles Law, v/T = constant or V1/T1 = V2/T2
Boyle’s Law, pv = constant or p1V1 = p2V2
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Note : Use the least unit by substituting in J or sec or N/m2 (not in kJ or min or bar)
Convert the temp. from Celsius to Kelvin ( Add 273 to C )
Problems - NON-FLOW PROCESS ( Closed Systems)
Pb.1. The values of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume for an ideal gas are
0.984 kJ/kg-K and 0.728 kJ/kg-K respectively. Find the characteristic gas constant and ratio of specific
heats for the gas. If one kg of this gas is heated at constant pressure from 250C to 2000C, estimate the
heat added, ideal work done and change in internal energy. Also calculate the pressure and final
volume if the initial volume was 2 m3.

Ans. Convert the temp. from Celsius to Kelvin. Add 273 to C.

Use the least unit by substituting in J or sec or N/m2 etc (not in kJ or min. or bar )

R = Cp – Cv = 0.984-0.728 = 0.256 kJ/kg K …Gas Constant

γ = Cp/Cv = 0.984/0.728 = 1.35 …………. ……..Sp. Heat Ratio
Q = m Cp (T2-T1) = 1x0.984 (473 – 298) = 172.2 kJ ….. Heat Added
W = p(v2-v1) = m R (T2-T1) = 1 x 0.256 x (473 – 298) = 44.8 kJ …Work Done
dU = m Cv (T2-T1) = 1 x 0.728 x (473 – 298) = 127.4 kJ ..Change in I.E
P1 v1 /T1 = P2 v2/T2 …. For Constant pressure process, p1 = p2
v1 /T1 = v2/T2 v2 = 2 x 473/ 298 = 3.17 m3. … ……Final Volume
p1 v1 = m R T1 p1 = p2 =1x286x298/2 = 38140 N/m2 = 0.3814 bar Final pr.,

Pb.2. Air of 0.03 m3 at 2 bar and 300 K is compressed to a volume of 0.003 m3 according to the law
pv1.3=constant. What is the final temperature and work done during the compression?
P1, v1,T1 and v2 are given.
Formulae T2/T1 = (v2/v1) (n-1) p1 v11.3 = p2 v21.3 W = (p2 v2 – p1 v1) / (n-1)

Result T2 = 600 K, p2 = 40 x 105 N/m2 , W = 20000 J = 20 kJ .

Pb.3. Air occupies a space of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 2 bar and a temp. of 770 C. It’s heated at constant
volume, until the pressure is 7 bar. Find final temperature, mass of air, change in internal energy and
change in enthalpy.
For Air , Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK (Assume if not given )

Formulae P1/T1 = P2/T2, p v = m R T , dU = m Cv (T2-T1), dH = m Cp (T2-T1)

Result T2 = 1225 K, m = 0.597 kg, dU = 372 kJ, dH= 525 kJ

Pb.4. A fluid confined in a cylinder by a spring-loaded, frictionless piston so that the pressure in the
fluid is a linear function of the volume, P= a + bV. The internal energy of the fluid is given by
following equation, U= 34 +3.15 PV ,Where U is in KJ, P in KPa, &V in cubic meter. If the
fluid changes from initial state of 170 KPa, 0.03 m3 to a final state of 400 KPa, , 0.06 m3 with no work
other than that done on the piston, find the direction and magnitude of the work and heat transfer.
Solution,
u2-u2 = 3.15 (P1V1 – P2V2) = 3.15 ( 4x0.06- 1.7x0.03) = 59.5 KJ
P= a + bV ; P1 = a + bV1 & P2 = a + bV2
170 = a + 0.03b & 400 = a + 0.06b
From two equ, a= -60 KN/m2 &b= 7667 KN/m2
W1-2 = ∫ PdV = ∫ (a+bV ) dV = a(V2-V1) + b/2(V2 2-V1 2) = 8.55 KJ
Q1-2 = u2-u2 + W1-2 = 68.05 KJ ( Ist law of thermodynamics)

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Pb.5. A gas of mass 1.5 kg undergoes a quasi-static expansion which follows a relationship p = a + bV,
where a and b are constants. The initial and final pressures are 1000 kPa and 200 kPa respectively and
the corresponding volumes are 0.20 m3 and 1.20 m3. The specific internal energy of the gas is given
by the relation, u = l.5 pv – 85 kJ/kg , Where p is the kPa and v is in m3/kg. Calculate the net heat
transfer and the maximum internal energy of the gas attained during expansion.
Solution:
1000 = a + b × 0.2
200 = a + b × 1.2 ,equ gives
−800 = b
∴ a = 1000 + 2 × 800 = 1160
p = 1160 − 800V
W=∫ pdV= ∫ (1160 − 800V ) dV
= 1160 × (1.2 − 0.2 ) − 400( 1.22 − 0.22) kJ
= 1160 − 560kJ = 600kJ
u1 = 1.5 × 1000 × (0.2/1.5)− 85 = 215 kJ / kg
u2 = 1.5 × 200 × (1.2/1.5)− 85 = 155 kJ / kg
∴ Δu = u2 − u1 = ( 275 − 215 ) = 40 kJ / kg
∴ ΔU = mΔu = 40 × 1.5 = 60kJ
∴ Q = ΔU + W = 60 + 600 = 660kJ
⇒ u = 1.5pv − 85kJ / kg = 1.5[(1160-800v)/1.5]v- 85
= 1160v − 800v 2 − 85 kJ / kg
∂u/∂v = 1160 − 1600v

for maximum u, ∂u/∂v =0 ∴v= 1160/1600 = 0.725

∴u max = 1160x0.725-800x (0.725)2 -85 = 335.5 kJ / kg
Umax=1.5u max = 503.25kJ

Pb.5. A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of following processes;

(i) Process 1-2: constant pressure p=1.4 bar, V1=0.028 m3, W12=10.5 KJ,
(ii) Process 2-3: compression with PV=constant, U3= U2,
(iii) Process 3-1: constant volume, U1-U3 = -26.4 KJ.
There are no change in KE and PE. Determine (a) Sketch the cycle on a PV-diagram. (b) Calculate the
heat transfer for process 1-2. (c) Calculate network for the cycle in KJ. (d) Show that ∑Q = ∑W
Solution:
(a) PV- Diagram

(b) process 1-2 (P=C)

W1-2 =P1(V2-V1) ; V2 = 0.103m3
Q1-2 = u2-u1 + W1-2 = 36.9 KJ (u1-u3= -26.4; u3= u2; u2- u1= 26.4 KJ)
process 2-3 (PV=C)
W2-3 =P2V2 ln (V3/V2) = -18.782 KJ
Q2-3 = u3-u2 + W2-3 = -18.782KJ
Process 3-1 (V =C)
W3-1 = 0 ; Q3-1 = u1-u3 + W3-1 = -26.4 KJ
Net heat transfer, ∑Q = Q1-2 + Q2-3 + Q3-1 = 36.9 − 18.783 − 26.4 = -8.28 KJ

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 (c) Network transfer, ∑W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-1= -8.28 KJ
(d) ∑Q = ∑W proved.

FIRST LAW APPLIED TO FLOW PROCESSES

Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
The energy flow rate and mass flow rate is constant with time. The Work in the flow process,
w =∫ V dp . It can be found from SFEE directly.

Total Energy at the section-1 or entry

E1 = Internal Energy + Pressure Energy + Datum or Potential Energy + Heat ... at Entry
E1 = U1 + p1 V1 + mV12 / 2 +mg Z1+ Q
Total Energy at the section-2 or exit
E2 = Internal Energy + Pressure Energy + Datum or Potential Energy + Work ... at Exit
E2 = U2 + p2 V2 + mV22 / 2 +mg Z2+ W
Here the Total Enthalpy at entry or exit, H = U+ pV, m = mass flow

Total SFEE, E1 = E2 .
H1 + mV12 / 2 +mg Z1+ Q = H2 + mV22 / 2 +mg Z2+ W …….. kJ

Specific SFEE, h1 + V12/2 + g Z1+ q = h2 + V22/2 + g Z2+ w … kJ/kg

Application of SFEE for Systems

Boiler/ Evaporator/ Condenser/Cooler/ Heat Exchangers
h1 + V12/2 + g Z1+ q = h2 + V22/2 + g Z2

Turbine/ Pump/ Compressor h1 + V12/2 + g Z1 = h2 + V22/2 + g Z2+ w

Nozzle / Diffuser/ Draft Tube h1 + V12/2 + g Z1 = h2 + V22/2 + g Z2

Note: If the device is Horizontal or Datum or Potential Energy is negligible means , Z1 = Z2

If there is negligible or no heat transfer means q = 0
If there is negligible or no work transfer means w = 0
If the device is Kinetic Energy is negligible means , V1 = V2

Problems – SFEE ( Open Systems)

Pb.1. The work done by a steam turbine is 72 kJ/kg with inlet and outlet velocities are 100 m/s and
320 m/s respectively. The inlet pipe is 4 m above the exhaust. Find the change in enthalpy
in the turbine by neglecting the heat loss from the turbine.

W = 72 kJ/kg, V1 = 100 m/s, V2 = 320 m/s, Z1-Z2 = 4 m so Z2-Z1 = - 4 m

SFEE h1 + V12/2 + g Z1 = h2 + V22/2 + g Z2+ w

Change in enthalpy, h1 - h2 = (V12- V22) / 2 + g(Z1- Z2)+ W

= (1002-3202)/2 + 9.81(- 4) + 72 000 = 118160 J/kg
Change in enthalpy, h1 - h2 = 118.16 kJ/kg

Pb.2. One kg of fluid enters a nozzle with a velocity of 3300 m/min and enthalpy of 2990 kJ/kg. The
enthalpy of the fluid at exit is 2760 kJ/kg. The nozzle is placed horizontally; neglect the heat
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 loss from the nozzle. Determine a. The velocity of fluid at exit, b. The mass flow rate if the inlet
area of nozzle is 0.095 m2 and specific volume at inlet is 0.19 m3/kg, c. The exit area of nozzle
if the specific volume at exit is 0.5 m3/kg.
V1 = 3300/60 = 55 m/s, h1= 2990 kJ/kg, h2 = 2760 kJ/kg, Z1=Z2, Q=0, W=0.

SFEE h1 + V12/2 = h2 + V22/2

V22/2 = h1 + V12/2 – h2 ; V22 = 2h1 + V12 – 2 h2

V22 = (2 x 2990 x 103 ) + 552 – (2 x 2760 x 103 )
V2 = (2 x 2990 x 103 ) 1/2+ 552 – (2 x 2760 x 103 ) = 680.5 m/s
m = A1 V1 / v1 = 0.095 x 55 / 0.19 = 27.5 kg/s
A2 = m v2 / V2 = 27.5 x 0.5 / 680.5 = 0.0202 m2

[Note: For steady flow energy problems, substitutes all values (h, Q, W) in Joule OR for unit
balance, velocity value multiple with 10-3(ie. To convert - (m2/s2xkg = m.m/s2 xkg = N.m=J to KJ)]

Pb.3. In a gas turbine the gas enters at the rate of 5 kg/s with velocity of 50 m/s and enthalpy of 900
KJ/kg and leaves the turbine with a velocity of 150 m/s and enthalpy of 400 KJ/kg. The loss of heat
from the gases to the surrounding is 25 KJ/kg. Assume for gas R=0.285 KJ/kg K and cp=1.004 KJ/kg
K and initial conditions to be at 100 KPa and 270C. Determine the power output of the turbine and
diameter of the inlet pipe.
SFEE m (h1 + V12/2 + g Z1)+ q (KJ/kg) = m( h2 + V22/2 + g Z2)+ w (KJ/kg)
W= m [ (h1- h2) + (V12- V12)/2 ]-q = 5 [(900-400) + (502-1502)/2 x103)]- 25x5
= 2325 KW
Using Ideal gas equ; P1v1 = m RT1 ; v1= 5x 0.285 x 300 x 103/ (100x103) = 4.275 m3/s
Inlet area, v = A1 xV ; A1= 4.275/50 = 0.086 m2 = πD12/ 4 ; D1 = 0.33 m
Pb.4. Steam enters a steam condenser with an enthalpy of 2090 kJ/kg and a velocity of 510 m/s. The
condensate leaves the condenser with an enthalpy of 209 kJ/kg and with velocity of 10 m/s. Determine
the heat received by the cooling water per kg of steam condensed.

V1 = 510 m/s, V2 = 10 m/s, h1= 2090 kJ/kg, h2=209 kJ/kg. Neglect P.E., W=0.

SFEE h1 + V12/2 + Q = h2 + V22/2

Q = h2 - h1 + (V22 - V12)/2
= (2090-209) x 103 + (102- 5102)/2 = - 2011 x 103 J = - 2011 kJ

UNIT – 2 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

SECOND LAW
It has two statements – Kelvin-Planck statement & Clasius statement

Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible to construct an engine operates in a cycle with single heat source and produces an
equal amount of work
This statement indicates the conversion of heat (Low grade energy) into work(high grade
energy) is possible when there is heat rejection. Without heat rejection, there will be no work output.
Let Q1 the heat supplied at a higher temperature T1 from source to heat engine and Q2 the heat
rejected at a higher temperature T2 to sink from the heat engine. The work output of the engine is W.
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Heat Reservoirs
Source is a reservoir at higher temperature and it supplies heat to the engine.
Sink is a reservoir at lower temperature and it receives heat from the engine.

Work, W = Heat Supplied to the engine – Heat Rejected by the engine = Q1 – Q2

The Efficiency of Heat Engine, η = Work output / Heat Supplied ;
η = W / Q1 ; η = (Q1-Q2) / Q1

For reversible Ideal cyclic heat engine, Q1 = m Cp T1 and Q2 = m Cp T2

η = (m Cp T1 – m Cp T2) / m Cp T1 = (T1-T2)/T1 = (Q1-Q2)/Q1
For reversible cycle, Q1/T1 = Q2/T2 (or) Q1/T1- Q2/T2 = 0 ( T1 – Source, T2 –Sink)

Clasius Statement
It is impossible to construct an engine operates in a cycle which supplies energy from lower
temperature region to higher temperature region without any external work.
(OR)
Heat cannot flow from lower temperature reservoir to higher temperature reservoir without any
external work.

Heat Engine (HE) – A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is a net heat transfer
to the engine and a network transfer from the engine.
Refrigerator(R) – It is a device which operating in a cycle, maintains a body at temperature lower
than the surrounding temperature.
Heat pump (HP) – It is a device which operating in a cycle, maintains a body at temperature higher
than the surrounding temperature.
The heat pump is used to heat some region but the refrigerator is used to cool some region . So
these two are consuming work but the desired effect is different.

Coefficient of performance, COP = Desired Output / Work Input

COP of Refrigerator, = Q2/ W But COP of HP = Q1/W
W = Q1-Q2 COP HP = Q1/ (Q1-Q2) = T1/(T1-T2)
COP R = Q2/ (Q1-Q2) = T2/(T1-T2)  COP HP = COP R + 1

Carnot Cycle
It’s an ideal engine and consists of 4 processes : 1. Isothermal expansion 2. Isentropic
Expansion 3. Isothermal compression 4. Isentropic compression
Carnot theorem
It states that of all heat engines operating between a given constant temperature source and a
given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency then a reversible engine.

Carnot Cycle Efficiency, η = Work Done/ Heat Supplied

η = Heat Supplied - Heat Rejected/Heat supplied
= (Q1-Q2) / Q1 = (T1-T2)/T1
T1 = Source temperature (higher), T2 = Sink temperature (lower)

Equivalence of Kelvin-Plank and Clasius Statement

The violation of Kelvin-Plank states clearly the violation of Clasius statement and vice versa.
Even though both statements look different and both are virtually equivalent in all aspects. The
violation of Clasius statement leads to a violation of Kelvin-Plank statement.

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The violated HP/R works with actual HE leads to violation of the Kelvin statement as a single system
The violated HE works with actual HP/R leads to violation of Clasius statement as a single system

Reversibility
The ideal processes are reversible but Isothermal and Adiabatic processes are approximately
considered as reversible processes. The process is reversed and initial conditions are restored at the end
of a cycle. Reversibility is ideal or imaginary for the calculations or study of a system.
Conditions for reversibility:
1. The pressure and temperature of working medium is same with that of surrounding at any
Stage in the process.
2. All the process in the cycle is extremely slow.
3. Friction free engine.
4. No loss of energy during the cycle of operation.
Irreversibility
Almost all the actual processes are not reversible in nature. It is natural or real processes.
The causes of irreversibility:
1. Friction, radiation and conduction ( Heat Loss)
2. Throttling or sudden expansion
3. Quick processes
4. The pressure and temp of working substance vary appreciable that that of surrounding.

Pb.1. A cold storage is to be maintained at – 50C while the surroundings are at 350C. The heat leakage
from the surroundings to the cold storage is estimated to be 29 kW. The actual COP of the refrigeration
plant is one-third of an ideal plant working between the same temperatures. Find the power required to
run the plant.
Given :
T2 = – 50C = -5 +273 = 268 K , T1 = 350C = 35+273 = 308 K, Q2 = 29 kW, COP = 1/3(COPR)
COPR = T2/(T1- T2) = 268 / (308-268) = 6.7
But Actual COP , COP = one-third of COPR = 6.7/3 = 2.233
Now COP = Q2/W ; 2.233 = 29/W ; W = 29/2.233 = 12.987 kW

Pb.2. A reversible engine is supplied with heat from two constant temperature sources at 900 K and
600 K and rejects heat to a constant temperature sink at 300 K. The engine develops work equivalent
to 90 kJ/s and rejects heat at the rate of 56 kJ/s. Estimate a. Heat supplied by each source and
b. Thermal efficiency of the engine.
Given T1 = 900 K, T3 = 600K, T2=T4 = 300K, W1+W2 = 90 kJ/s, Q2+Q4 = 56 kJ/s.

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 (a)η = W1/Q1 = 1- T2/T1 = 0.642 Let Total heat
W1 = 0.642 x Q2 = 0.642 x 2000 = 1284 KJ
supplied to the engine by two
COP = Q4/W2 = Tmin/ Tmax - Tmin = 4.22 sources = Q1
W1-W2 = W =360 KJ
W2 = W1 – W =1284-360 = 924KJ
(b) Q4 = COP x W2 = 4.22x924 = 3899 KJ
Q3 = Q4 + W2 = 924+3899 = 4823 KJ
Q2 = Q1 – W1 = 2000-1284 = 716 KJ
Heat rejection to 400C ,
Q2 + Q3 = 5539KJ

Pb.3. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures of 6000C and 400C.
The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates b/w reservoir temp of 400C & -200C . The
heat transfer to the heat engine is 2000 KJ and network output of the combine engine refrigerator plant
is 360KJ. a) Calculate engine efficiency &COP of the refrigerator. b) Evaluate the heat transfer to the
refrigerant and net heat transfer to the reservoir at 400C.
Given;
T1= 873, T2= 313K, T3= 253K, W= W1+W2 = 360KJ, Q1= 2000 KJ

(a)From 1st source:

Efficiency, η1 = W1/Q1 = (T1-T2)/T1 = 0.67
Work, W1= 0.67 Q1 = Q1 – Q2 ; Q2 = Q1 – 0.67Q1 = 0.33Q1
nd
From 2 source:
Efficiency, η2 = W2/Q3 = (T3-T4)/T3 = 0.5
Work, W2 = 0.5 Q3 = Q3 – Q4 ; Q4 = Q3 – 0.67Q3 = 0.5Q3
W1+W2 = 90 ; 0.67 Q1 +0.5 Q3 = 90
Q2+Q4 = 56 ; 0.33 Q1 +0.5 Q3 = 56 ; Q1= 100KW, Q3= 46 KW
(b) Thermal efficiency of the engine
= W/(Q1+Q3) = 61.6%
For a Q2/T2) = 0
(Q/900) + ((146-Q)/600)- (56/300) = 0 , Q + 219-1.5 Q =
168, - 0.5 Q = - 51
QPb.4 .Two
= 102 reversible
kJ/s heat engines
( One Source), For A and B
Other are arranged
Source , 146 –inQseries,
= 146a–rejecting
102 heat directly to B. Engine
=A44receives
kJ/s 200 kJ at a temperature of 421°C from a hot source, while engine B is in communication
with a cold sink at a temperature of 4.4°C. If the work output of A is twice that of B, Find, (a) The
intermediate temperature between A and B, (b) The efficiency of each engine, (c) The heat rejected to
the cold sink.

10
 η1 = W1 / Q1 = (Q1-Q2) / Q1 = (T1-T2)/T1 ; W1 = (Q1-Q2)
η2 =W2 / Q2 = (Q2-Q3) / Q2 = (T2-T3)/T2 ; W2 = (Q2-Q3)
W1 / Q1 = (T1-T2)/T1 ; W1 =Q1 x (T1-T2)/T1 = (W1+Q2) x (T1-T2)/T1
W1 - W1(T1-T2)/T1 = Q2 x (T1-T2)/T1 ;W1 = Q2 x (T1-T2)/T2
W2 = Q2 x (T2-T3)/T2
W1 = 2W2 ; Q2 x (T1-T2)/T2 = 2Q2 x (T2-T3)/T2
(a) (694-T2) = (2T2- 2x277.4) ; 2T2+T2 =1248.8 ; T = 416.27 K
(b) η1 = (T1-T2)/T1 = 40 % ; η2 = (T2-T3)/T2 = 33.36 %
(c) η1 =W1 / Q1 ; W1 =0.4 x 200 = 80 KJ ; W2 = 40 KJ
η2 =W2 / Q2 ; Q2 = 40/ 0.3336 = 119.9 KJ
W2 = (Q2-Q3) ; Q3 = 79.9 KJ

Pb.5. A domestic food freezer is to be maintained at temperature of -15 0C. The ambient temperature is
300C. If the heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of 1.75 kJ/s, find the power required to
pump this heat out continuously.

Here, Q2 = 1.75 kJ/s, T2 = - 15 + 273 = 258 K, T1 = 30+273 = 303 K

COP R = Q2/ (Q1-Q2) = Q2/W=T2/(T1-T2)
COP R = 1.75 / W = 258/(303 – 258) = 5.733 ;W = 0.305 kJ/s

Pb.6. A heat pump is used for heating a room during winter. The heat is absorbed from the earth by a
fluid circulating through buried pipes and delivered to the room to maintain the temperature at 250C.
The soil temperature is 00C. The power required to operate the heat pump is 1 kW. Find the amount of
heat supplied to the room in kJ/min.

GIVEN DATA T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K, T2 = 0+273 = 273 K, W = 1 kW = 1 kJ/s

FIND Q1
FORMULA COP HP =Q1/W = Q1/ (Q1-Q2) = T1/(T1-T2)

SOLUTION Q1/ 1 = 298/(298-273) = 11.92

Q1 = 11.92 kJ/s = 11.92 x 60 = 715.2 kJ/min
RESULT The heat supplied to the room is 715.2 kJ/min

UNIT-3 ENTROPY AND AVAILABILITY

Clausius Theorem
∫ dQ/T ≤ 0
The cyclic integral of dQ/T for a reversible cycle is equal to zero.
Clausius Inequality
Entropy is a property and the cyclic integral of any property is zero(∫ dQ/T ≤ 0). This equation
is known as the inequality of Clausius. It provides the criteria of a thermodynamic cycle.

∫ dQ/T = 0, the cycle is Reversible

∫ dQ/T < 0, the cycle is Irreversible and possible
∫ dQ/T > 0 , the cycle is Impossible, since it violates the second law.

Entropy Principle (principle of increase in entropy)

11
 In practice, all the processes are irreversible, therefore the entropy of such system ( like
universe or isolated system) goes on increasing.
The entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. It always increases and remains constant
only when the process is reversible. This known principle of increase of entropy, or simply the entropy
principle.
dS ≥ 0
i.e. dS >0 for irreversible process
dS = 0 for reversible cyclic process

Property Diagrams involving entropy

The property diagram like Mollier’s Chart or h-s chart involves the temperature or enthalpy
versus entropy. The property change of steam or vapor can be drawn graphically with entropy.

Entropy change of Ideal gases

The Equations are used to solve the change in entropy problems

Change in entropy, s2 – s1 (J/K)

Process
 Cp ln (T2/T1) + R ln (p2/p1)
 Cv ln (T2/T1) + R ln (v2/v1)
For any process
 Cp ln (v2/v1) + Cv ln (p2/p1)

Isobaric Process, p2=p1

Cp ln (T2/T1)
Isochoric Process, v2=v1
Cv ln (T2/T1)
 R ln (p2/p1)
Isothermal Process, T2=T1
 R ln (v2/v1)
Isentropic Process, Q= 0
0
 Cv ln (p1/p2) (γ-n) / n
 Cv ln (v2/v1) (γ-n) / (γ-1)
Polytrophic process, Pvn = C
 Cv ln (T2/T1) (γ-n) / (γ-1)

Entropy Generation in a closed system

The entropy of any closed system can increase in two ways:
a. By heat interaction in which there is entropy transfer
b. By internal irreversibility’s in which work (or K.E) is dissipated into internal energy
increase.
Entropy Generation in an open system
In an open system, there is transfer of three quantities: mass, energy and entropy.

Third law of thermodynamics: At absolute temperature, the entropy becomes zero.

Introduction to availability in non-flow and flow process

The part of thermal energy (low grade energy) is converted into work (high grade energy)
under ideal conditions is known as available energy and the remaining part of energy which cannot be
converted into work is known as unavailable energy.
Availability
12
  For closed system A = (u1-T0 s1)- (u2-T0 s0) = u - T0 S …. For Non-Flow systems
 For Open system A = (u1-T0 s1)- (u2-T0 s0) = h - T0 S …. For Flow process ,

S- The entropy of fluid, T0 – Ambient temp.

Where, u = u1 – u0 , h = h1 – h0 , S = s1 - s0
Suffix 1- indicates initial condition of the fluid entering and
0 - indicates the discharge or ambient conditions.

N.B. : The availability is a composite property of the system and surroundings.

A = u + P0 v – T0 s ,( if considerable compression work means, P0v will be there )
B = u + Pv – T0 s
Gibb’s Function , G = h – T s = u + Pv – T s

Pb.1. A mass of 0.25 kg of an ideal gas has a pressure of 300 kPa, a temperature of 800C and a volume
of 0.07 m3. The gas undergoes an irreversible adiabatic process to a final pressure of 300 kPa and final
volume of 0.1 m3, during which the work done on the gas is 25 kJ. Evaluate Cp and Cv of the given
gas and the increase in entropy of the gas.

Given : m=0.25 kg, P1 = P2 = 300 kPa, T1 = 353 K, v1 = 0.07 m3, v2 = 0.10 m3. Q=0 (Adia)
Find: Cv, Cp, s2-s1

Formula: p1 v1 = m R T1 , p2 v2 = m R T2, Cp-Cv =R

Q = dU + W = m Cv (T2-T1)+W , s2-s1 = m Cp ln(v2/v1)
Solution
p1 v1 = m R T1 ; R = p1 v1 / m T1 = 300 x 0.07 / (0.25 x 353) = 0.238 kJ
p2 v2 = m R T2 ;T2 = p2 v2 / m R = 300000 x 0.1/(0.25 x 238) = 505 K
Q = dU + W = m Cv (T2-T1) + W ;0 = 0.25 x Cv ( 505-353) + 25 ;Cv = 0.658 kJ/kg K
But, Cp – Cv = R , Cp = R + Cv ;Cp = 0.896 kJ/kg K
S2-S1 = m Cp ln (v2/v1) = 0.25 x 0.896 x ln (0.1/0.07) = 0.08 kJ/ K

Pb.2. One kg of ice at -50C is exposed to the atmosphere which is at 200C. The ice melts and comes
into thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. (a) Determine the entropy increase of the universe. (b)
What is minimum amount of work necessary to convert water back into ice at 50C? Cp of ice is 2.093
KJ/kg K and the latent heat of fusion of ice is 333.3 KJ/kg.
Solution: (a) The entropy increase of the universe
Heat absorbed by ice = Heat absorbed in solid phase + Latent heat + Heat absorbed in liquid phase
= 1x 2.093 x [0-(-5)] + 1 x 333.3 + 1 x 4.187 x (20-0) = 427.5 KJ
Entropy change of atmosphere, (ΔS)atm = - Q/T = - 427.5/ 293 = - 1.46 KJ/ K
Entropy change of the system (ice) as it’s heated from -50C to 00C
(ΔSI)system = m Cp ln (273/268) = 0.0389 KJ/ K
Entropy change of the system as ice melts at 00C to become water at 00C
(ΔSII)system = 333.3/273 = 1.22 KJ/K
Entropy change of water as its heated from 00C to 200C
(ΔSIII)system = m Cp ln (293/273) = 0.296 KJ/K
Total entropy change of ice as it melts into water
(ΔS)system = (ΔSI)system + (ΔSII)system + (ΔSIII)system = 1.5549 KJ/K
Entropy increase of universe, (ΔS)univ = (ΔS)system + (ΔS)atm = 0.0949 KJ/K

(b) Minimum amount of work necessary to convert water back into ice
Entropy change of universe, (ΔS)univ= (ΔS)system + (ΔS)Ref + (ΔS)atm
13
 = (S1-S4) + 0 + (Q+W)/T
By the principle of increase of entropy,
(ΔS)Iso ≥ 0
(S1-S4) + (Q+W)/T ≥ 0
(Q+W)/T ≥ (S4-S1)
W(min) = T (S4-S1) – Q = 293 x 1.5549 – 427.5 = 28.5 KJ

Pb.3. Determine the rate of entropy production in the universe when the rate of heat transfer between a
heat reservoir at 1650 0C and another reservoir at 5380C is 2.15 x 109 kJ/hr.
Sol. ΔS universe = ΔS reservoir at 538 0C - ΔS reservoir at 1650 0C
= Q/T2 – Q/T1
= ( 2.15 x 109 kJ/hr / ( 538+273)) – (2.15 x 109 kJ/hr / ( 1650+273))
= [ ( 1/856) – (1/1923)] 2.15 x 109
= 1533 MJ /K per hour

Pb.4. Determine the entropy change undergone by an ideal gas when expanding adiabatically and
irreversibly through a pressure ratio of 4 from an initial pressure of 700 kPa and temperature of 650C
according to the law pv1.2 = constant.
Take Cp = 1.0035 kJ/Kg K and γ = 1.4.
Solution:
γ = Cp/Cv , So, Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K
(n-1)/n
T2 /T1 = (P2/P1) = 0.7937
dS = Cv [ (γ -n)/ (1-n) ] ln(T2/T1) = 0.1656 kJ /K

Pb.5. Calculate the decrease in availability when 20 kg of water at 100 0C mix with 30 kg of water at
40 0C, the pressure being taken as constant and the temperature of the surrounding being 20 0C. Take
Cp of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K
Solution:
Total available energy before mixing:
Availability A1 = (h1-h0) – T0 (s1-s0)
= m [ Cp (T1-T0) – T0 ( Cp ln (T1/T0)) – R ln (P1/P0) ]
Here the mixing occurs at atmospheric pressure, So P1=P0 ….. ln 1 = Zero
A1 = 20 [4.187 (373 – 293) – 293( 4.187 ln (393/293)) ] = 776.11 kJ … similarly
Availability A2 = 30 [4.187 (313-293) – 293(4.187 ln (313/293)) ] = 82.03 kJ

Total availability before mixing, A1 + A2 = 858.14 kJ

MIXING: Heat lost by 20 kg water at 100 0C = Heat gained by 30 kg water at 40 0C

m Cp ΔT = m Cp ΔT …. Let Tf is the final temperature
20 x 4.187 x (100 - Tf) = 30 x 4.187 x (Tf – 40) … From this Tf = 64 0C
Total available energy after mixing:
A = (20+30) [4.187 (337 -293) – 293(4.187 ln (337/293)) ] = 629.4 KJ
Decrease in available energy due to mixing ,
= Total available energy before mixing – Total available energy after mixing
= 858.14 – 629.4 = 228.78 kJ

Pb.6. Calculate the decrease in available energy when 25 kg of water at 95 0C mix with 35 kg of water
at 35 0C, the pressure being taken as constant and the temperature of the surrounding being 15 0C.
Take Cp of water = 4.2 kJ/kg K

14
This is the similar previous problem.
So the solution is Entropy decrease is 281.84 kJ &the final temperature is 333 K

UNIT-4 THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

Important properties of system

Pressure (P) volume (v) Temperature (T)
Internal Energy (u) Enthalpy (h) Entropy (S)
Helmholtz function (f) Gibbs function (g)
Here, Direct measurable properties are P, v, T

General Relations
I Law, dQ = du+dW (For flow process, dW = v dp & non flow dW = p dv)
II Law, dQ = T dS
T ds = du+ p dv (form the 2 above equations)
du relation: du = T dS – p dv ………………… 1
dh relation: h = u+pv ,
dh = du + p dv + v dp (using the du relation)
dh = T dS + v dp …………………..2
Helmholtz function f = u – T S ,
df = du –S dT – T dS,
df = – p dv – S dT ………………… 3
Gibb’s function g=h–TS
dg = dh – T dS – S dT
dg = v dp – S dT ………………….. 4

Maxwell Relation
du = T dS – p dv ……………1
dh = T dS + v dp ……………2
df = - p dv – S dT ……………3
dg = v dp – S dT …………… 4
Let a differential equ, dz = M dx + N dy
Its PDE form is, (∂M/∂y)x = (∂N/∂x)y

The Maxwell equations from the above 4 equations,

(∂T/∂v)s = - (∂p/∂s)v
(∂T/∂p)s = (∂v/∂s)p
(∂p/∂T)v = (∂s/∂v)T
(∂v/∂T)p = - (∂s/∂p)T

Tds Equations
Tds = Cv dT + T (∂P/∂T)V dV
Tds = Cp dT - T (∂V/∂T)P dP

Cp and Cv
Non flow process, dq = du + p dv , dv = 0, So dq = du , dq = Cv dT , So Cv = (∂u/∂T) v=c
Flow process, dh = dq-v dp, dp = 0, dh = dq, dq = Cp dT, So Cp = (∂h/∂T)p=c
15
Joule Thompson Co-efficient.
The temperature behavior of a fluid during throttling, µJ = (∂T/∂p)h
µJ = 0 …. Isothermal process, T = constant
µJ <0 ….. Increasing temperature (Heating of fluid)
µJ >0 ….. Decreasing temperature (Cooling of fluid)

Clasius-Clapeyron Equation

 The relation among the saturation pressure, temperature, latent heat and specific volume of two
phases.
 It is used to find the properties of pure substances.
From 3rd Maxwell relation, (∂p/∂T)v = (∂s/∂v)T
(dp/dT)sat = (sg –sf ) / (vg -vf)
I Law, dh = T dS + v dp but for the phase change dp = 0, So dS = dh/T
For saturating, sg-sf = hfg/Tsat
Usually, vg >>vf, So we can assume vg – vf  vg ,
(dp/dT)sat = hfg / [ Tsat (vg -vf) ] = hfg / ( Tsat vg) . . ..……Clapeyron Equation
Assuming the vapour is ideal gas, p v = RT , v = R T / p ,
So (dp/dT)sat = hfg / ( Tsat vg) = hfg p / (R T2) , (dp/p)sat = hfg/R (dT/T2) ,
Integrating Clapeyron equ, ln (p2/p1) = (hfg/R) {(1/T1) – (1/T2) } … Clasius-Clapeyron equ.

Gas Mixtures

Daltons Law, Total pressure = Sum of the Partial Pressures of its constituents, P = p1+p2

Amagats Law, Total Volume, = Sum of the Partial volumes of its constituents, V = v1+v2

Mass fraction, If a mixture mass is m, the two components are m1 and m2,
Mass fraction of 1st component, x1 = m1 / (m1+m2) = m1 /m
Mass fraction of 2nd component, x 2= m2 / (m1+m2) = m2 /m
Mole fraction means use the Molecular weight M1 and M2 for the above.
No of moles, n = m / M
Mole fraction of 1st component, x1 = (m1/M1) / [ (m1/M1)+(m2/M2)] = n1 / ∑ni
Mole fraction of 2nd component, x2 = (m2/M2) / [ (m1/M1)+(m2/M2)] = n2 / ∑ni
Characteristic gas constant, R = Ro / M = 8.3143 / M (Ro – universal gas constant)
Equivalent Gas Constant, Requ = x1 R1 + x2 R2
Partial pressures, p1 = x1 P and p2 = x2 P,
Partial volumes, v1 = x1 V and v2 = x2 V
Mol.Wt. O = 16, N =14, H =1, C =12.
To find Mol Wt of CO2 = 12 + 2 x 16 = 44, NH4 = 14+4x1 = 28, O2 = 2 x 16 = 32.
Where,
m- Mass of the gas
M- Molecular weight

Pb.1: A mixture contains 2 kg N2 and 4 kg CO2 at 300K and 1 bar. Take gas constant for N2 = 0.26
kJ/kg-K and CO2 = 0.20 kJ/kg-K. Find the mole fraction, partial pressures, partial volumes and
equivalent gas constant of the mixture.
Let mass m1 =2 kg, m2 = 4 kg m = m1+m2 = 6 kg
Mol Wt M1 = 28 M2 = 44
16
 Gas Const R1 = 0.26 R2 = 0.2 kJ/kg-K
Total Pressure P = p1+p2 = 1 bar = 100000 N/m2, Temp = T =T1=T2 = 300K
The Total(mixture) volume V can be found from the Equation of state, P V = m R T

Mole fraction of N2, x1 = (2/28)/ [(2/28)+(4/44)] = 0.44

But x1+x2 =1, Mole fraction of CO2 , x2 = 1-x1 = 1-0.44 = 0.56 (or use formula as above x1)
Equivalent Gas Constant, R = x1 R1 + x2 R2 = 0.2264 kJ/kg-K
Total Volume V = m R T / P = (6 x 226.4 x 300) / 100000 = 4.068 m3
Partial volume of N2 v1 = x1 V = 0.44x 4.068 = 1.79 m3,
Partial volume of CO2 v2 = 0.56 x 4.068 = 2.278 m3 (or v1+v2 = V So v2 = V-v1 = 2.278 m3)
Partial Pressure of N2 , p1 = x1 P = 0.44 bar , for CO2 p2 = x2 P = 0.56 bar

Pb.2: A mixture of ideal gases consists of 3 kg of N2 and 5 kg of CO2at a pressure of 300kPa and a
temperature of 20 C. Find (a)The mole fraction of each constituent, (b) the equivalent molecular
weight of the gas mixture, (c) the equivalent gas constant of the mixture, (d) the partial pressures and
volumes, (e) the volume and density of the mixture, and (f) the Cp and Cv of the mixture.
Sol.
(a) The mole fraction, x = n / ∑ni
Mole fraction of N2, x1 = (3/28)/ [(3/28)+(5/44)] = 0.485
Mole fraction of CO2 (But x1+x2 =1), x2 =1-x1 = 1-0.485= 0.515 (or use formula as above x1)
(b) The equivalent molecular weight, M = x1 M1 + x2 M2
M = (0.485 x 28) + (0.515 x 44 ) = 36.25 kg/ kg mol
(c) The equivalent gas constant of the mixture, R
Total mass, m = m1 + m2 = 8 kg
R =( m1 R1+ m1 R2 )/ m = 3 x (8.3143/28) + 5 x (8.314/ 44 =(0.89 + 0.94) /8=0.229 kJ/ kgK
(d) The Partial pressure and the partial volume
p1 = x1 P = 145 kPa, p2 = x2 P = 154 kPa
V1 = m1 R1 T / P = 3 x 0.89 x 293 / 300 = 0.87 m3, V2 = m2 R2 T / P = 0.923 m3
(e) The total volume and density of the mixture.
Total volume V = mRT/ p = 1.79 m3
Density, ρ= ρ1 + ρ2 = m / V = 4.46 kg/ m3
(f) the Cp and Cv of the mixture
We know, (R= Cp – Cv ; % Cv, (R/ Cv) = γ – 1; Cv = R/ γ – 1) , (for air γ =1.4 )
Cv= R / γ – 1, CvN2= 0.742 kJ/kg K
CpN2= 1.4 x 0.742 = 1.039 kJ/kg K, (Cp = γ x Cv )
CvCO2=0.661 kJ/kg K
CpCO2= 0.85 kJ/kg K
For the mixture, Cp= mN2CpN2+mCO2CpCO2/(mN2+mCO2) = 0.92 kJ/kg K.
Cv= = mN2CvN2+mCO2CvCO2/m = 0.69 kJ/kg K
(or) Cp = m1 Cp1 + m2 Cp2 / (m1+m2) = 0.92 kJ/kg K
Cv = m1 Cv1 + m2 Cv2 / (m1+m2) = 0.69 KJ/ kg K

UNIT-5 FORMATION OF STEAM

T-S Diagram for steam formation

Temp. Vs Entropy diagram is the plot for the formation of steam from water. We can say an
example of room water at 250C is heated to 1000C and further heated to 1500C. During heating, the
entropy is increasing for the water and or steam. The pressure of water or steam remains same from
water to superheated steam.
17
 The heating of water (T1) initially increases its temp (Sensible heating process 1-2) till it
reaches its boiling temp (T2) and the steam generated from the water (dryness fraction x =0) to dry
saturated steam(x=1). During the evaporation (2-3) the temp remains same but water receives more
latent heat for its phase change water to vapour (entropy s2 – s3). The wet seam loses its moisture and
becomes dry saturated at the same boiling temp but if heated further means its temperature increasing.
This is called superheating (process 3-4).

TERMS USED in Steam formation

1. Dryness fraction, x = mass of dry steam/ mass of wet steam
2. Saturation line Saturated water (x=0) , Saturated dry steam (x=1)
3. Wetness fraction w = mass of moisture/ mass of wet steam = 1-x
4. Enthalpy, Entropy of water hf and sf respectively
5. Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfh
6. Entropy of wet steam s = sf + x sfh
7. Enthalpy of dry steam hg = hf + hfg ………………(x=1)
8. Entropy of dry steam s= sf + sfg ……………………(x=1)
9. Enthalpy of superheated steam hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup - Tsat)
10. Entropy of superheated steam S sup = Sg + Cps ln (Tsup / Tsat)

Mollier Chart, Specific properties of steam

Mollier diagram is the plot of enthalpy vs entropy for the various pressures.

18
 Any two independent properties which are appearing on the chart are sufficient to identify the
state.

Thermodynamic processes in vapour

1. Constant pressure heating of steam (Boiling and superheating)
2. Isothermal heating (T = constant)
3. Isentropic or Reversible Adiabatic expansion (high pressure – low pressure, s = constant)
4. Polytrophic process
5. Throttling process (high pressure – low pressure, h = constant)

Dryness fraction measurement- The three types of calorimeters used are

1. Barrel or bucket calorimeter
2. Throttling calorimeter
3. Combined Separating and throttling calorimeter

19
 The separating calorimeter the steam sample is taken from steam main by using a perforated
tube and the steam is allowed to impact on the perforated cup so that the heavier
particles(water) is separated from the steam by its inertia. The dry steam is separated and
weighed (M) and also the collected water weighed (m). In the case of throttling the steam
allowed through a small opening and expanded. The temp (T1, T2) and pressure(p1,p2) before
and after are noted and used for the calculation of dryness fraction. In the combined case both
are attached in series and the procedure is the combination only.

N.B. : Properties of Water can be taken only from Steam Tables from pressure or temp table
and steam properties also.
N.B.: The properties of steam can be taken from the Mollier chart. No water properties are here.

Pb18. A vessel of volume 0.04 m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at
temperature of 2500C. The mass of the liquid present is 9 kg. Find the pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy, entropy and the internal energy.
Sol: From steam table, at 2500C, Psat= 39.73 bar
vf = 0.0012512 m3/kg, vg = 0.05013 m3/kg
hf = 1085.36 kJ/kg, hfg = 1716.2 kJ/kg
20
 sf = 2.7927 kJ/ kg K, sfg = 3.2802 kJ/ kg K
Volume of liquid, Vf = mf vf
= 9x0.0012512 = 0.01126 m3
Volume of vapour, Vg = 0.04-0.01126 = 0.02874 m3
Mass of vapour, mg = Vg/ vg = 0.575 kg
Total mass of mixture, m = mf + mg = 9+0.575 = 9.575 kg
Quality of mixture,
x = mg / (mf + mg) = 0.575/ 9.575 = 0.06
v = vf + x vfg
= 0.00418 m3/kg
h = hf + x hfg
= 1188.32 kJ/kg
s = sf + x sfg
= 2.9895 kJ/KJ K
u = h- pv = 1188.32- 39.73x 102 x 0.00418
= 1171.72 kJ/ kg

Pb.2. 2 kg of steam initially at 5 bar and 0.6 dryness fraction of steam is heated at constant
pressure until the temperature becomes 3500 C. Find the change in enthalpy and entropy and
internal energy.
Sol.
Change in enthalpy, (H)
From steam table, p1= 5 bar, hf = 640.1 kJ/kg, hfg = 2107.4 kJ/kg
h1 = hf + x hfg
= 1904.5 kJ/kg
At 5 bar, 3500 C (superheated table)
h2 = 3168.1 kJ/kg
ΔH= 1264 kJ/kg
Change in entropy, (S)
From steam table, At 5 bar, sf = 1.8607 kJ/ kg K, sfg = 4.9606 kJ/ kg K
s1= sf + x sfg = 4.83 kJ/KJ K
At 5 bar, 3500C (superheated table)
s2 = 7.63
ΔH= 2.795 kJ/kg K
Pb.3. Steam initially at 1.5 MPa, 300o C expands reversibly and adiabatically in a steam turbine
to 40o C. Determine the ideal work output of the turbine per kg of steam.
Sol. From steam tables at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 300o C,
h1=3037.6 kJ/kg, S1= 6.9189 kJ/kg K
From steam tables at 40o C, Psat=7.384 kPa,
hf= 167.57, hfg=2406.7 kJ/kg, Sf= 0.5725, and Sfg=7.6845 kJ/kg K
Since S1= S2 (adiabatic), 6.9189= Sf+x2Sfg , x2= 0.826
h2=hf2+x2hfg2, h2=2152.57 kj/kg
W=h1-h2=885.03 kJ/kg.

Pb.4. Using Mollier chart, find the enthalpy drop and final condition of steam when it is
expanded isentropically from an initial pressure of 30 bar and 3500 C to a pressure of 1 bar. Also
find the work output of the turbine if mass flow rate of steam is 10 kg/s if turbine efficiency is
88%.
Sol. From Chart,

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 h1 = 3120 kJ/kg, h2 = 2450 kJ/kg, dryness (quality of steam) is x2 = 0.9
Enthalpy drop, dh = h1 –h2 = 670 kJ/kg
Ideal Turbine Work, W (theor) = m (dh) = 6700 kW
Actual Turbine work, W (act) = W (theor) x Efficiency = 5896 kW

Pb. 5. What is the increase in enthalpy of heating of wet steam 0.75 dry and 1 bar to the
following three exit conditions : a. 0.95 dry (wet steam), b. Dry saturated (x=1), c. 3500 C
(Superheated)
Sol: From Mollier chart, h1 = 2110 kJ/kg ……….. for 1 bar, 0.75 dry
h2 = 2570 kJ/kg…………for 1 bar, 0.95 dry
h3 = 2680 kJ/kg…………for 1 bar, x =1, dry saturated steam
h4 = 3170 kJ/kg…………for 1 bar, 3500C, superheated steam
Case 1. Increase in enthalpy = h2 – h1 = 2570-2110 = 460 kJ/kg
Case 2. Increase in enthalpy = h3 – h1 = 2680-2110 = 570 kJ/kg
Case 3. Increase in enthalpy = h4 – h1 = 3170-2110 = 1060 kJ/kg.

Pb.6. A sample of steam at 2000 C and a pressure of 7 bar is first expanded at a constant
enthalpy to 3 bar, and then at constant entropy to 0.5 bar. Using Mollier chart, determine the
change in entropy and enthalpy during the processes.
Sol. The throttling is horizontal line in Mollier chart,

So, h1 = h2 = 2850 kJ/kg but increased entropy

s1 = 6.84 kJ/kg-K
The isentropic expansion is vertical line in the chart, So, s2 = s3 = 7.24 kJ/kg K, but the enthalpy is
decreased due to expansion, h3 = 2535 kJ/kg-K.
Change (Drop or Decrease) in enthalpy, dh = (h1 –h2) + (h2 – h3) = 0 + 315 = 315 kJ/kg
Change (Gain or Increase) in entropy, ds = (s1-s2) + (s2-s3) = 0.4 + 0 = 0.4 kJ/kg-K

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Pb. 7. One kg of steam at 14 bar, 0.9 dry is throttled to 1.4 bar. Find the final state of steam.
Sol. Throttling, h1 = h2,
By Mollier chart, x2 = 0.96…
Or by steam table and formula, Take hf and hfg properties from pressure table,
(hf1 +x1 hfg1) at 14 bar = (hf2 + x2 hfg2) at 1.4 bar)
X2 = 0.96
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