TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Attur (TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
Accredited by NAAC

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

IV Year- VII Semester - Electronics and Communication Engineering

EC 8761 Advanced Communication Laboratory

LAB MANUAL

Academic Year 2020-2021

(2017 Regulation)

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING VII SEM - E.C.E.
EC 8761 – ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LABORATORY
S.NO NAME OF
EXPERIMENTS

1. Measurement of connector, bending and fiber attenuation losses

2. Numerical Aperture and Mode Characteristics of fibers

3. DC Characteristics of LED and PIN Photo diode

4. Fiber optic Analog and Digital Link Characterization- frequency

response(analog), eye diagram and BER (digital)

5. Wireless Channel Simulation including fading and Doppler effects

6. Simulation of Channel estimation, Synchronization&

Equalization techniques

7. Analyzing Impact of Pulse Shaping and Matched filtering using

MATLAB.
OFDM Signal Transmission and Reception using MATLAB
8.

9. VSWR and Impedance Measurement and Impedance Matching

Characterization of Directional Couplers , Isolators , Circulators

10.

11. Gunn diode Characteristics

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VII SEM – E.C.E.

EC 8761- ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LABORATORY

CYCLE I

1. Measurement of connector, bending and fiber attenuation losses

2. Numerical Aperture and Mode Characteristics of fibers

3. DC Characteristics of LED and PIN Photo diode

4. i) Fiber optic Analog Characterization- frequency response(analog)

ii) Fiber optic Digital Link Characterization -eye diagram and BER (digital)

5. Wireless Channel Simulation including fading and Doppler effects

CYCLE II

6. Simulation of Channel estimation, Synchronization& Equalization techniques

7. Analyzing Impact of Pulse Shaping and Matched filtering using MATLAB.

8. OFDM Signal Transmission and Reception using MATLAB.

9. VSWR and Impedance Measurement and Impedance Matching.

10. Characterization of Directional couplers, Isolators and Circulators.

11. Gunn diode Characteristics

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EXP. NO: 1
DATE:

MEASUREMENT OF CONNECTOR, BENDING AND FIBER ATTENUATION LOSSES

AIM:
To measure the bending and connector and fiber attenuation losses of optical fibers.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. Link B kit 1
3. 1 & 3 Meter Fiber cable 1

THEORY:
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually selected by
taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of light. In case of optical fiber,
since the signal is transmitted in the form of light, which is completely different in nature as that of elections,
one has to consider the interaction of matter with the radiation to study the losses in fiber.
Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of fiber to
another end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also part of the light is reflected
back of in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the material contributing to the loss of
the signal at the other end of the fiber.
In general terms it is known as propagation loss. Plastic fibers have higher loss of the order of 180
dB/Km. whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are
introduced due to reflection of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of
curvature more is the loss. Another losses are due to the coupling of fiber at LED & photo detector ends with
fibers.

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MEASUREMENT OF CONNECTION LOSS
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Slightly unscrew the cab of IR LED 450V (960nm) from kit1. Do not remove the cap from the
connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the fiber is properly
fixed. Now tighten the cap by screwing back.

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 3. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Transmitter kit and lit 2. While connecting
this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
4. Connect the on board signal generator between the AMP I/P and GND posts in Transmitter kit to
feed the analog to the amplifier.
5. Keep the signal generator in sine wave mode and select the frequency =1 KHz with amplitude =2V p-
p.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Check the output signal of the amplifier at the post AMP O/P in Transmitter kit.
8. Now rotate the Optical Power Control Pot P1 located below power supply connector in kit1 in
anticlock wise direction. This ensures minimum current flow through LED.
9. Short the following posts in kit1 with the links provided.
A. +9V and +9V – This ensures supply to the transmitter
B. AMP O/P and TRANSMITTER I/P.
10. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V (Analog Detector) in kit2 very carefully as
per the instructions in step 1.
11. Ensure that the jumper located just above IC U1 I Receiver kit is shorted to pins 2 and 3. Shorting of
the jumper allows connection of PIN photodiode to the transimpedance amplifier input.
12. Observe the output signal from the detector at AC OUTPUT post in kit2 on CRO. Adjust Optical
Power Control pot P1 in kit1. You should get the reproduction of the original transmitted signal. Also
adjust the amplitude of received signal as that of the transmitted one. Mark this amplitude level as V1.
13. Now move the position of connecting fibers for 1 cm length from the source.
14. Switch on the power supply and signal generator.
15. Observe the output signal from the detector at AC OUTPUT post in Receiver kit on CRO.
16. Now again move the connecting position of the fiber 2 cm away from fiber source . Measure the
amplitude level at the receiver side again.
17. Plot the graph connecting distance versus output amplitude.
TABULATION

Connecting distance Input Amplitude Output Amplitude

(mm) V V

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MEASUREMENT OF BENDING LOSSES:

PROCEDURE:
1. Repeat all the steps from. 1 to 11 as above.
2. Bend the fiber in loop. Measure the amplitude of the received signal.
3. Keep reducing the diameter to about 1-2 cm & take corresponding output voltage readings. (Do not
reduce loop diameter less than 2 cm.)
4. Plot a graph of the received signal amplitude versus the loop diameter.
TABULATION:

Bending Input Amplitude Output

Radius Amplitude

RESULT:
Thus the Connector loss and bending loss are measured.

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 EXP. NO: 2A NUMERICAL APERATURE OF OPTICAL FIBER
DATE:

AIM:
To measure the numerical aperture of the plastic fiber provided with the kit using 660nm wavelength
LED.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. AL-01 KIT 1
3. 1-meter fiber cable 1
4. NA JIG 1
5. Ruler 1

THEORY:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angel at which the light incident on the fiber end is
totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of this
angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance on the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber
end within its cone of acceptance; else it is refracted out of the fiber core.

Considerations in Measurement:

1. It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the cable & the distance
from the launched point & the cable the property selected to ensure that the maximum amount of
optical power is transferred to the cable.
2. This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.

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 Numerical aperture measurement in optical fiber

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back
3. Now short the jumpers as show in the jumper diagram
4. Connect the power cord to the kit & switch on the power supply.
5. Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white sheet
facing the fiber. Adjust the fiber that the cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
6. Keep the distance of about 10nm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently tighten the screw and
thus fix the fiber in the place.
7. Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.
8. Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical horizontal diameters MR and PN.

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 9. Mean radius is calculated using the following formula. r = (MR + PN) / 4.

10. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula.
NA = sinθmax = r / √ d2 + r2
Where θmaxmis the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted through the
fiber.
TABULATION:

Sl.No Distance MR NP r = (MR+NP)/4 Numerical Θmax = Sin-1(NA)

d(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Aperture
= r/(r2+d2)

RESULT
Thus the numerical aperture of the given fiber optic is measured.

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EXP.NO:2B MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

DATE:

AIM:
To study the mode characteristics of fiber optic cable and observe the lower order Linearly Polarized (LP)
modes.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. LASER Source (633 nm – 1mW)
2. Source to Fiber Coupler
3. Single Mode Fiber
4. Fiber Holding Stand
5. Opaque Screen
THEORY :
The central spot carries 95% of the intensity for laser beams with Gaussian
profile. I = Ioe-2(r / w) ^2 where e = 2.718 is the base of the natural logarithm. An
accepted definition of a radius of a Gaussian beam is the distance at which the beam
intensity has dropped to 1/e2 = 0.135 times its peak value Io. This radius is called spot
size. The spot diameter is w.
Spot Diameter (d) micron = Focal length of the Lens (f) mm x Laser beam full
divergence angle (DA) mrad.
In order to achieve maximum coupling efficiency, the fiber core diameter has to
be bigger than the spot diameter.
NA rays = Laser Beam Diameter (B.D.)
2 x Lens Focal Length (f)
The source coupler is comprised of two base plates. One of the base plates
contains a focusing lens and a female connector receptacle. The other base plate is
attached onto the laser. An O-ring is sandwiched between the base plates. Threaded
screws interconnect the two base plates. A screw driver to alter the angular orientation of
one base plate relative to the other can then adjust the screws.
The number of modes propagating through the fiber depends on V-number. If the
fiber whose V-number is less than 2.045, it allows to propagate single mode through it, so
it is called as Single Mode fiber. For a Multimode fiber, V-number is slightly greater than
2.045 but the number of allowed modes is small enough so that they may be individually
identified when the output of the fiber is examined.

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 When V < 2.045, then only a single mode may propagate in the fiber waveguide.
This mode is HE11 mode or LP01 – Linearly Polarized mode.
When V > 2.045, other modes may propagate, when V is slightly greater than
2.045 i.e. V = 4.91 then 4 Linearly Polarized modes will propagate through fiber.

PROCEDURE
1. Keep optical bread board onto original and flat table surface, so that it will not
toggle.
2. Fix the pre-fitted cylindrical head of the He-Ne laser source on to the surface
of the bread board from the bottom side with the help of Allen screws
provided with it. Confirm the rigid ness of the mount.
3. Fix the laser to the fiber coupler mount on to the bread board with base plate
orientation of it towards He-Ne laser exit.
4. Turn on the He-Ne laser and locate the beam spot on the central portion of the
laser-fiber coupling lens assembly by adjusting the vertical and horizontal
travel arrangement provided with the mount. Tighten the screws of the vertical
and horizontal slots.
5. Now look for the back reflection of the He-Ne laser spot from the rod lens of
the coupler. In case if you found the back spot, away from the exit of the
cylindrical laser head of the laser, adjust the back-reflected spot going back in
exit hole by slowly moving the four screws provided for the laser mount.
6. Confirm the central alignment of the laser beam at the exit of the laser fiber
coupler by putting a white card sheet and zooming the spot on to it. In case the
spot is found of center, adjust it to the center by slightly moving the screws of
the laser mount.

7. Put the multimode optical patch cord on to the laser fiber coupler exit and fix
the other end of the fiber in the fiber holding stand by moving the grub screws
provided with the holder.

8. Notice the bright laser beam spot coming out of the fiber. Adjust the height of
exit tip of the fiber to about 50mm. Min. from the white sheet of the paper.
9. Observe the bright round shape circular spot with laser speckle pattern on to
the screen. Multimode pattern can be refined by screws provided with laser-
fiber coupler. Slightly adjusting or moving the screws on the laser mount,
view the change in pattern of this multimode spot.
10. After observing the multimode pattern, change multimode fiber optic patch
cord with single mode fiber patch cord.
11. For single mode patch cord, the blur pattern of the various single mode

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 patterns will appear on the screen. That is, single circular two lobes, three
lobes and four lobes patterns can be very well observed by slightly adjusting
the Allen screws of the laser-fiber coupler.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION :

Parameter of given fiber are,
A = 4.5μm (core radius), N.A = 0.11, λ = 633nm
V = 2 π x A x N.A / λ = 4.91
From fig. shows only 4 LP modes propagates.
Total number of modes = V2 / 2 = 4.912 / 2 = 12

RESULT

Thus the mode characteristics of fiber optic cable are studied and the lower order Linearly Polarized modes
are observed

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 EXP. NO: 3 DC CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND PIN PHOTODETECTOR
DATE:

AIM
To determine the characteristics of fiber optic LED and Photo detector.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. Link B Kit 1
3. 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope 1
4. Volt Meter 1
5. Ammeter 1
6. Jumper to crocodile wires. 1

THEORY:
In optical fiber communication system, electrical signal is first converted into optical signal
with the help of E / O conversion device as LED. After this optical signal is transmitted through
optical fiber, it is retrieved in its original electrical form with the help O / E conversion device as photo
detector.
Different technologies employed in chip fabrication lead to significant version in parameters
for the various emitter diodes. All the emitters distinguish themselves in offering high output power
coupled into the plastic fiber. Data sheets for LEDs usually specify electrical and optical
characteristics, out of which are important peak wavelength of emission, conversion efficiency
(usually specified in terms of power launched in optical fiber for specified forward current), optical
rise and fall lies which put the limitation on operating frequency, maximum forward current through
Led and typical forward voltages across LED.
Photo detectors usually comes in variety of forms like photoconductive, photovoltaic,
transistor type output and diode type output. Here also characteristics to be taken into account are
response time of the detector which puts the limitation on the operating frequency, wavelength
sensitivity and responsivity.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Confirm that the power switch is in OFF position.
3. Make the jumper settings as shown in the jumper diagram.
4. Insert the jumper connecting wires (Provided along with the kit) in jumpers JP 17 and JP 16 at
positions shown in the diagram.
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 5. Connect the current-meter and volt-meter with the jumper wires connected to JP 17 and JP 16
as shown in the diagram.
6. Keep the potentiometer Pr10 in its maximum position (anti-clockwise rotation) and Pr9 in its
minimum position (clockwise rotation). Pr 10 is used to control current flowing through the
LED and Pr 9 is used to vary the amplitude of the received signal at phototransistor.
7. To get the IV characteristics of LED, rotate slowly and measure forward current and
corresponding forward voltage. Take number of such readings for various current values and
plot IV characteristics graph for the Led.
8. For each reading taken above, find out the power which is product of I and V. This is the
electrical power coupled into plastic fiber when forward current was 10 mA as 200µW of
optical energy. Hence the efficiency of the LED comes out to be approx. 1.15%.
9. With this efficiency assumed, find out optical power coupled into plastic optical fiber for each
of the reading in step 7. Plot the graph of forward current v/s output optical power of the LED.
10. Data sheets for the phototransistor detector specified responsivity as 0.8 mA for 10 µW of
incident optical energy. In our experimental kit, when Pr9 is at its minimum position, 100Ω of
resistance is in series of emitter and ground of phototransistor.
11. Connect the 30 cm optical fiber cable supplied with kit between LED SFH576V (660nm) and
phototransistor SFH350V (Analog Detector).
12. From the transfer characteristics obtained in step 8, launched known optical energy into plastic
fiber and measure output voltage at ANALOG OUTPUT terminal. Find out the current flowing
through phototransistor with this voltage value and 100Ω of resistance.
13. Repeat step 11 for various launched optical energy values and plot the graph for the
responsivity of phototransistor. Find out the portion where detector response is linear.

V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF FIBER OPTIC LED & DETECTOR

Vf If Pi Po V I
R
(V) (mA) (mW) (µW) (V) (mA)

Vf = Forward voltage of LED

If = Forward current of LED Pi = V * I(Electrical Power)
Po = Pi*1.615% (Optical power of LED 756)
V = Output voltage of SFH 350
I = V/R = V/100 ohm (O/P Current)
R = 0.8mA*PO / 10μw (Responsivity)

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MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the LED and photo diode characteristic has been verified and output is calculated and
graph is plotted.

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EXP.NO: 4A FIBER OPTIC ANALOG LINK CHARACTERIZATION
DATE:

AIM
To establish 950 nm Fiber Optic Analog Link and find its frequency response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. Kit 4 1
3. 20 MKz Dual Trace Oscilloscope 1
4. 1 Meter Fiber Cable 1

THEORY:

Fiber Optic Analog Links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically, a fiber optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber & a receiver.
The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form & then transforms it into optical (light)
energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium, which carries this energy to
the receiver. At the receiver, light the converted back into electrical form with the same pattern an
originally fed to the transmitter.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Slightly unscrew the cap of IRLED SFH 450V (950nm) from Transmitter kit. Do not remove
the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and and
assure that the fiber is properly fixed. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
3. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Transmitter kit and Receiver kit.
While connecting this, ensure that the power supply if OFF.
4. Connect the 1KHz on board sine wave to the AMP I/P posts in Transmitter kit to feed the
analog signal to the amplifier.
5. Keep the signal generator in sine wave and select the frequency of 1 switch with amplitude of
1V p-p.
6. Switch on the power supply
7. Check the output signal of the amplifier at the post AMP O/P in Transmitter kit.

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8. Now rotate the Optical Power Control pot P1 located below power supply connector in
Transmitter kit in anticlockwise direction. This ensures minimum current flow through LED.
9. Short the following posts in kit1 with the links provided.
a. +9V and +9V – This ensures supply to the transmitter
b. AMP O/P and TRANSMITTER I/P.
Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V (Analog Detector) in kit2
very carefully as per the instructions in step 1.
10. Ensure that the jumper located just above IC U1 I Receiver kit is shorted to pins 2 and 3.
Shorting of the jumper allows connection of PIN photodiode to the trans impedance amplifier
stage.
11. Observe the output signal from the detector at DETECTOR O/P post on CRO by adjusting
Optical Power Control pot P1 in kit1 and you should get the reproduction of the original
transmitted signal.
NOTE: Same output signal is available at post AC O/P in Receiver kit without any DC
Component.
12. To measure the analog bandwidth of the link, keep the same connections and amplitude of the
received signal for each frequency reading.
13. Plot a graph of Gain/Frequency. Measure the frequency range for which the response if flat.

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TABULATION:

Frequency Input amplitude Output amplitude

RESULT:
Thus the analog link has been established and the frequency response is determined.

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EXP.NO: 4B FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK CHARACTERIZATION
DATE:

AIM:
To establish 950 nm fiber optic digital link and to transmit the digital signal through optical
fiber and to study eye pattern using fiber optic link

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. Link-B kit 1
3. 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope 1
4. 1 MHz Function Generator 1
5. 1m Fiber Cable 1

THEORY

EYE PATTERN

The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful measurement method of assessing the data-
handling ability of a digital transmission system. This method has been used extensively for evaluating
the performance of wire systems and can also be applied to optical fiber data links. The eye-pattern
measurements are made in the time domain and allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown
immediately on an oscilloscope.

A great deal of system performance information can be deduced from the eye-pattern display. To
interpret the eye pattern, follow the procedure ahead

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as shown in fig.12.1. Connect the power supply cables with proper
polarity to Link-B kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep switch SW7 as shown in fig.12.1 to generate PRBS signal.
3. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.
4. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
5. Keep switch SW10 to EYE PATTERN position.
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6. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32k position.
7. Keep jumper JP5 towards +5V position.
8. Keep jumper JP6 shorted.
9. Keep jumper JP8 towards TTL position.
10. Switch ON the power supply
11. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS Generator to the IN post of digital buffer.
12. Connect OUT post of digital buffer. to TX IN post
13. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from the
connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the one-meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the
cap by screwing it back.
14. Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 photo transistor with TTL logic output SFH551V. Do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into
the cap by screwing it back.
15. Connect CLK OUT of PRBS Generator to EXT, TRIG of oscilloscope.
16. Connect detected signal TTL OUT to vertical channel Y input of oscilloscope. Then observe
EYE PATTERN by selecting EXT. TRIG KNOB on oscilloscope as shown in Fig.12.2.
Observe the Eye pattern for different clock frequencies. As clock frequency increases the EYE
opening becomes smaller.

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Page 23 of 73
RESULT:

Thus the fiber optic digital link has been established also the eye pattern is obtained.

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EXP. NO: 4C DETERMINATION OF BIT ERROR RATE USING DIGITAL LINK
DATE:

AIM:
To establish 950 nm fiber optic digital link and to transmit the digital signal through optical fiber to
determine the bit error rate.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Equipments Quantity

1. Power Supply 1
2. Link-B kit 1
3. 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope 1
4. 1 MHz Function Generator 1
5. 1m Fiber Cable 1

THEORY:
Bit Error rate
In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is a ratio of bits that have errors
related to the total number of bits received in a transmission. The BER is an indication of how often a
packet or other data unit has to be retransmitted because of an error. Too high BER may indicate that a
slower data rate would actually improve overall transmission time for a given amount of transmitted
data since the BER might be reduced, lowering the number of packets that had to be present.
Measuring bit error rate:
A BERT (bit error rate tester ) is a procedure or device that measure the BER for a given
transmission .The BER or quality of the digital link is calculated from the number of bits received in
error divided by the number of bits transmitted.

Using the bench setup, this is easily measured by means of a comparator in which the
transmitted bits are matched in an XOR gate with the received bits. Figure shows the schematic of the
device used for the following measurements.

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If the bits are alike at the XOR gate input, when clocked in from the D flip flop, the output is low. If
they are different, the XOR output goes high, causing an event count. The event counter can be set for
various time periods. the more accurate is the count.
A random character generator and white noise source should be used for these measurements.
The number of bit error is dependent upon the amount of noise entering the system. White noise or
background noise has an average or RMS value that is exceeded periodically by peaks that rise many
times that level. These peaks exist for a very short period of time.

When the peak equals or exceeds the signal level that is noise energy =bit energy , there is a
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50/50 chance of error. The peak time periods can be calculated statically from the error function. In
LinkB , PRBS sequence is generated by using a 4 bit right shift register whose feedback is completed
by the XOR gate. Let initially 1001 be the 4 bit switch setting on the SW7.

Clock states D1 D2 D3 D4
A B C
1 1 0 0 1 1
2 1 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 0 1
4 1 0 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 1 1
6 1 0 1 0 1
7 1 1 0 1 1
8 1 1 1 0 1
9 1 1 1 1 0
10 0 1 1 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 0
12 0 0 0 1 1
13 1 0 0 0 0
14 0 1 0 0 0
15 0 0 1 0 1
16 1 0 0 1 1
 Thus the sequences repeat constantly with a period corresponding to 16 clock states.
 Length of sequence = 24 = 16
 Now the pseudorandom random sequence pattern is C=1010111100010011
NOTE:KEEP ALL SWITCH ES IN OFF POSITION

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connection as shown in figure.Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to linkB
kit.While connecting this,ensure that the ppower supply is OFF.
2. Keep PRBS switch as shown in Figure to generate PRBS signal..

3. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.

4. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.

5. Keep the switch SW10 at fiber optic receiver output to TTL position.
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6. Select PRBS generator clock at 32KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position
7.Keep jumper JP5 towards +5v position.
8. Keep Jumper JP6 shorted.

9. Keep Jumper JP8 towards pulse position.

10.Switch on the Power supply.
11. Connect the post DATAOUT PRBS generator to the IN post of Digital buffer and also to the
DATA IN post of Bit error rate event counter.
12. Connect the OUT post Digital buffer TX IN post transmitter.

13. Slightly unscrew the cap of LEDSFH756v (660nm).Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the one meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
14. Slightly unscrew the gap of RX1 photo transistor with TTL logic output SFH551v.Do not remove
the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into the cap. Now
tighten the cap by screwing it back.
15. Connected digital signal TTL OUT to post IN of noise source.

16. Connect post OUT of noise source to post RXDATAIN of bit error rate event counter.

17. Connect post CLKOUT of PRBS generator to post CLKIN of bit error rate event counter.

18. Press switch SW11 to start counter.

19. Vary POT P3 for noise level to observe the effect of noise level on the error count.
20. Observe the error count in received signal in time 10 seconds as shown in figure.

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BER MEASUREMENT
As per the definition the BER is a ratio of Errored bits (Eb) to the total bits transmitted (Tb) in a
period of time t seconds.
ie

For example in this experiment if PRBS data is transmitted at 32K bits per second (jumper selection
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at 32KHz) for a period of 10 seconds.so total bits transmitted in 10 seconds(Tb)
=320Kbits.
The TTL OUT data and data with noise is fed to BER counter which compares the the two data
inputs at each clock input.
The counter displays the Error count(Eb) on LED in 10 bit binary form.(eg.0000001010) which has
to be converted in decimal form. (it becomes 10) so the BER ratio then becomes

= 0.00003125
ie.the channel bit error ratio is 3.1x10E -5(3/100000) or in other words we can say that out of 100000 bits
transmitted through the channel gives 3 bits in error.

RESULT
Thus the bit error rate was measured using digital link .

Page 30 of 73
 EXP. NO: 5
DATE:
WIRELESS CHANNEL SIMULATION INCLUDING FADING AND DOPPLER
EFFECTS

AIM:
To simulate and verify output in wireless Channel including Doppler and fading effects.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Personal Computer
MATLAB Software
THEORY:

Rayleigh and Rician fading channels are useful models of real-world phenomena in wireless
communication. These phenomena include multipath scattering effects, time dispersion, and Doppler
shifts that arise from relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.

STEPS INVOLVED:

Processing a signal using a fading channel involves the following steps:

1. Create a channel System object™ that describes the channel that you want to use. A channel object
is a type of MATLAB variable that contains information about the channel, such as the maximum
Doppler shift.
2. Adjust properties of the System object, if necessary, to tailor it to your needs. For example, you
can change the path delays or average path gains.
3. Apply the channel System object to your signal using the step method, which generates random
discrete path gains and filters the input signal.
4. The characteristics of a channel can be shown with the built-in visualization support of the System
object.

Model and Parameters

modelname = 'commmultipathfading';
rayleighBlock = [modelname '/Rayleigh Channel'];
ricianBlock = [modelname '/Rician Channel'];
rayleighCD = [modelname '/Rayleigh Constellation Diagram'];
pathGainBlock = [modelname '/Path Gains (dB)'];
open_system(modelname);

Page 31 of 73
bitRate % Transmission rate (b/s)
bitsPerFrame % Number of bits per frame
bitRate = 10000000

bitsPerFrame = 2000

delayVector % Discrete path delays (s)

gainVector % Average path gains (dB)
delayVector =

1.0e-06 *

0 0.2000 0.4000 0.8000

gainVector = 0 -3 -6 -9

maxDopplerShift % Maximum Doppler shift of diffuse components (Hz)

maxDopplerShift = 200

LOSDopplerShift % Doppler shift of line-of-sight component (Hz)

KFactor % Ratio of specular power to diffuse power (linear)
LOSDopplerShift = 100

KFactor =

10

Page 32 of 73
Wideband or Frequency-Selective Fading
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Impulse response');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','start');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');

set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','stop');
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Frequency response');
set_param(rayleighBlock,'SamplesToDisplay','50%');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','start');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');

Page 33 of 73
Multipath Fading Channel Simulink
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','stop');
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Doppler spectrum');
set_param(modelname,'StopTime','3');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','start');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');

while get_param(modelname,'SimulationTime') < 2

set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','continue');
pause(1);
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');
end

Page 34 of 73
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','stop');
maxDopplerShift = 5;
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Off');
set_param(rayleighCD,'openScopeAtSimStart','on')
sim(modelname,0.2);

Page 35 of 73
Narrowband or Frequency-Flat Fading
bitRate = 1e6 % 50 kb/s transmission
bitRate =

1000000

close_system(rayleighCD);
set_param(rayleighCD,'openScopeAtSimStart','off')
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Change back to the original value
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Impulse and frequency responses');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','start');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');

Page 36 of 73
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','stop');
delayVector = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay
gainVector = 0; % Average path gain of 0 dB
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','start');
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','pause');

Page 37 of 73
set_param(modelname,'SimulationCommand','stop');
delayVector = [0 2 4 8]*1e-7; % Change back to original value
gainVector = (0:-3:-9); % Change back to original value
maxDopplerShift = 5; % Reduce to slow down channel dynamics
set_param(rayleighBlock,'Visualization','Off');
set_param(rayleighCD,'openScopeAtSimStart','on')
sim(modelname,0.15);

Rician Fading

delayVector = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay

gainVector = 0; % Average path gain of 0 dB
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Change back to the original value
close_system(rayleighCD);
set_param(rayleighCD,'openScopeAtSimStart','off')
set_param(pathGainBlock,'OpenAtSimulationStart','on');
sim(modelname,0.1);

RESULT:

The simulation of wireless channel using fading effect and Doppler effects were verified.

Page 38 of 73
 EXP.NO:6 SIMULATION OF CHANNEL ESTIMATION, SYNCHRONIZATION &
EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate and verify output in -wireless Channel for channel estimation, synchronization and
Equalization Techniques.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Personal Computer
MATLAB Software
THEORY:

Channel Estimation OFDM communication system consists of channel model through which data
symbols are transmitted to the receiver. This channel model produces line of sight communication and
also various reflections due to which multipath effect come to picture. To minimize the multipath
effect and noise introduced by the channel, we go for channel estimation.

Synchronization and Channel Equalization In OFDM communication systems, at the

transmitter digital to analog conversion and at the receiver, analog to digital conversion is carried out.
DAC and ADC never have exactly the same sampling period. Due to this, intercarrier interference and
the slow shift of the symbol timing point occurs and so orthogonality is lost. This results in need of
Synchronization and Channel Equalization.

Cell-Wide Settings
enb.NDLRB = 15; % Number of resource blocks
enb.CellRefP = 1; % One transmit antenna port
enb.NCellID = 10; % Cell ID
enb.CyclicPrefix = 'Normal'; % Normal cyclic prefix
enb.DuplexMode = 'FDD'; % FDD

SNR Configuration
SNRdB = 22; % Desired SNR in dB
SNR = 10^(SNRdB/20); % Linear SNR
Page 39 of 73
rng('default'); % Configure random number generators

Channel Model Configuration

cfg.Seed = 1; % Channel seed
cfg.NRxAnts = 1; % 1 receive antenna
cfg.DelayProfile = 'EVA'; % EVA delay spread
cfg.DopplerFreq = 120; % 120Hz Doppler frequency
cfg.MIMOCorrelation = 'Low'; % Low (no) MIMO correlation
cfg.InitTime = 0; % Initialize at time zero
cfg.NTerms = 16; % Oscillators used in fading model
cfg.ModelType = 'GMEDS'; % Rayleigh fading model type
cfg.InitPhase = 'Random'; % Random initial phases
cfg.NormalizePathGains = 'On'; % Normalize delay profile power
cfg.NormalizeTxAnts = 'On'; % Normalize for transmit antennas

Channel Estimator Configuration

cec.PilotAverage = 'UserDefined'; % Pilot averaging method
cec.FreqWindow = 9; % Frequency averaging window in REs
cec.TimeWindow = 9; % Time averaging window in REs
cec.InterpType = 'Cubic'; % Cubic interpolation
cec.InterpWinSize = 3; % Interpolate up to 3 subframes
% simultaneously
cec.InterpWindow = 'Centred'; % Interpolation windowing method

Subframe Resource Grid Size

gridsize = lteDLResourceGridSize(enb);
K = gridsize(1); % Number of subcarriers
L = gridsize(2); % Number of OFDM symbols in one subframe
P = gridsize(3); % Number of transmit antenna ports

Transmit Resource Grid

txGrid = [];

Payload Data Generation

% Number of bits needed is size of resource grid (K*L*P) * number of bits

% per symbol (2 for QPSK)
numberOfBits = K*L*P*2;

% Create random bit stream

inputBits = randi([0 1], numberOfBits, 1);

% Modulate input bits

inputSym = lteSymbolModulate(inputBits,'QPSK');

Frame Generation
% For all subframes within the frame
for sf = 0:10
Page 40 of 73
 % Set subframe number
enb.NSubframe = mod(sf,10);

% Generate empty subframe

subframe = lteDLResourceGrid(enb);

% Map input symbols to grid

subframe(:) = inputSym;

% Generate synchronizing signals

pssSym = ltePSS(enb);
sssSym = lteSSS(enb);
pssInd = ltePSSIndices(enb);
sssInd = lteSSSIndices(enb);

% Map synchronizing signals to the grid

subframe(pssInd) = pssSym;
subframe(sssInd) = sssSym;

% Generate cell specific reference signal symbols and indices

cellRsSym = lteCellRS(enb);
cellRsInd = lteCellRSIndices(enb);

% Map cell specific reference signal to grid

subframe(cellRsInd) = cellRsSym;

% Append subframe to grid to be transmitted

txGrid = [txGrid subframe]; %#ok

end

OFDM Modulation
[txWaveform,info] = lteOFDMModulate(enb,txGrid);
txGrid = txGrid(:,1:140);

Fading Channel
cfg.SamplingRate = info.SamplingRate;

% Pass data through the fading channel model

rxWaveform = lteFadingChannel(cfg,txWaveform);

% Calculate noise gain

N0 = 1/(sqrt(2.0*enb.CellRefP*double(info.Nfft))*SNR);

% Create additive white Gaussian noise

noise = N0*complex(randn(size(rxWaveform)),randn(size(rxWaveform)));

% Add noise to the received time domain waveform

rxWaveform = rxWaveform + noise;
Page 41 of 73
offset = lteDLFrameOffset(enb,rxWaveform);
rxWaveform = rxWaveform(1+offset:end,:);

OFDM Demodulation
rxGrid = lteOFDMDemodulate(enb,rxWaveform);

Channel Estimation
enb.NSubframe = 0;
[estChannel, noiseEst] = lteDLChannelEstimate(enb,cec,rxGrid);

MMSE Equalization
eqGrid = lteEqualizeMMSE(rxGrid, estChannel, noiseEst);

% Calculate error between transmitted and equalized grid

eqError = txGrid - eqGrid;
rxError = txGrid - rxGrid;

% Compute EVM across all input values

% EVM of pre-equalized receive signal
EVM = comm.EVM;
EVM.AveragingDimensions = [1 2];
preEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,rxGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Pre-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
preEqualisedEVM);
Percentage RMS EVM of Pre-Equalized signal: 124.133%
% EVM of post-equalized receive signal
postEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,eqGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Post-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
postEqualisedEVM);
Percentage RMS EVM of Post-Equalized signal: 15.598%
% Plot the received and equalized resource grids
hDownlinkEstimationEqualizationResults(rxGrid, eqGrid);

Page 42 of 73
SYNCHRONIZATION
message = 'Live long and prosper, from the Communications Toolbox Team at MathWorks!';
numFrames = 1e2;

% Adjustable channel parameters

EbN0dB = 12; % Channel noise level (dB)
frequencyOffset = 1e4; % Frequency offset (Hz)
phaseOffset = 15; % Phase offset (Degrees)
delay = 80; % Initial sample offset for entire data stream (samples)

% Display recovered messages

displayRecoveredMsg = false;

% Enable scope visualizations

useScopes = true;

% Check for MATLAB Coder license

useCodegen = checkCodegenLicense;
if useCodegen
fprintf(['--MATLAB Coder license found. ',...
'Transmitter and receiver functions will be compiled for ',...
'additional simulation acceleration.--\n']);
end

% By default the transmitter and receiver functions will be recompiled

% between every run, which is not always necessary. To disable receiver
% compilation, change "compileIt" to false.
compileIt = useCodegen;

% Compile transmitter with MATLAB Coder

if compileIt
codegen generateOFDMSignal -args {coder.Constant(message),
coder.Constant(numFrames)}
end

% Generate transmission signal

if useCodegen
[txSig, frameLen] = generateOFDMSignal_mex(message, numFrames);
else
[txSig, frameLen] = generateOFDMSignal(message, numFrames);
end

% Pass signal through channel

rxSig = applyOFDMChannel(txSig, EbN0dB, delay, frequencyOffset, phaseOffset);

% Compile receiver with MATLAB Coder

Page 43 of 73
if compileIt
codegen receiveOFDMSignal -args {rxSig, coder.Constant(frameLen),
coder.Constant(displayRecoveredMsg), coder.Constant(useScopes)}
end

% Recover signal
if useCodegen
[decMsgInBits, numFramesDetected] = receiveOFDMSignal_mex(rxSig, frameLen,
displayRecoveredMsg, useScopes);
else
[decMsgInBits, numFramesDetected] = receiveOFDMSignal(rxSig, frameLen,
displayRecoveredMsg, useScopes);
end

% Calculate average BER

[FER, BER] = calculateOFDMBER(message, decMsgInBits, numFramesDetected);
fprintf('\nAt EbNo = %5.2fdB, %d frames detected among the %d transmitted frames with
FER = %f and BER = %f\n', ...
EbN0dB, numFramesDetected, numFrames, FER, BER);

At EbNo = 12.00dB, 100 frames detected among the 100 transmitted frames with FER = 0.010000 and
BER = 0.000098

Page 44 of 73
RESULT:

Thus the Wireless Channel Simulation of channel estimation, synchronization and Equalization
Techniques were implemented by using MATLAB.

Page 45 of 73
EXP. NO: 7 ANALYSIS THE IMPACT OF PULSE SHAPING AND MATCHED
FILTERING
DATE:

AIM:
To analyze the impact of pulse shaping and matched filter using MatLab.

TOOLS REQURIED:
 PC
 MATLAB

THEORY
At the transmitter, we focus on pulse shaping; while at the receiver, we focus on matched
filtering. Pulse shaping is the process of shaping pulses to be transmitted based on the symbols generated via
modulation. The goal is to make the signal suitable to be transmitted through the communication channel
mainly by limiting its effective bandwidth
PROGRAM
Establish Simulation Framework
M = 16; % Modulation order
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
numBits = 3e5; % Number of bits to process
sps = 4; % Number of samples per symbol (oversampling factor)

filtlen = 10; % Filter length in symbols

rolloff = 0.25; % Filter rolloff factor
Use the rcosdesign function to create an RRC filter.

rrcFilter = rcosdesign(rolloff,filtlen,sps);

fvtool(rrcFilter,'Analysis','Impulse')

Page 46 of 73
Compute System BER
rng default; % Use default random number generator
dataIn = randi([0 1],numBits,1); % Generate vector of binary data
dataInMatrix = reshape(dataIn,length(dataIn)/k,k); % Reshape data into binary 4-tuples
dataSymbolsIn = bi2de(dataInMatrix); % Convert to integers
dataMod = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M);
txFiltSignal = upfirdn(dataMod,rrcFilter,sps,1);
EbNo = 10;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
dataSymbolsOut = qamdemod(rxFiltSignal,M);
dataOutMatrix = de2bi(dataSymbolsOut,k);
dataOut = dataOutMatrix(:); % Return data in column vector
[numErrors,ber] = biterr(dataIn,dataOut);
fprintf('\nFor an EbNo setting of %3.1f dB, the bit error rate is %5.2e, based on %d errors.\n',
...
EbNo,ber,numErrors)

Visualize Filter Effects

EbNo = 20;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
eyediagram(txFiltSignal(1:2000),sps*2);

Page 47 of 73
Displaying the eye diagram of the signal after the channel noise shows the signal with RRC filtering and noise.
The noise level causes further narrowing of the eye diagram eye-opening.
eyediagram(rxSignal(1:2000),sps*2);

Displaying the eye diagram of the signal after the matched receive filtering is applied shows the signal with
raised cosine filtering. The wider eye diagram eye-openings, the signal has less ISI with raised cosine filtering
as compared to the signal with RRC filtering.
eyediagram(rxFiltSignal(1:2000),2);

Page 48 of 73
.

scatplot = scatterplot(sqrt(sps)*...
rxSignal(1:sps*5e3),...
sps,0,'g.');
hold on;
scatterplot(rxFiltSignal(1:5e3),1,0,'kx',scatplot);
title('Received Signal, Before and After Filtering');
legend('Before Filtering','After Filtering');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]); % Set axis ranges
hold off;

Page 49 of 73
Matched Filtering of Linear FM Waveform
waveform = phased.LinearFMWaveform('PulseWidth',1e-4,'PRF',5e3,...
'SampleRate',1e6,'OutputFormat','Pulses','NumPulses',1,...
'SweepBandwidth',1e5);
wav = getMatchedFilter(waveform);
Create a matched filter with no spectrum weighting, and a matched filter that uses a Taylor window for spectrum weighting.

filter = phased.MatchedFilter('Coefficients',wav);
taylorfilter = phased.MatchedFilter('Coefficients',wav,...
'SpectrumWindow','Taylor');
Create the signal and add noise.

sig = waveform();
rng(17)
x = sig + 0.5*(randn(length(sig),1) + 1j*randn(length(sig),1));
Filter the noisy signal separately with each of the filters.

y = filter(x);
y_taylor = taylorfilter(x);
Plot the real parts of the waveform and noisy signal.

t = linspace(0,numel(sig)/waveform.SampleRate,...
waveform.SampleRate/waveform.PRF);
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(t,real(sig))
Page 50 of 73
title('Input Signal')
xlim([0 max(t)])
grid on
ylabel('Amplitude')
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(t,real(x))
title('Input Signal + Noise')
xlim([0 max(t)])
grid on
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Amplitude')

Plot the magnitudes of the two matched filter outputs.

plot(t,abs(y),'b--')
title('Matched Filter Output')
xlim([0 max(t)])
grid on
hold on
plot(t,abs(y_taylor),'r-')
ylabel('Magnitude')
xlabel('Seconds')
legend('No Spectrum Weighting','Taylor Window')
hold off

Page 51 of 73
Matched Filtering to Improve SNR for Target Detection
antenna = phased.IsotropicAntennaElement('FrequencyRange',[5e9 15e9]);
transmitter = phased.Transmitter('Gain',20,'InUseOutputPort',true);
fc = 10e9;
target = phased.RadarTarget('Model','Nonfluctuating',...
'MeanRCS',1,'OperatingFrequency',fc);
txloc = [0;0;0];
tgtloc = [5000;5000;10];
transmitterplatform = phased.Platform('InitialPosition',txloc);
targetplatform = phased.Platform('InitialPosition',tgtloc);
[tgtrng,tgtang] = rangeangle(targetplatform.InitialPosition,...
transmitterplatform.InitialPosition);
waveform = phased.RectangularWaveform('PulseWidth',25e-6,...
'OutputFormat','Pulses','PRF',10e3,'NumPulses',1);
c = physconst('LightSpeed');
maxrange = c/(2*waveform.PRF);
SNR = npwgnthresh(1e-6,1,'noncoherent');
Pt = radareqpow(c/fc,maxrange,SNR,...
waveform.PulseWidth,'RCS',target.MeanRCS,'Gain',transmitter.Gain);
transmitter.PeakPower = Pt;
radiator = phased.Radiator('PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc,'Sensor',antenna);
channel = phased.FreeSpace('PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc,'TwoWayPropagation',false);
collector = phased.Collector('PropagationSpeed',c,...
'OperatingFrequency',fc,'Sensor',antenna);
Page 52 of 73
receiver = phased.ReceiverPreamp('NoiseFigure',0,...
'EnableInputPort',true,'SeedSource','Property','Seed',2e3);
filter = phased.MatchedFilter(...
'Coefficients',getMatchedFilter(waveform),...
'GainOutputPort',true);
wf = waveform();
[wf,txstatus] = transmitter(wf);
wf = radiator(wf,tgtang);
wf = channel(wf,txloc,tgtloc,[0;0;0],[0;0;0]);
wf = target(wf);
wf = channel(wf,tgtloc,txloc,[0;0;0],[0;0;0]);
wf = collector(wf,tgtang);Receive target echo.
rx_puls = receiver(wf,~txstatus);
[mf_puls,mfgain] = filter(rx_puls);
Gd = length(filter.Coefficients)-1;
mf_puls=[mf_puls(Gd+1:end); mf_puls(1:Gd)];
subplot(2,1,1)
t = unigrid(0,1e-6,1e-4,'[)');
rangegates = c.*t;
rangegates = rangegates/2;
plot(rangegates,abs(rx_puls))
title('Received Pulse')
ylabel('Amplitude')
hold on
plot([tgtrng, tgtrng], [0 max(abs(rx_puls))],'r')
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(rangegates,abs(mf_puls))
title('With Matched Filtering')
xlabel('Meters')
ylabel('Amplitude')
hold on
plot([tgtrng, tgtrng], [0 max(abs(mf_puls))],'r')
hold off

Page 53 of 73
RESULT
The Pulse shaping and Matched filtering are analyzed using MATLAB.

Page 54 of 73
 EXP. NO: 8 SIMULATION OF OFDM SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the OFDM signal transmission and reception.

TOOLS REQURIED:
 PC
 MATLAB
THEORY
OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of closely spaced
modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier, then sidebands
spread out either side. It is necessary for a receiver to be able to receive the whole signal to be able to
successfully demodulate the data. As a result when signals are transmitted close to one another they must be
spaced so that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard band between them. This
is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from each carrier overlap, they can still be received
without the interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved
by having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.

The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways:

 Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream

 The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.
 A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread and intersymbol interference.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Page 55 of 73
%code for OFDM signal transmission and reception
in AWGN channel

n = 256; % Number of bits to process

x = randint(n,1); % Random binary data stream
M = 16; % Size of signal constellation
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
xsym = bi2de(reshape(x,k,length(x)/k).‟,‟left-msb‟);
% Convert the bits in x into k-bit symbols.
y = modulate(modem.qammod(M),xsym); % Modulate using QAM
tu=3.2e-6;%useful symbol period
tg=0.8e-6;%guard interval length
ts=tu+tg;%total symbol duration
nmin=0;
nmax=64;%total number of subcarriers
scb=312.5e3;%sub carrier spacing
fc=3.6e9;%carrier frequency
Rs=fc;
tt=0: 6.2500e-008:ts-6.2500e-008;
c=ifft(y,nmax);%IFFT
s=real(c‟.*(exp(1j*2*pi*fc*tt)));%bandpass modulation
figure;
plot(real(s),‟b‟);
title(„OFDM signal transmitted‟);figure;
plot(10*log10(abs(fft(s,nmax))));title(„OFDM spectrum‟);
xlabel(„frequency‟)
ylabel(„power spectral density‟)
title(„Transmit spectrum OFDM‟);
snr=10;%signal to noise ratio
ynoisy = awgn(s,snr,‟measured‟);%awgn channel figure;
plot(real(ynoisy),‟b‟);title(„received OFDM signal with noise‟);
z=ynoisy.*exp(j*2*pi*fc*tt);%Bandpass demodulation
z=fft(z,nmax);%FFT
zsym=demodulate(modem.qamdemod(M),z);%demodulation of bandpass data.
z = de2bi(zsym,‟left-msb‟); %Convert integers to bits.
z = reshape(z.‟,prod(size(z)),1);%matrix to vector conversion
[noe,ber] = biterr(x,z) ;%BER calculation figure;
subplot(211);stem(x(1:256));
title(„Original Message‟);
subplot(212);stem(z(1:256));
title(„recovered Message‟);

Page 56 of 73
RESULT:
The simulation of OFDM Signal was verified.

Page 57 of 73
 EXP. NO: 9A VSWR MEASUREMENT
DATE:

AIM:

To determine the standing-wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube (2k25)
2. Klystron power supply (skps - 610)
3. VSWR meter (SW 115)
4. Klystron mount (XM – 251)
5. Isolator (XF 621)
6. Frequency meter (XF 710)
7. Variable attenuator (XA – 520)
8. Slotted line (X 565)
9. Wave guide stand (XU 535)
10. Movable short/termination XL 400
11. BNC CableS-S Tuner (XT – 441)

THEORY:
Any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along the length of the line.
The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR. Hence minimum value of S is unity. If S<10
then VSWR is called low VSWR. If S>10 then VSWR is called high VSWR. The VSWR values more than 10
are very easily measured with this setup. It can be read off directly on the VSWR meter calibrated. The
measurement involves simply adjusting the attenuator to give an adequate reading on the meter which is a D.C.
mill volt meter. The probe on the slotted wave guide is moved t get maximum reading on the meter. The
attenuation is now adjusted to get full scale reading. Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get
minimum, reading on the meter. The ratio of first reading to the second gives the VSWR. The meter itself can
be calibrated in terms of VSWR. Double minimum method is used to measure VSWR greater than 10. In this
method, the probe is inserted to a depth where the minimum can be read without difficulty. The probe is then
moved to a point where the power is twice the minimum.

Page 58 of 73
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up equipment as shown in figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range dB = 40db / 50db Input
switch = low impedance Meter
switch = Normal
Gain (coarse fine) = Mid position approximately
4. Keep control knobs of klystron power supply as below. Beam
Voltage = OFF
Mod-Switch = AM
Beam Voltage Knob = fully anti clock wise Reflection
voltage knob = fully clock wise
AM-Amplitude knob = around fully clock wise AM
frequency and amplitude knob = mid position
5. Switch „ON‟ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch „ON” the beam voltage switch position and set (down) beam voltage at 300V.
7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the O/P by turning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM modulation.
9. Tune plunges of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
10. If required, change the range db-switch variable attenuator position and (given) gain control knob to
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 get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
11. As your move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change.

A. Measurement of low and medium VSWR:

1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates 1.0 on
normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep all the control knob as it is move the probe to next minimum position. Read the VSWR on
scale.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S-S tuner probe depth and record the corresponding SWR.
5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range 0dB switch to next higher position and read
the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.

B. Measurement of High VSWR: (double minimum method)

1. Set the depth of S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain n a
reading of 3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10db) of VSWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db scale.
Note and record the probe position on slotted line. Let it be d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained on 0-10db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace S-S tuner and termination by movable short.
7. Measure distance between 2 successive minima positions of probe. Twice this distance is guide
wave length λg.
8. Compute SWR from following equation

OBSERVATION TABLE:
LOW VSWR
VSWR =

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HIGH VSWR

Beam
x1 x2 x1 x2 Avg (x1-x2) = x λg=2x
Voltage
(v) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

λg = 6cm

d1 d2 d1-d2
VSWR = λg / (d1-d2)
(cm) (cm) (cm)

RESULT: .

Thus the VSWR meter has been used to measure standing wave ratio.

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EXP. NO: 9B IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
DATE:

AIM
To measure an unknown impedance using the Reflex klystron.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube 2k25
2. Klystron power supply Skps-610
3. Klystron mount XM-251
4. Isolator XF 62
5. Frequency meter XF 710
6. Variable attenuator XA – 520
7. Slotted line XS 565
8. Tunable probe XP 655
9. VSWR meter
10. Wave guide stand SU 535
11. S-S tuner (XT 441)
12. Movable short/termination

THEORY
The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jx. For
comparison SWR can be calculated as
1 R
S where reflection coefficient „R
1 R

Given as

Z  Z0
R
Z  Z0

Zo = characteristics impedance of wave guide at operating frequency. Z is

the load impedance
The measurement is performed in the following way.

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 The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minima is
determined. The unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line. Two successive
minima portions are noted. The twice of the difference between minima position will be guide wave
length. One of the minima is used as reference for impedance measurement. Find the difference of
reference minima and minima position obtained from unknown load. Let it be „d‟. Take a smith chart,
taking „1‟ as centre, draw a circle of radius equal to S. Mark a point on circumference of smith chart
towards load side at a distance equal to d/λg.
Join the center with this point. Find the point where it cut the drawn circle. The co- ordinates of
this point will show the normalized impedance of load.
PROCEDURE:
1. Calculate a set of Vmin values for short or movable short as load.
2. Calculate a set of Vmin values for S-S Tuner + Matched termination as a load.
Note: Move more steps on S-S Tuner

3. From the above 2 steps calculate d = d1~d2

4. With the same setup as in step 2 but with few numbers of turns (2 or 3). Calculate low VSWR.
Note: High VSWR can also be calculated but it results in a complex procedure.
5. Draw a VSWR circle on a smith chart.
6. Draw a line from center of circle to impedance value (d/λg) from which calculate admittance and
Reactance (Z = R+jx)

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Load (short or movable short)

x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

x= λg =

Load (S.S. Tuner + Matched Termination)

S.S Tuner + Matched Termination Short or Movable Short

d1= , d2 =
d = d1 ~ d2 = Z =
d/λg =

RESULT

Thus the unknown impedance has been measured by using Reflex klystron.

Page 64 of 73
EXP.NO:10A DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS
DATE:

AIM:
To study the function of multi-hole directional coupler by measuring the following parameters.
1. The Coupling factor, Insertion Loss and Directivity of the Directional coupler
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave Source (Klystron or Gunn-Diode)
2. Isolator, Frequency Meter
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Slotted Line
5. Tunable Probe
6. Detector Mount Matched Termination
7. MHD Coupler
8. Waveguide Stand
9. Cables and Accessories
10. CRO.

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected
wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other Refer to the Fig.1. The power entering, in the main- arm gets
divided between port 2 and 3, and almost no power comes out in port (4) Power entering at port 2 is
divided between port 1 and 4.
The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling (db) = 10 log10 [P1/P3] where port 2 is terminated, Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [P2/P3] where P1
is matched.

With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a measure
of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave. Directivity is measured indirectly as
follows:
Hence Directivity D (db) = I-C = 10 log10 [P2/P1]
Main line VSWR is SWR measured, looking into the main-line input terminal when the matched
loads are placed at all other ports.
Auxiliary live VSWR is SWR measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output terminal when the
matched loads are placed on other terminals.

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Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of coupler, it
is defined as:
Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log10 [P1/P2]

BLOCKDIAGRAM:

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the Figure.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency .
3. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the slotted section.
4. Set maximum amplitude in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be X.
5. Insert the directional coupler between the slotted line and detector mount. Keeping port 1 to slotted
line, detector mount to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2 without changing the
position of variable attenuator.
6. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y.
7. Calculate the Coupling factor X-Y in dB.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector mount from the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination
from port 2 , without disturbing the setup.
9. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector mount to port 2 and measure
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 the amplitude on CRO, Let it be Z.
10. Compute Insertion Loss= X – Z in dB.
11. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
12. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e., port 2 to slotted section, matched
termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position of the variable
attenuator.
13. Measure and note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y0.
Compute the Directivity as Y-Y0 in dB.

RESULT:

Thus the Characteristics of Directional coupler were measured.

Page 67 of 73
EXP.NO:10B SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF CIRCULATOR
DATE:

AIM:
To study the Isolator and circulators and measure the Insertion Loss and Isolation of Circulator.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave Source (Klystron or Gunn-Diode)
2. Isolator, Frequency Meter
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Slotted Line
5. Tunable Probe
6. Detector Mount Matched Termination
7. Circulator
8. Waveguide Stand
9. Cables and Accessories
10. VSWR Meter.

CIRCULATOR:
Circulator is defined as device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to an
adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. This is depicted in figure circulator can have any
number of ports.

ISOLATOR:
An Isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation and
from output to input with very high attenuation.

Page 68 of 73
 The isolator, shown in Fig. can be derived from a three-port circulator by simply placing a matched load
(reflection less termination) on one port.
The important circulator and isolator parameters are:

A. Insertion Loss
Insertion Loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by source to the
input port, measured with other orts terminated in the matched Load. It is expressed in dB.
B. Isolation
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is expressed
in db. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a matched load.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Measurement of insertion
1. Remove the isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section. The output of the detector mount should be connected with CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation. Tune
the detector mount for maximum output in the CRO.
3. Set any reference level of output in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be V1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position of the set up.
Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port to slotted line
and detector its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third port in case of
Circulator.
5. Record the output in CRO, Let it be V2.
6. Compute Insertion loss given as V1-V2 in db.

Measurement of Isolation:
7. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e. output port
to slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched termination (for
circulator).
8. Record the output of CRO and let it be V3.
9. Compute Isolation as V1-V3 in db.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequency if needed.

RESULT:

Thus the Characteristics of Circulator and Isolator were measured.

Page 70 of 73
EXP.NO:11 GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
DATE:

AIM:

To measure the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Gunn power supply

2. Gunn oscillator
3. PIN Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency Meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted line
8. Detector mount and CRO.
THEORY:
Gunn diode oscillator normally consist of a resonant cavity, an arrangement for coupling diode to the
cavity a circuit for biasing the diode and a mechanism to couple the RF power from cavity to external
circuit load. A co-axial cavity or a rectangular wave guide cavity is commonly used.
The circuit using co-axial cavity has the Gunn diode at one end at one end of cavity along with the
central conductor of the co-axial line. The O/P is taken using a inductively or capacitive coupled probe. The
length of the cavity determines the frequency of oscillation. The location of the coupling loop or probe within
the resonator determines the load impedance presented to the Gunn diode. Heat sink conducts away the heat
due to power dissipation of the device.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Page 71 of 73
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Voltage-Current Characteristics:
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Figure.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below Meter
switch – “OFF”
Gunn bias knob – Fully anti clock wise PIN
bias knob – Fully anti clock wise PIN mode
frequency – any position
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
5. Switch “ON” the Gunn power supply.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current to corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage through the
digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
7. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
8. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponding to max current.

MODEL GRAPH

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OBSERVATION TABLE

Gunn bias voltage Gunn diode current

(v) (mA)

RESULT

Thus the V-I Characteristics of Gunn diode has been measured.

Page 73 of 73