EC 8761 ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LABORATORY

ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-’21

SEVENTH SEMESTER

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MOOKAMBIGAI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

SRINIVASA NAGAR, KALAMAVUR – 622 502

PUDUKKOTTAI (Dt)
 MOOKAMBIGAI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SRINIVASA NAGAR, KALAMAVUR – 622502.

(Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the bonafide record of practical done in

EC 8761 ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LABORATORY

By

In Fourth year B.E., Electronics and Communication Engineering / Seventh Semester

during 2020 – 2021

Register Number:

STAFF IN – CHARGE

Submitted for the Anna University practical examination held on ………..………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 EC8761 ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LABORATORY
(R2017)
CONTENTS
PAGE
S.NO DATE LIST OF EXPERIMENTS SIGNATURE
NO

OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS
1 DC Characteristics of LED and PIN Photo diode

2 Mode Characteristics of Fibers.

3 Measurement of connector and bending losses

Fiber optic Analog Link – Frequency response

4
(Analog)

5 Fiber optic Digital Link – Frequency response

6 Fiber optic Digital Link Eye Diagram (Digital)

7 Numerical Aperture Measurement

8 Attenuation Measurement in Fibers

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENTS

Wireless Channel Simulation including fading
9
and Doppler effects
Simulation of Channel Estimation,
10
Synchronization & Equalization techniques
Analysing Impact of Pulse Shaping and
11 Matched Filtering using Software Defined
Radios
OFDM Signal Transmission and Reception
12 using Software Defined Radios

MICROWAVE EXPERIMENTS
13 VSWR Measurement

14 Impedance Measurement

15 Impedance Matching
 16 Gunn Diode Characteristics

17 Directional Coupler Characteristics

18 Characterization of Isolators.

19 Characterization of Circulators

20 Microwave IC – Filter Characteristics

The above experiments have been completed by student

Signature of Staff in- charge

 OPTICAL
EXPERIMENTS
 1. DC CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND PIN PHOTO DIODE

AIM
To find the DC characteristics of LED source and PIN photo diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No APPARATUS QUANTITY
1. OFT Power Supply 1
2. Digital Multimeter 1
3. LED Module 1
4. Power Meter 1

PROCEDURE
FOR LED characteristics
1. Connect the OFT power supply to the module
2. Measure the voltage V1 across the resistor R1 and calculate the current through LED If
which is If =V1/180 for 850nm PF
3. Now measure the voltage VLED across the LED and note down
4. Measure the optical power output of LED
5. Calculate the power output in mW
6. Turn the potentiometer in clockwise direction slightly towards the maximum till you get
the convenient reading
7. Draw the graph
For Photo Diode Characteristics
1. Put 1M ohm resistor across VL.
2. Connector ST Connector end of the patch cord supplied with the module to the power
source.
3. Set the power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power.
4. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it.
5. Vary the optical power P from -18 dBm approx in steps of 5dBm.
Tabulate the readings as shown Iz=VL/1x106
6. Plot the graph P vs L.
Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
1. Put 10K ohm resistor across VL.
2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage at 10V
3. Connector ST connector end of the patch cord supplied with the module to the power
source
4. Set the power source in CW mode and to give maximum output power
5. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it.
6. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it.
7. Vary the optical power P from -18 dBm approx in steps of 5dBm.
Tabulate the readings as shown Iz=VL/1x106
8. Plot the graph P vs L.
TABULATION [LED & PIN DIODE Module]

S.No V1(V) If (A) Power Power PV= 0.8*Po/10 µA

P (dBm) P0 (µW)

RESULT:
 MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBERS

AIM
To find the mode characteristics of single mode fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Single mode fiber

2. LD unit with LD Driver Module
3. XYZ Positioner
4. Rotation Stage.
5. Fiber optic power meter

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the set up as per the diagram using XYZ positioner set up for coupling laser
beam into fiber.
2. Mount the LD unit on to mounting post
3. Refer the LD module manual for LD driver setup.
4. Insert the SST-ST-PC-3-A patch cord fully to connector holder mounted in XYZ
positioned
5. Keep the LD driver multi turn potentiometer at minimum position and turn ON the
module.
6. Increase the LD power to maximum by turning the multi turn potentiometer in clockwise
direction
7. Adjust the collimating lens of the LD unit such that bright spot turns to very small
focused spot

TABULATION

S.No Angle in θ Output power Output power 13.5% level

(P) dBm (Po) µW output power
nW
CALCULATION

1. Calculate Po-10P/10 x10^-6

2. Calculate P13.5%=Output power (Po)(nW @0°*0.135

3. Calculate P5%= Output power (Po)(nW @0°*0.05

4. Calculate θe=(θe1+θe2)/2

5. Calculate MFD=2*λ/π*tanθe

Where λ= LD lasing wavelength

RESULT:
 MEASUREMENT OF CONNECTOR AND BENDING LOSSES

AIM

To measure the connector and bending losses in optical fiber using communication link.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. OFT with two channel.

2. 20 MHz Oscilloscope.

3. Function Generator.

4. 1m and 3 m fiber cable.

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are given as per diagram.

PROPAGATION LOSS

1. Set the switch SW8 in analog position.

2. Take the 1m fiber and set up an analog link using LED 1 in the optical Tx1 block and
detector PD1 in the optical Rx1 block.
3. Note the peak value of the signal received at P31 and designate it as V1.
4. Replace the 1m fiber by 3m fiber between LED1 and PD1.
5. Again note the peak value of the signal received at P31 and designate it as V3.
6. Calculate the attenuation value using formula.

BENDING LOSS

1. Set up the 850nm analog link using the 1m fiber.

2. Observe the received signal at P31 on the CRO.
3. Now bend the fiber loop.
4. Reduce the diameter of the loop slowly and observe the reduction of the received signal
strength at P31.
MEASUREMENT DETAILS

CONNECTOR LOSS BENDING LOSS

S.No Length of the Amplitude(v) S.No Diameter of the Amplitude (v)

Fiber(m) Fiber (cm)
1 1

2 2

RESULT
 FIBER OPTIC ANALOG LINK

AIM

To study the relationship between input signal and output signal through setting up of a

850 nm fiber optic analog link.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. OFT with two channel.

2. 20 MHz Oscilloscope.
3. Function Generator.
4. 1m fiber cable.
PROCEDURE

1. Connections are given as per diagram.

2. Input is connected to analog IN pin P11 and output is taken from pin P31.
3. Vary the frequency and note the amplitude.
4. Calculate the gain value from G=20log (V0/Vin).
5. Plot the graph between Gain vs Frequency.

TABULATION

S.No Frequency Amplitude(v) Gain=20log(Vo/Vi)

(Hz)
MODEL GRAPH

Gain (dB)

Frequency (Hz)

RESULT
 FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK

AIM

To measure the maximum bit rate through setting up of a 850nm optical fiber digital link.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. OFT with two channel.

2. 20 MHz Oscilloscope.
3. Function Generator.
4. 1m fiber cable.
PROCEDURE

1. Connections are given as per diagram.

2. Apply TTL input from function generator and use 1m fiber cable for transmitting the
digital signal.
3. Obtain the square wave form. Note the TON and TOFF value.
4. Calculate the Bit rate value and Duty Cycle.
5. Plot the graph with time period and amplitude.

TABULATION

Frequency(Hz) TON TOFF Bit Rate=1/ TON Duty Cycle=

TON / TON+ TOFF
MODEL GRAPH

Amplitude (V)

Time period (ms)

RESULT
 NUMERICAL APERTURE

AIM

To measure the Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber provided with OFT using 650 nm

LED.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. OFT with two channel.

2. 20 MHz Oscilloscope.

3. Numerical Aperture Stand.

4. 1m fiber cable.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the one end of the 1 meter fiber cable at the LED 650 nm SFH75V connector.
2. Connect the other end of the fiber cable to the NA stand.
3. Vary the height of the fiber cable tip in the NA stand and note the corresponding
diameter of light circle.
4. Find the NA calculation using formula.
TABULATION

Height (h) cm Diameter(D) cm R=D/2 NA=r/√r²+h²

CALCULATION

RESULT
 EYE DIAGRAM

AIM:
To analyse the eye diagram using fiber optic link.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Advance Fiber Optic Communication Trainer Kit

2. Power Supply
3. Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic)
4. 20 MHz Dual channel Oscilloscope
5. Probes, Patch Chords

THEORY:
The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful measurement method for assessing

the data-handling ability of a digital transmission system. This method has been used

extensively for evaluating the performance of wire systems and can also be applied to optical

fiber data links. The eye-pattern measurements are made in the time domain and allow the

effects of waveform distortion to be shown immediately on an oscilloscope.

To measure system performance with the eye-pattern method, a variety of word

patterns should be provided. A convenient approach is to generate a random data signal,

because this is the characteristic of data streams found in practice. This type of signal

generates ones and zeros at a uniform rate but in a random manner. A variety of

pseudorandom pattern generators are available for this purpose. A pseudorandom bit

sequence comprises four different 2-bit-long combinations, eight different 3-bit-long

combinations, sixteen different 4-bit-long combinations, and so on.

MODEL GRAPH:

Interpretation of Eye Pattern

TABULATION

Time Period (µs)

S.No Amplitude (v)
TON TOFF

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as shown in figure. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity
to Link – B Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep switch SW7 as shown in figure to generate PRBS signal.

3. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.

4. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.

5. Keep the switch SW10 to EYE PATTERN position.

6. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position.

7. Keep Jumper JP5 towards +5V position.

8. Keep Jumper JP6 shorted.

9. Keep Jumper JP8 towards TTL position.

10. Switch ON the power supply.

11. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS Generator to the IN post of digital buffer.

12. Connect OUT post of digital buffer to TX IN post.

13. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH 756V (660) nm. Do not remove the cap from the
connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the one Meter Fiber into the cap. Now tighten the
cap by screwing it back.

14. Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 Photo Transistor with TTL logic output SFH 551V. Do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber
into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.

15. Connect CLK OUT of PRBS Generator to EXT.TRG. Of Oscilloscope.

16. Connect detected signal TTL OUT to vertical channel Y input of oscilloscope. Then
observe EYE PATTERN by selecting EXT.TRG. KNOB on oscilloscope as shown in figure.
Observe the Eye Pattern for different clock frequencies. As clock frequency increases the EYE
opening becomes smaller.

RESULT:
 WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION
EXPERIMENTS
 WIRELESS CHANNEL SIMULATION INCLUDING FADING AND DOPPLER

AIM:
To simulate the wireless channel including Rayleigh and Rician multipath fading channel
system objects and Doppler shifts.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Personal computer
MATLAB software

THEORY:
Fading:
Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases or multipath
delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance, so that large-scale path
loss effects may be ignored. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of
the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves called
multipath waves, combine at the receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary
widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the distribution of the intensity and relative
propagation time of the waves and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

Doppler Effects:
Due to the relative motion between the mobile and base station each multipath wave
experiences an apparent shift in frequency. The shift in received signal frequency due to
motion is called Doppler Effect, and it is directly proportional to the velocity and direction of
motion of the mobile with respect to the direction of arrival of the received multipath wave.

PROCEDURE:
Processing a signal using a fading channel involves the following steps:
1. Create a channel System object that describes the channel that you want to use. A channel
object is a type of MATLAB variable that contains information about the channel, such as the
maximum Doppler shift.
2. Adjust properties of the System object, if necessary, to tailor it to your needs. For example,
you can change the path delays or average path gains.
3. Apply the channel System object to your signal using the step method, which generates
random discrete path gains and filters the input signal. The characteristics of a channel can be
shown with the built-in visualization support of the System object.
PROGRAM:

sampleRate500kHz = 500e3; % Sample rate of 500K Hz

sampleRate20kHz = 20e3; % Sample rate of 20K Hz
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Maximum Doppler shift of diffuse components (Hz)
delayVector = (0:5:15)*1e-6; % Discrete delays of four-path channel (s)
gainVector = [0 -3 -6 -9]; % Average path gains (dB)

KFactor = 10; % Linear ratio of specular power to diffuse power

specDopplerShift = 100; % Doppler shift of specular component (Hz)

% Configure a Rayleigh channel object

rayChan = comm.RayleighChannel( ...
'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift, ...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed', ...
'Seed', 10, ...
'PathGainsOutputPort', true);
% Configure a Rician channel object
ricChan = comm.RicianChannel( ...
'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'KFactor', KFactor, ...
'DirectPathDopplerShift', specDopplerShift, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift, ...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed', ...
'Seed', 100, ...
'PathGainsOutputPort', true);
qpskMod = comm.QPSKModulator( ...
'BitInput', true, ...
'PhaseOffset', pi/4);
% Number of bits transmitted per frame is set to be 1000. For QPSK
% modulation, this corresponds to 500 symbols per frame.
bitsPerFrame = 1000;
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
% Modulate data for transmission over channel
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
% Apply Rayleigh or Rician channel object on the modulated data
rayChan(modSignal);
ricChan(modSignal);
release(rayChan);
release(ricChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';
rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '100%';
numFrames = 2;
for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames
% Create random data
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
% Modulate data
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
% Filter data through channel and show channel responses
rayChan(modSignal);
end
release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Doppler spectrum';
numFrames = 5000;
for i = 1:numFrames % Display Doppler spectrum from 5000 frame transmission
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end

Narrowband or Frequency-Flat Fading

release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';
rayChan.SampleRate = sampleRate20kHz;
rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '25%'; % Display one of every four samples
numFrames = 2;
for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end
release(rayChan);
rayChan.PathDelays = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay
rayChan.AveragePathGains = 0; % Average path gain of 1 (0 dB)
for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end
release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization
ricChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization
% Same sample rate and delay profile for the Rayleigh and Rician objects
ricChan.SampleRate = rayChan.SampleRate;
ricChan.PathDelays = rayChan.PathDelays;
ricChan.AveragePathGains = rayChan.AveragePathGains;
% Configure a Time Scope System object to show path gain magnitude
gainScope = dsp.TimeScope( ...
'SampleRate', rayChan.SampleRate, ...
'TimeSpan', bitsPerFrame/2/rayChan.SampleRate, ... % One frame span
'Name', 'Multipath Gain', ...
'ShowGrid', true, ...
'YLimits', [-40 10], ...
'YLabel', 'Gain (dB)');
% Compare the path gain outputs from both objects for one frame
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
[~, rayPathGain] = rayChan(modSignal);
[~, ricPathGain] = ricChan(modSignal);
% Form the path gains as a two-channel input to the time scope
gainScope(10*log10(abs([rayPathGain, ricPathGain]).^2));

RESULT:
 SIMULATION OF CHANNEL ESTIMATION, SYNCHRONIZATION AND
EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES

AIM:

To Simulate the Channel Estimation, Synchronization & Equalization techniques using

MATLAB.

Apparatus Required:

MATLAB 7 software.
Computer.

Theory:

A linear equalizer is a linear filter that is designed to reduce the noise and ISI according
to some criterion of optimality. An Equalizer is a compensator for Channel Distortion. For
communication channels in which the channel characteristics are unknown or time-varying,
optimum transmit and receive filters cannot be designed directly. For such channels, an
equalizer is needed to compensate for the ISI created by the distortion in the channel. There
are three types of equalization methods commonly used:
• Maximum Likelihood (ML) Sequence Detection - Optimal, but Impractical.
• Linear Equalization - Suboptimal, but simple.
• Non-Linear Equalization (DFE) - for severe ISI channels.

Linear Equalizers are simple to implement and are highly effective in channels where is
the ISI is not severe (like the wire line telephone channel). Most linear equalizers are
implemented as a linear transversal filter.
Adaptive equalizer is an essential component of communication systems. Traditionally,
ISI problem is resolved by channel equalization in which the aim is to construct an equalizer
such that the impulse response of the channel/equalizer combination is as close to z-d as
possible, where d is a delay. Frequently the channel parameters are not known in advance and
moreover they may vary with time, in some applications significantly. Hence, it is necessary to
use the adaptive equalizers, which provide the means of tracking the channel characteristics.

The Normalized LMS Linear Equalizer block uses a linear equalizer and the normalized
LMS algorithm to equalize a linearly modulated baseband signal through a dispersive channel.
During the simulation, the block uses the normalized LMS algorithm to update the weights,
once per symbol. When you set the Number of samples per symbol parameter to 1, the block
implements a symbol-spaced (i.e. T-spaced) equalizer and update the filter weights once for
each symbol. When you set the Number of samples per symbol parameter to a value greater
than 1, the weights are updated once every Nth sample, for a T/N-spaced equalizer

Algorithm:

1. Reset randomizers.
2. Represent channel order.
3. Represent iteration step size.
4. Assume input as Gaussian.
5. Plot iteration Vs error
Program:

%LMS channel adaptation

%reset randomizers
randn('state',sum(100*clock));
rand('state',sum(100*clock));
numpoints=5000;
numtaps=10; %channel order
mu=0.01; %iteration step size
%input is gaussian
x=randn(numpoints,1)+i*randn(numpoints,1);
h=rand(numtaps,1);
h=h/max(h);
d=filter(h,1,x);
w=[];
y=[];
in=[];
e=[];
w=zeros(numtaps+1,1)+i*zeros(numtaps+1,1);
for n=numtaps+1:numpoints
in = x(n:-1:n-numtaps);
y(n)=w'*in;
e(n)=d(n)-y(n);
w=w+mu*(real(e(n)*conj(in))-i*imag(e(n)*conj(in)));
end
figure(10);
semilogy(abs(e));
title(['LMS Adaptation Learning Curve using mu=',num2str(mu)]);
xlabel('Iteration Number');
ylabel('Output Estimation Error in db');

%LMS channel Equalization

clear all;
close all;
clc;
hold off
sysorder=5;
N=2000;
inp=randn(N,1);
n=randn(N,1);
[b,a]=butter(2,0.25);
h=[0.0976;0.2873;0.3360;0.2210;0.0960];
Gz=tf(b,a,-1);
y=lsim(Gz,inp);
n=n*std(y)/(10*std(n));
d=y+n;
totallength=size(d,1);
N=60;
w=zeros(sysorder,1);
for n=sysorder:N
u=inp(n:-1:n-sysorder+1);
y(n)=w'*u;
e(n)=d(n)-y(n);
if n<20
mu=0.32;
else
mu=0.15;
end
w=w+mu*u*e(n);
end
for n=N+1:totallength
u=inp(n:-1:n-sysorder+1);
y(n)=w'*u;
e(n)=d(n)-y(n);
end
hold on
plot(d)
plot(y,'r-');
legend('Actual weights','estimated weights')
title('system output');
xlabel('samples');
ylabel('True and estimated output');
figure
semilogy((abs(e)));
title('error curve');
xlabel('samples');
ylabel('error value');
figure
plot(h,'k+')
hold on
plot(w,'r*')
legend('Actual weights','estimated weights')
title('comparison of Actual weights and the estimated weights');
axis([0 6 0.05 0.35]);

Program:
clc; close all; clear all; hold off;
N = 2000;
inp= randn(N,1);
n= randn(N,1);
[b,a]= butter(2, 0.25);
Gz= tf(b,a,-1);
sysorder = 10;
imp = [1;zeros(49,1)];
h= filter(b,a,imp);
h= h(1: sysorder);
y= lsim(Gz,inp);
n= n* std (y) | (10*std (n));
d = y+n;
totallength = size(d,1);
N = 80;
lamda = 0.9995;
delta = 1e10;
p = delta*eye(sysorder);
w = zeros(sysorder, 1);
for n = sysorder : N
u= inp(n:-1:n-sysorder+1);
phi = u'*p;
k = phi' | (lamda+phi*u);
y(n) = w'*u;
e(n) = d(n)-y(n);
w = w+k*e(n);
p = (p-k*phi) | lamda;
recordedw(1:sysorder,n) = w;
end
for n = N+1:totallength
u = inp(n:-1:n-sysorder+1);
y(n) = w'*u;
e(n) = d(n) - y(n);
end
plot (d);
hold on;
plot (y,'v-');
title ('system output'); xlabel ('samples'); ylabel ('True and estimated output');
figure;
semilogy (abs(e));
title ('Error Curve'); xlabel ('samples'); ylabel ('error value');

Result:
 ANALYSING IMPACT OF PULSE SHAPING AND MATCHED FILTERING USING
SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIOS
AIM:
To analyse the impact of pulse shaping and matched filtering by using SDR.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Personal computer
MATLAB software
SDR hardware
THEORY:
Pulse shaping:
Pulse shaping is the process of changing the waveform of transmitted pulses. Its purpose is to
make the transmitted signal better suited to its purpose or the communication channel, typically
by limiting the effective bandwidth of the transmission. By filtering the transmitted pulses this
way, the intersymbol interference caused by the channel can be kept in control. In RF
communication, pulse shaping is essential for making the signal fit in its frequency band.
Typically pulse shaping occurs after line coding and modulation.
Examples of pulse shaping filters that are commonly found in communication systems are:
Sinc shaped filter
Raised-cosine filter
Gaussian filter
Matched Filter:
A matched filter is obtained by correlating a known delayed signal, or template, with an
unknown signal to detect the presence of the template in the unknown signal. This is
equivalent to convolving the unknown signal with a conjugated time-reversed version of the
template. The matched filter is the optimal linear filter for maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) in the presence of additive stochastic noise.
Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent out, and the
reflected signal is examined for common elements of the out-going signal. Pulse compression
is an example of matched filtering. It is so called because impulse response is matched to input
pulse signals. Two-dimensional matched filters are commonly used in image processing, e.g.,
to improve SNR for X-ray. Matched filtering is a demodulation technique with LTI (linear time
invariant) filters to maximize SNR. It was originally also known as a North filter.
Software Defined Radio:
Software-defined radio (SDR) is a radio communication system where components that
have been traditionally implemented in hardware (e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers,
modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are instead implemented by means of software on a
personal computer or embedded system. While the concept of SDR is not new, the rapidly
evolving capabilities of digital electronics render practical many processes which were once
only theoretically possible.
A basic SDR system may consist of a personal computer equipped with a sound card,
or other analog-to-digital converter, preceded by some form of RF front end. Significant
amounts of signal processing are handed over to the general-purpose processor, rather than
being done in special-purpose hardware (electronic circuits). Such a design produces a radio
which can receive and transmit widely different radio protocols (sometimes referred to as
waveforms) based solely on the software used.
 Software radios have significant utility for the military and cell phone services, both of
which must serve a wide variety of changing radio protocols in real time.
In the long term, software-defined radios are expected by proponents like the SDR Forum (now
The Wireless Innovation Forum) to become the dominant technology in radio communications.
SDRs, along with software defined antennas are the enablers of the cognitive radio.
A software-defined radio can be flexible enough to avoid the "limited spectrum"
assumptions of designers of previous kinds of radios, in one or more ways including.
Spread spectrum and ultrawideband techniques allow several transmitters to transmit in
the same place on the same frequency with very little interference, typically combined with one
or more error detection and correction techniques to fix all the errors caused by that
interference.
Software defined antennas adaptively "lock onto" a directional signal, so that receivers
can better reject interference from other directions, allowing it to detect fainter transmissions.
dio techniques: each radio measures the spectrum in use and communicates
that information to other cooperating radios, so that transmitters can avoid mutual interference
by selecting unused frequencies. Alternatively, each radio connects to a geolocation database
to obtain information about the spectrum occupancy in its location and, flexibly, adjusts its
operating frequency and/or transmit power not to cause interference to other wireless services.

PROGRAM:
M = 16; % Modulation order
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
numBits = 3e5; % Number of bits to process
sps = 4; % Number of samples per symbol (oversampling factor)
filtlen = 10; % Filter length in symbols
rolloff = 0.25; % Filter rolloff factor
rrcFilter = rcosdesign(rolloff,filtlen,sps);
fvtool(rrcFilter,'Analysis','Impulse')
rng default; % Use default random number generator
dataIn = randi([0 1],numBits,1); % Generate vector of binary data
dataInMatrix = reshape(dataIn,length(dataIn)/k,k); % Reshape data into binary 4-tuples
dataSymbolsIn = bi2de(dataInMatrix); % Convert to integers
dataMod = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M);
txFiltSignal = upfirdn(dataMod,rrcFilter,sps,1);
EbNo = 10;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
dataSymbolsOut = qamdemod(rxFiltSignal,M);
dataOutMatrix = de2bi(dataSymbolsOut,k);
dataOut = dataOutMatrix(:); % Return data in column vector
[numErrors,ber] = biterr(dataIn,dataOut);
fprintf('\nFor an EbNo setting of %3.1f dB, the bit error rate is %5.2e, based on %d errors.\n', ...
EbNo,ber,numErrors)
Visualize Filter Effects
EbNo = 20;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
eyediagram(txFiltSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxFiltSignal(1:2000),2);
scatplot = scatterplot(sqrt(sps)*...
rxSignal(1:sps*5e3),...
sps,0,'g.');
hold on;
scatterplot(rxFiltSignal(1:5e3),1,0,'kx',scatplot);
title('Received Signal, Before and After Filtering');
legend('Before Filtering','After Filtering');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]); % Set axis ranges
hold off;

RESULT:
 OFDM SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION USING SDR

AIM:
To transmit and receive the OFDM signal using SDR.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
Personal computer
MATLAB software
SDR

THEORY:
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technology that transmits multiple signals
simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless system. Each
signal travels within its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is modulated by the data
(text, voice, video, etc.).
Orthogonal FDM's (OFDM) spread spectrum technique distributes the data over a large
number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies. This spacing provides the
"orthogonality" in this technique which prevents the demodulators from seeing frequencies
other than their own. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF
interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful because in a typical terrestrial
broadcasting scenario there are multipath-channels (i.e. the transmitted signal arrives at the
receiver using various paths of different length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere
with each other (inter symbol interference (ISI)) it becomes very hard to extract the original
information. OFDM is sometimes called multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation. It is the
modulation technique used for digital TV.

Algorithm:
1. Represent the number of bits per OFDM symbol
2. Select the number of symbols
3. Select FFT size
4. Select modulation order
5. Introduce symbol to noise ratio
6. SNR to be used by AWGN function
7. Generating data and Modulating data
8. Serial to parallel conversion
9. Pilot insertion
10. Adding cyclic prefix
11. Parallel to serial conversion
12. Passing through the channel
13. Pilot removal and plotting the result.
Program (Using BPSK):

close all;
clear all;
clc;
nbitpersym = 52; % number of bits per OFDM symbol (same as the number of subcarriers for BPSK)
nsym = 10^4; % number of symbols
len_fft = 64; % fft size
sub_car = 52; % number of data subcarriers
EbNo = 0:2:12;
M= 2; % Modulation order
EsNo= EbNo + 10*log10(52/64)+ 10*log10(64/80); % symbol to noise ratio
snr=EsNo - 10*log10(52/64); % snr as to be used by awgn fn.
% Generating data
t_data=randint(nbitpersym*nsym,1);
% modulating data
mod_data = pskmod(t_data, M);
% serial to parallel conversion
par_data = reshape(mod_data,nbitpersym,nsym).';
% pilot insertion
pilot_ins_data=[zeros(nsym,6) par_data(:,[1:nbitpersym/2]) zeros(nsym,1)
par_data(:,[nbitpersym/2+1:nbitpersym]) zeros(nsym,5)] ;
% fourier transform time doamain data and normalizing the data
IFFT_data = (64/sqrt(52))*ifft(fftshift(pilot_ins_data.')).';
% addition cyclic prefix
cylic_add_data = [IFFT_data(:,[49:64]) IFFT_data].';
% parallel to serial coversion
ser_data = reshape(cylic_add_data,80*nsym,1);
% passing thru channel
no_of_error=[];
ratio=[];
for ii=1:length(snr)
chan_awgn = sqrt(80/52)*awgn(ser_data,snr(ii),'measured'); % awgn addition
ser_to_para = reshape(chan_awgn,80,nsym).'; % serial to parallel coversion
cyclic_pre_rem = ser_to_para(:,[17:80]); %cyclic prefix removal
FFT_recdata =(sqrt(52)/64)*fftshift(fft(cyclic_pre_rem.')).'; % freq domain transform
rem_pilot = FFT_recdata (:,[6+[1:nbitpersym/2] 7+[nbitpersym/2+1:nbitpersym] ]); %pilot removal
ser_data_1 = reshape(rem_pilot.',nbitpersym*nsym,1); % serial coversion
demod_Data = pskdemod(ser_data_1, M); %demodulating the data
[no_of_error(ii),ratio(ii)]=biterr(t_data,demod_Data) ; % error rate calculation
end
% plotting the result
semilogy(EbNo,ratio,'--or','linewidth',2);
hold on;
theoryBer = (1/2)*erfc(sqrt(10.^(EbNo/10)));
semilogy (EbNo,theoryBer,'--*b','linewidth',2);
grid on
axis([0 12 10^-5 .1])
xlabel('EbNo');
ylabel('BER')
title('Bit error probability curve for BPSK using OFDM');
Observation:

Program (Using BPSK with Rayleigh Channel):

% Script for computing the BER for BPSK in OFDM modulation in the
% presence of Rayeligh fading channel
% parameters
% FFT size. nFFT 64
% Number of used subcarriers. nDSC 52
% FFT Sampling frequency 20MHz
% Subcarrier spacing 312.5kHz
% Used subcarrier index {-26 to -1, +1 to +26}
% Cylcic prefix duration, Tcp 0.8us
% Data symbol duration, Td 3.2us
% Total Symbol duration, Ts 4us
clear all
nFFT = 64; % fft size
nDSC = 52; % number of data subcarriers
nBitPerSym = 52; % number of bits per OFDM symbol (same as the number of subcarriers for BPSK)
nSym = 10^4; % number of symbols
EbN0dB = [0:35]; % bit to noise ratio
EsN0dB = EbN0dB + 10*log10(nDSC/nFFT) + 10*log10(64/80); % converting to symbol to noise ratio
for ii = 1:length(EbN0dB)
 % Transmitter
ipBit = rand(1,nBitPerSym*nSym) > 0.5; % random 1's and 0's
ipMod = 2*ipBit-1; % BPSK modulation 0 --> -1, 1 --> +1
ipMod = reshape(ipMod,nBitPerSym,nSym).'; % grouping into multiple symbolsa
% Assigning modulated symbols to subcarriers from [-26 to -1, +1 to +26]
xF = [zeros(nSym,6) ipMod(:,[1:nBitPerSym/2]) zeros(nSym,1) ipMod(:,[nBitPerSym/2+1:nBitPerSym])
zeros(nSym,5)] ;
% Taking FFT, the term (nFFT/sqrt(nDSC)) is for normalizing the power of transmit symbol to 1
xt = (nFFT/sqrt(nDSC))*ifft(fftshift(xF.')).';
% Appending cylic prefix
xt = [xt(:,[49:64]) xt];
% multipath channel
nTap = 10;
ht = 1/sqrt(2)*1/sqrt(nTap)*(randn(nSym,nTap) + j*randn(nSym,nTap));
% computing and storing the frequency response of the channel, for use at recevier
hF = fftshift(fft(ht,64,2));
% convolution of each symbol with the random channel
for jj = 1:nSym
xht(jj,:) = conv(ht(jj,:),xt(jj,:));
end
xt = xht;

% Concatenating multiple symbols to form a long vector

xt = reshape(xt.',1,nSym*(80+nTap-1));
% Gaussian noise of unit variance, 0 mean
nt = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,nSym*(80+nTap-1)) + j*randn(1,nSym*(80+nTap-1))];
% Adding noise, the term sqrt(80/64) is to account for the wasted energy due to cyclic prefix
yt = sqrt(80/64)*xt + 10^(-EsN0dB(ii)/20)*nt;
% figure
% plot(real(yt));grid on;
% Receiver
yt = reshape(yt.',80+nTap-1,nSym).'; % formatting the received vector into symbols
yt = yt(:,[17:80]); % removing cyclic prefix
% converting to frequency domain
yF = (sqrt(nDSC)/nFFT)*fftshift(fft(yt.')).';
% equalization by the known channel frequency response
yF = yF./hF;
% extracting the required data subcarriers
yMod = yF(:,[6+[1:nBitPerSym/2] 7+[nBitPerSym/2+1:nBitPerSym] ]);
% BPSK demodulation
% +ve value --> 1, -ve value --> -1
ipModHat = 2*floor(real(yMod/2)) + 1;
ipModHat(ipModHat>1) = +1;
ipModHat(ipModHat<-1) = -1;
% converting modulated values into bits
ipBitHat = (ipModHat+1)/2;
ipBitHat = reshape(ipBitHat.',nBitPerSym*nSym,1).';
% counting the errors
nErr(ii) = size(find(ipBitHat - ipBit),2);
end
simBer = nErr/(nSym*nBitPerSym);
close all;
semilogy(EbN0dB,simBer,'mx-','LineWidth',2);
axis([0 35 10^-5 1])
grid on
legend('Rayleigh-Simulation');
xlabel('Eb/No, dB');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
title('BER for BPSK using OFDM in a 10-tap Rayleigh channel');

Observation:
Program (Using QAM):

close all;
clear all;
clc;
% Generating and coding data
t_data=randint(9600,1)';
x=1;
si=1; %for BER rows
for d=1:100;
data=t_data(x:x+95);
x=x+96;
k=3;
n=6;
s1=size(data,2); % Size of input matrix
j=s1/k;
% Convolutionally encoding data
constlen=7;
codegen = [171 133]; % Polynomial
trellis = poly2trellis(constlen, codegen);
codedata = convenc(data, trellis);
%Interleaving coded data
s2=size(codedata,2);
j=s2/4;
matrix=reshape(codedata,j,4);
intlvddata = matintrlv(matrix',2,2)'; % Interleave.
intlvddata=intlvddata';
% Binary to decimal conversion
dec=bi2de(intlvddata','left-msb');
%16-QAM Modulation
M=16;
y = qammod(dec,M);
% scatterplot(y);
% Pilot insertion
lendata=length(y);
pilt=3+3j;
nofpits=4;
k=1;
for i=(1:13:52)
pilt_data1(i)=pilt;
for j=(i+1:i+12);
pilt_data1(j)=y(k);
k=k+1;
end
end

pilt_data1=pilt_data1'; % size of pilt_data =52

pilt_data(1:52)=pilt_data1(1:52); % upsizing to 64
pilt_data(13:64)=pilt_data1(1:52); % upsizing to 64
for i=1:52
pilt_data(i+6)=pilt_data1(i);
end
ifft_sig=ifft(pilt_data',64); % IFFT
% Adding Cyclic Extension
cext_data=zeros(80,1);
cext_data(1:16)=ifft_sig(49:64);
for i=1:64
cext_data(i+16)=ifft_sig(i);
end
% Channel
% SNR
o=1;
for snr=0:2:50
ofdm_sig=awgn(cext_data,snr,'measured'); % Adding white Gaussian Noise
% figure;
% index=1:80;
% plot(index,cext_data,'b',index,ofdm_sig,'r'); %plot both signals
% legend('Original Signal to be Transmitted','Signal with AWGN');
% RECEIVER
%Removing Cyclic Extension
for i=1:64
rxed_sig(i)=ofdm_sig(i+16);
end
% FFT
ff_sig=fft(rxed_sig,64);
% Pilot Synch%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
for i=1:52
synched_sig1(i)=ff_sig(i+6);
end
k=1;
for i=(1:13:52)
for j=(i+1:i+12);
synched_sig(k)=synched_sig1(j);
k=k+1;
end
end
% scatterplot(synched_sig)
dem_data= qamdemod(synched_sig,16); % Demodulation
% Decimal to binary conversion
bin=de2bi(dem_data','left-msb');
bin=bin';

% De-Interleaving
deintlvddata = matdeintrlv(bin,2,2); % De-Interleave
deintlvddata=deintlvddata';
deintlvddata=deintlvddata(:)';
%Decoding data
n=6;
k=3;
decodedata =vitdec(deintlvddata,trellis,5,'trunc','hard'); % decoding datausing veterbi decoder
rxed_data=decodedata;
% Calculating BER
rxed_data=rxed_data(:)';
errors=0;
c=xor(data,rxed_data);
errors=nnz(c);
% for i=1:length(data)
%
%
% if rxed_data(i)~=data(i);
% errors=errors+1;
%
% end
% end
BER(si,o)=errors/length(data);
o=o+1;
end % SNR loop ends here
si=si+1;
end % main data loop
% Time averaging for optimum results
for col=1:25; %%%change if SNR loop Changed
ber(1,col)=0;
for row=1:100;
ber(1,col)=ber(1,col)+BER(row,col);
end
end
ber=ber./100;
%%
figure
i=0:2:48;
semilogy(i,ber);
title('BER vs SNR');
ylabel('BER');
xlabel('SNR (dB)');
grid on
Observation:

RESULT:
MICROWAVE
EXPERIMENTS
 DETERMINATION OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT

AIM

To measure the frequency and wavelength of microwave oscillator and to demonstrate the
relationship between frequency guide and space wavelength.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. Slotted line section
7. Detector mount
8. Matched termination
9. Movable shot
10. CRO and Probe

THEORY

It uses only a single re-entrant microwave cavity as a resonator. The electron beam

emitted from the cathode is accelerated by the grid and passes through the cavity anode to the

repeller space between the cavity anode and the repeller electrode. The electrons in the beam

are velocity modulated before the beam passes through the cavity second time and will give up

the energy to cavity to maintain oscillations. This type of klystron oscillator is called as a reflex

klystron because of the reflex action of the electron beam. The physical design of the tube

controls the no. of modes possible in practical applications. The bunched electrons in a reflex

klystron can deliver maximum power to the cavity at any instant which corresponds to the

positive peak of the RF cycle of the cavity oscillation. The power output of a reflex klystron is

maximum, if the bunched electrons on return cross the cavity gap when the gap field is positive

maximum.
PRECAUTIONS

1. Before switch ON the power supply, ensure that all the knob are kept in minimum
position.
2. Switch ON the power supply, set the beam voltage between 230V to 270V.
3. Set the beam current in the range of 17mAmps to 20 mAmps. Always the repller voltage
having negative value it should be in the range of 160V to 200V.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron Klystron Variable

mount with Isolator
power supply Attenuator
tube

Slotted
Movable Matched section with Frequency
Termination
carriage
Short meter

CRO

TABULATION

Beam Voltage= Beam Current= Repellar Voltage=

Frequency 1st 2nd λg = 2(d2-d1) λc =2a Inner f= C √1/ (λg)2 +1/ (λc) 2
(GHz) Minimum Minimum cm cm dimension
(d1) cm (d2) cm of waveguide (GHz)
(a) cm

CALCULATIONS
FORMULAE

1. λo = C/fo ( C = 3*10^8m or 3*10^10cm)

2. λg = 2 (d1-d2)
3. λo’ = λg*λc/√λg²+λc²
4. λc = 2a (a = 2.3cm)
5. fo’ = c/λo’

PROCEDURE

GENERAL

1. Set the equipments as shown in diagram.

2. Set the beam voltage as 250V and repellar voltage as 140V in klystron power supply
3. Set AM mode in klystron supply.
4. Adjust the probe depth, frequency knob and amplitude knob on the SWR meter to get
maximum deflection.

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

1. Tune the frequency meter until a dip is observed in the CRO or SWR meter
2. Note the frequency meter reading.

WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT

1. Replace the matched Termination with movable short and detune the frequency meter.
2. Move the slotted section movable carriage probe along the line to get a minimum
deflection point.
3. Record the probe position as first voltage minimum (d1)
4. Move the probe in same direction along the line to get another minimum deflection point
.
5. Record the probe position as second voltage minimum (d2)
6. Calculate the λg =2(d2-d1)
7. Measure the waveguide inner dimension ’a’.
8. Calculate the frequency f= C √1/ (λg)2 +1/ (λc) 2 .
RESULT

Thus the frequency and guide wavelength of the microwave signal passing through rectangular

system were determined as

1. Practical frequency = GHz

2. Theoretical frequency = GHz

3. Guide wavelength = m

4. Free space wavelength = m

 VSWR AND IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

AIM

To measure low and medium VSWR using SWR meter method and high VSWR using

double minimum method

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Components Quantity

1 Klystron power supply 1
2 Klystron mount with tube 1
3 Isolator 1
4 Variable Attenuator 1
5 Frequency meter 1
6 Slotted section probe with 1
carriage
7 Matched Termination 1
8 Slide screw tuner 1
9 Movable short 1
10 CRO 1

FORMULA USED SWR S= λg / π (d1-d2), λg= guide wavelength.

PROCEDURE
GENERAL
1. Set up the equipment as shown in block diagram.
2. Energize the klystron and obtain the deflection on the CRO.
3. Move the probe on the slotted section. It is seen that deflection changes very little.
(i.e.) The transmission line is well matched.

MEASUREMENT OF LOW AND MEDIUM VSWR

1. Fix the probe depth 3 mm on the SS tuner.

2. Move the probe along the slotted section to detect the maximum deflection.
3. Connect the coaxial probe into SWR meter and adjust the SWR meter gain until the
meter indicating 1.0 on the upper scale.
4. Move the probe to a minimum and read the SWR scale reading.
5. Repeat the step 2 to 5 for different depth on the SS tuner.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VSWR

1. Set the probe depth on the SS tuner to 9 mm.

2. Move the probe along the slotted section until the minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the SWR meter gain to obtain a reading of 3db.
4. Move the probe to the left on the slotted section until the full-scale deflection is
obtained.
5. Note and record the probe position (d1).
6. Move the probe to the right on the slotted section. Note and record the probe
position (d2).
7. Replace the slide screw tuner and terminator with movable short.
8. Measure the distance between two successive minimum to determine λg.
9. Calculate SWR as S= λg / π (d1-d2), λg= guide wavelength.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron power Klystron

Variable
supply mount with Isolator
tube Attenuator

Slotted section

Matched Slide screw with movable Frequency

termination tuner carriage meter

Movable short
CRO/VSWR

meter

PROCEDURE:
1. Setup the equipment as shown in block diagram.
2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as below.

Meter Switch – off

Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid position
PIN Mod. Freq.knob – Mid position
3. SwitchON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage at
7.5V.
4. Tune the frequency meter to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO. Measure the operating frequency using
frequency meter and detune the frequency meter.
5. Then remove the CRO and connect the VSWR meter to Tunable Detector mount.
6. If necessary change the range dB-switch, Variable attenuator position and gain control knob
to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
7. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates 1.0
on normal VSWR Scale.
8. Set the depth of S.S Tuner to around 3-4 mm. Read the VSWR on scale and record it.
9. Repeat the above step for change of S.S. Tuner probe depth and record the corresponding
SWR.
10. If the reading at the minimum is lower than 3 on the top scale, set RANGE Switch to next
higher range and read the indication on the second SWR or (3 to 10) scale of SWR.
11. If the range switch is changed by two steps used top SWR scale, however all indication on
this scale must be multiplied by 10.
12. Using the formula, K=S-1/S+1, find the reflection co-efficient.

TABULATION

3-db method or Double minimum method

d1(cm) d2(cm) 1st minimum (cm) 2nd minimum (cm) λg (cm)

(ds1) (ds2)

SWR method

Probe depth 0 3 5 7 9
SWR

CALCULATIONS

SWR S= λg / π (d1-d2), λg = 2(ds1-ds2)

RESULT:
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE OSCILLATOR

AIM

To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode oscillator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Components Quantity

1 Gunn power supply 1
2 Gunn diode oscillator 1
3 PIN modulator 1

PROCEDURE

1. Arrangements are made as per block diagram

2. Raise the Gunn diode bias voltage in step of 0.5V.
3. Note the corresponding current reading.
4. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Gunn power Gunn Diode PIN

Isolator
supply
Oscillator Modulator
MODEL GRAPH

I (mA)

TABULATION

Voltage (V) Current (mA)

RESULT
 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

AIM

To measure the coupling factor and directivity of four port directional coupler.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Components Quantity

1 Klystron power supply 1
2 Klystron mount with tube 1
3 Isolator 1
4 Variable Attenuator 1
5 Frequency meter 1
6 Slotted section probe with 1
carriage
7 Matched Termination 1
8 Directional coupler 1
9 Detector mount 1
10 CRO 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are given as per the block diagram. measure the power at the input P1
2. Connect the matched termination at port 2 and detector mount is connected to port 4 of
DC.
3. Carefully remove the detector mount and put it in the place of load on port 2 to get P2
and then port 3 to get P3. The ratio are S21 = √P2/P1, S31 = √P3/P1.
4. Repeat step 4 with source at port 2 and port 3 to obtain the parameters
5. Calculate the coupling factor and directivity using formula.

FORMULA

Coupling Factor= 10 log (P1/P4) Directivity= 10 log (P4/P3)

 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron Variable
Klystron power
mount with Attenuator
supply Isolator
tube

Slotted section Frequency

Matched Directional
with movable
carriage meter
termination Coupler

Detector
mount

CRO

Beam voltage= Beam current= Repellar voltage=

TABULATION

Input Voltage Output Voltage (v) Output Voltage (v)

(v)

SCATTERING MATRIX FOR DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

RESULT
 S-PARAMETER MEASUREMENT OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

AIM

To measure the S-parameter for Isolator and Circulator,

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Components Quantity

1 Klystron power supply 1
2 Klystron mount with tube 1
3 Isolator 1
4 Variable Attenuator 1
5 Frequency meter 1
6 Slotted section probe with 1
carriage
7 Matched Termination 1
8 Waveguide Isolator and Each 1
Circulator
9 Detector mount 1
10 CRO 1

FORMULA USED
Gain (db) =20log (V0/Vin)
PROCEDURE

GENERAL

1. Set the equipment as per the block diagram.

2. Energize the klystron. Obtain the deflection on the CRO or SWR meter.

POWER MEASUREMENT

1. Connect the side arm of the H-plane or E-plane tee in the set up and measure the
voltage at two collinear arms.(port1 & port 2)
2. Find the both the signals are in-phase for H-plane and out of phase for E-plane tee.
3. Find the power using the formula
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron
Variable
Klystron power
mount with Isolator
Attenuator
supply
tube

Waveguide Isolator/
Matched Slotted section Frequency
Circulator
termination with movable meter

carriage

Detector Mount
CRO

Beam voltage= Beam current= Repellar voltage=

TABULATION:

ISOLATOR
Input Output Input Output Scattering
voltage (v) voltage (v) voltage (v) voltage (v) Matrix

CIRCULATOR
Input voltage Output voltage Output voltage Scattering Matrix
(v) (v) (v)

CALCULATIONS

RESULT: