EX.

NO: 1 MEASUREMENT OF CONNECTOR, BENDING AND FIBER ATTENUATION

LOSSES
AIM:
To measure the propagation loss, bending loss and fiber attenuation losses.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Quantity
1 Link – D Fiber Optic Communication Trainer Kit 1
2 Power Supply 1
3 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) 1, 4 meter
4 Patch Chords Required

THEORY:
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually selected
by taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of light. In case of
optical fiber, since the signal is transmitted in the form of light, which is completely different in nature
as that of electrons, one has to consider the interaction of matter with the radiation to study the losses in
fiber. Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of fiber to
another end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also part of the light is
reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the material
contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. In general terms it is known as
propagation loss. Plastic fibers have higher loss of the order of 18 dB/Km. whenever the condition for
the angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are introduced due to refraction of
light.
 This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss.
Another loss are due to the coupling of fiber at LED and photo detector ends.

PROCEDURE:
FOR PROPAGATION LOSS:
1. Make jumper connections as shown in jumper block diagram. Connect the power supply cables
with proper polarity to Link – D Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Connect the AMP O/P as a constant signal to the TX I/P using a patch cord.
3. You will measure the light output using the SIGNAL STRENGTH section of the kit. The loss will
be larger for a longer piece of fiber, so you will measure the loss of the long piece of fiber. In order
to measure the loss in the fiber you first need a reference of how much light goes in to the piece of
fiber from the LIGHT TRANSMITTER. You will use the short piece of fiber to measure this
reference.
4. Switch on the power supply. Connect the short piece of fiber to between the transmitter TX and the
receiver RX2 of the kit. Adjust the transmitter level until the signal strength reads 6. This will be
your reference value. Now connect the long piece of fiber instead of the short piece. What reading
do you get? Loss in optical fiber systems is usually measured in dBs. Loss of fiber itself is
measured in dBs per meter.
Subtract the length of the short fiber from the length of the long fiber to get the difference in the fiber
lengths (4m-1m).
FOR BENDING LOSS:
1. Make jumper connections as shown in jumper block diagram. Connect the power supply cables
with proper polarity to Link – D Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is
OFF.
2. Connect the AMP O/P as a constant signal to the TX I/P using a patch cord. You will measure
the light output using the SIGNAL STRENGTH section of the kit.
3. Switch ON the power supply. Connect the long piece of fiber to between the light transmitter TX
and the photo detector receiver RX2 so there are no sharp bends in the fiber between them.
OBSERVATION FOR PROPAGATION LOSS:

S.No Length of the Fiber Signal Strength/Optical Power (dBm)

1 1m
2 4m

FORMULA:

POWER = 10 log (P2/P1) dB

Where P2 : Reference reading by 1 meter fiber
P1 : Reading obtained after replacing the fiber.
Fiber loss (dB/m) = Power /Difference in fiber length
= (dB/m)

OBSERVATION FOR BENDING LOSS:

S.No: Bending Diameter in cm Signal Strength/Optical Power (dBm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

BEND Vs SIGNAL STRENGTH

4. Adjust the transmitter power so that the SIGNAL STRENGTH reading is 6. Now take the portion
of the fiber and loop it to match the bends as shown in a diagram. As you match each bends write
down the reading from SIGNAL STRENGTH indicator. What happens as bends the fibers? Don’t
bend the fiber too tightly or it may not come back to shape.
5. If you were designing the fiber optic communications system, you would need to known the
relationship between the size of the bend and the light loss from the bend.

RESULT:

Thus the fiber propagation, bending and attenuation losses was measured.
Experimental Setup Diagram for Numerical Aperture of a Fiber

Jumper Settings of the Fiber Optic Communication Trainer Kit

 EX.NO:2 (a) NUMERICAL APERTURE OF FIBER

AIM:
To measure the numerical aperture of the plastic fiber provided with kit using 660 nm
wavelength LED.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Quantity
1 Link – B Advance Fiber Optic Communication Trainer Kit 1
2 Power Supply 1
3 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) 1 meter
4 Numerical Aperture measurement Jig 1
5 Steel Ruler 1
6 Patch Chords Required

THEORY:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber end is
totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation
of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The light ray should strike
the fiber end within its cone of acceptance, else it is refracted out of the fiber core.
Consideration in Measurement:
1. It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the cable and the
distance from the launched point and the cable be properly selected to ensure that the maximum
amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
2. This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.
Observation:

d (mm) MR(mm) PN(mm) r(mm) NA

Where θ max is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted through
the fiber.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as shown in figure. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Link
– B Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep Intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position.
3. Keep Bias control pot P1 fully clockwise position.
4. Switch ON the power supply.
5. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH 756V (660) nm. Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the 1 Meter Fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
6. Insert the other end of the Fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig. Adjust the fiber such
that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the Fiber.
7. Keep the distance of about 5mm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently tighten the screw
and thus fix the fiber in the place.
8. Increase the intensity pot P2 to get bright red light circular patch.
9. Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.
10. Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters MR and PN as
indicated in the Figure.
11. Mean radius is calculated using the following formula r = (MR + PN) / 4
12. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula

NA = sin θ max =
RESULT :
Thus the Numerical aperture of the plastic fiber provided with kit using 660 nm wavelength
LED was measured.
Lower Order Linearly Polarised Modes of Optical Fiber

Irradiance Pattern of Some Lower Order Linearly Polarized Mode

 EX.NO: 2 (b) MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER

AIM:
To observe the mode characteristics of fiber.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Specification Quantity
1 Laser source (633nm-1mW) 2mW 1
2 Source to Fiber Coupler 1
3 Single Mode Fiber SMF 9/125µm 1 meter
4 Fiber Holding Stand 1
5 Opaque Screen 1
6 Multimode Fiber 62.5/125µm 1meter

THEORY:
The central spot carries 95% of the intensity for laser beams with Gaussian profile. I=I0e-z(r/w) 2
Where e=2.718 beam of natural algorithm accepted definition of a radius of a Gaussian beam is the
distance at which beam intensity has dropped to /e2=0.135 times its peak value I0. This radius called
spot size. The spot diameter is W. Spot diameter (d) micron=focal length of the Lanes (f) mm X Laser
Beam full divergence angle (DA) mrad.
In order to achieve maximum coupling efficiency, the fiber core diameter has to be bigger than
the spot diameter.

NArays Laser Beam Diameter

 (B.D) 2 X Lens
FocalLength (f)

If NArays ≤ NAfiber and spot diameter (w) ≤ fiber core diameter (d), then all of the laser light will
be coupled into the fiber. 90% coupling efficiency into the single mode fiber from the Ne-Ne lasers is
achievable. For beginners, coupling efficiency of 50% is considered to be a good result.
OBSERVATION:
Single mode Fiber:

a = 4.5µm (core radius)

NA = 0.11
2    4.5 106  0.11
V
633 109
V = 4.91
From figure only 4 LP modes propagate.
Total number of modes = V2/2
No. of modes = 12
Multimode Fiber:
a = 31.25µm (core radius)
NA = 0.11
2 31.25106 0.11
V
633109
V = 34.12
Total number of modes = V2/2 = (34.12)2/2
No. of modes = 582.11
When V-number is less than 2.405, then only a single mode may propagate in the fiber wave-guide.
This mode is HE11 mode or LP01 – Linearly Polarized mode. When V-number>2.405, other
modes may propagate in the fiber. The first LP mode, which comes in at V=2.405, is the LP 11 mode, the
next lowest mode in the weakly guiding approximation.
When V is slightly greater than 2.405 i.e. V=4.91 then 4 Linearly Polarized modes will
propagate through fiber.
LP02: Degenerated twice: 2 modes, LP11: 4 times degenerated: 4 modes
LP02: Degenerated twice: 2 modes, LP21: 4 times degenerated: 4 modes
Total 12 modes can propagate through fiber. This number is identical to that given by formula:
Ma=V2/2=12. The electromagnetic field distributions of these modes are as shown figure. We have a
fiber with the proper V-number; varying the position and angle at which a tightly focused beam of the
proper wavelengths is projected onto the fiber core can selectively launch these modes.
Operation Principle of Laser to Fiber Source Coupler
The source coupler is comprised of two base plates. One of the base plates contains a focusing
lens and a female connector receptacle. The other base plate is attached onto the laser. An O-ring is
sandwiched between the base plates. Threaded screws interconnect the two base plats. A screwdriver to
alter the angular orientation of one base plate relative to the other can then adjust the screws.
For small tilt angles, the resolution of the coupler Δz is determined by Δz–fΔx /L. where Δx is
the resolution of the screws and L is the lever arm. For 80TPI (threads per inch) screws, a lens with
1mm focal length, and 20mm lever arm Δz = 1mm 2 micron/20mm = 0.1micron.
The number of modes propagating through the fiber depends on V-number. If the fiber whose
V- number is less than 2.405, it allows to propagate single mode through it, so it is called as Single
Mode Fiber. This time you will start with a fiber, which has V-number slightly greater than 2.405. Such
a fiber is Multimode fiber, but the number of allowed modes is small enough so that they may be
individually identified when the output of the fiber is examined.
PROCEDURE:
1. Keep Optical Bread board onto original and flat table surface, so that is will not toggle.
2. Fix the pre-fitted cylindrical head of the He-Ne laser source on to the surface of the
breadboard from the bottom side with the help of Allen screws provided with it. Confirm the
rigid ness of the mount.
3. Fix the laser to the fiber coupler mount on to the breadboard with the base plate orientation
of it towards He-Ne laser exit.
4. Turn on the He-Ne laser and locate the beam spot on to the central portion of the laser-fiber
coupling lens assembly by adjusting the vertical and horizontal travel arrangement provided
with the mount. Tighten the screws of the vertical and horizontal slots.
5. Now look for the back reflection of the He-Ne spot from the rod lens of the coupler.
Irradiance Pattern of Some Lower Order Linearly Polarized Mode
1. Cylindrical laser head of the laser, adjust the back-reflected spot going back in exit hole by
slowly moving the four screws provided for the laser mount.
2. Confirm the central alignment of the laser beam at the exit of the laser fiber coupler by
putting a white card sheet and zooming the spot on to it. In case the spot is found off-center,
adjust it to the center by slightly moving the screws of the laser mount.
 3. Put the multimode optical patch cord on to the laser-fiber coupler exit and fix the other end
of the fiber in the fiber holding stand by moving the grub screws provided with the holder.
4. You will see the bright laser-beam spot coming out of the fiber. Adjust the height of exit tip
of the fiber to about 50mm. Min. from the white sheet of the paper.
5. Now you will see a bright round shape circular spot with laser speckle pattern on to the
screen. If multimode pattern can be refined screws provided with laser-fiber coupler.
Slightly adjusting or moving the screws on the laser mount can also view the change in
pattern of this multimode spot.

RESULT:
Thus the mode characteristics of fiber was observed.
Block Diagram:

Jumper Setting Diagrams:

 EX.NO: 3 DC CHARACTERISTICS OF LED & PIN PHOTO DIODE

AIM:
To obtain the characteristics of fiber optic LED and plot the graph of forward current Vs output
optical energy, also study the photo detector response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Range Quantity
1 Link – B Fiber Optic - 1
Communication Trainer Kit
2 Power Supply - 1
3 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) - 1 meter
4 Voltmeter (0-5)V, (0-10)V Each 1
5 Ammeter (0-50)mA 1
6 Connecting Wires, Patch Chords - Required

THEORY:
In Optical Fiber communication system, Electrical signal is first converted into optical signal
with the help of E/O conversion device as LED. After this optical signal is transmitted through Optical
fiber, it is retrieved in its orginial electrical form with the help O/E conversion device as photo detector.
Different technologies employed in chip fabrication lead to significant variation in parameters for the
various emitter diodes. All the emitters distinguish themselves in offering high output power coupled
into the important peak wavelength of emission, conversion efficiency usually specified in terms of
power launched in optical fiber peak wavelength of emission, optical raise and fall times which put the
limitation on operating frequency, maximum forward current through LED and typical forward voltage
across LED.
Model Graph:
I Vs V Characteristics of SFH 756 V

Characteristics of Optical Power of Led Vs If:

 Photo detectors usually comes in variety of forms photoconductive, photovoltaic, transistor type
output and diode type output. Here also characteristics to be taken into account are response time of the
detector which puts the limitation on the operating frequency, wavelength sensitivity and responsivity.

PROCEDURE:
1. Confirm that the power switch is on OFF position.
2. Make the jumper settings as shown in the jumper diagram.
3. Insert the jumper connecting wires (provided along with the kit) in jumper JP17 and JP16 at
positions shown in figure.
4. Connect the ammeter and volt-meter with the jumper wires connected to JP17 and JP16 as
shown in figure.
5. Keep the potentiometer Pr10 in its maximum position (anti-clockwise rotation) and Pr9 in its
minimum position (clockwise rotation). Pr10 is used to control current flowing through the
LED and Pr9 is used to vary the amplitude of the received signal at phototransistor.
6. To get the VI characteristics of LED, rotate Pr10 slowly and measure forward current and
corresponding forward voltage. Take number of such readings for various current values and
plot VI characteristics graph for the LED.
7. For each reading taken above, find out the power which is product of I and V. This is the
electrical power supplied to the LED.
8. With this efficiency assumed, find out optical power coupled into plastic Optical Fiber for each
of the reading in step7. Plot the graph of forward current vs. output optical power of the LED.
9. In our experimental kit, when Pr9 is at its minimum position, 100 ohms of resistance is in series
of emitter and ground of phototransistor.
10. Connect the 1m optical Fiber Cable supplied with the kit between LED SFH 756V (660nm) and
phototransistor SFH 350V (Analog Detector).
OBSERVATION:
Characteristics of Led:

Optical power Of Optical power Of

LED voltage Vd LED Current
LED LED
(V) Id (mA)
Pd(dBm) Pd(mW)

To Convert dBm to mW

Characteristics of Detector: R= 100 Ω

Optical power Of
LED Current Detector voltage Detector Current
LED
Id(mA) Vp(V) Ip(mA)
Pd(mW)
 11. From the transfer characteristics obtained in step 8, launched known optical energy into plastic
fiber and measure output voltage at ANALOG OUTPUT TERMINAL. Find out the current
flowing through phototransistor with this voltage value and 100 ohms of resistance.
12. Repeat step11 for various launched Optical energy values and plot the graph for the responsivity
of phototransistor. Find out the portion where detector response is linear.

RESULT :
Thus the characteristics of fiber optic LED was observed and the graph was plotted for the
forward current Vs output optical energy, also studied the photo detector response.
 EX.NO: 4 (a) FIBER OPTIC ANALOG AND DIGITAL
LINK CHARACTERISTICS - FREQUENCY RESPONSE
(ANALOG)
AIM:
To obtain the frequency response of a transmitted signal by using optical fiber in an analog and
digital fiber optic link.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Quantity
1 Link – A Fiber Optic Trainer Kit 1
2 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) 1 meter
3 Power Supply 1
4 20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope 1
5 Probe, Patch Chords Required

THEORY:
ANALOG LINK: Fiber Optic Links can be used for transmission for digital as well as analog
signals. Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber & a
receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form & then transforms it into
optical (light) energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which
carries this energy to the receiver. At the receiver, light is converted back into electrical form with
the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.
TRANSMITTER:
Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver & optical source. The buffer
electronics provides both an electrical connection & isolation between the transmitter & the
electrical system supplying the data. The driver electronics provides electrical power to the optical
source in a fashion that duplicates the pattern of data being
 fed to the transmitter. Finally the optical source (LED) converts the electrical current to light energy
with the same pattern. The LED SFH 756V supplied with the kit operates inside the visible light
spectrum. It’s optical output is centered at near visible wavelength of 660 nm. The emission
spectrum is broad, so a dark red glow can usually be seen when the LED is on. The LED SFH 450V
supplied wit the kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. It’s optical output is centered at near
infrared wavelength of 950 nm.
RECEIVER:
The function is to convert the optical energy into electrical form which is then conditioned to
reproduce the transmitted electrical signal in its original form. The detector SFH250V used in the
kit has a diode type output. The parameters usually considered in the case of detector are it’s
responsivity at peak wavelength & response time. SFH250V has responsivity of about 4µA per
10µW of incident optical energy at 950 nm and it has rise & fall time of 0.01µsec. PIN photodiode
is normally reverse biased. When optical signal falls on the diode, reverse current start to flow, thus
diode acts as closed switch and in the absence of light intensity, it acts as an open switch. Since PIN
diode usually has low responsivity, a trans impedance amplifier is used to convert this reverse
current into voltage. This voltage is then amplified with the help of another amplifier circuit. This
voltage is the duplication of the transmitted electrical signal.
DIGITAL LINK
In the experiment no. 1, we have seen how analog signal can be transmitted and received using
LED, fiber and detector. The same LED, fiber and detector can be configured for the digital
applications to transmit binary data over fiber. Thus basic elements of the link remains same even for
digital applications.
TRANSMITTER:
LED digital, DC coupled transmitters are one of the most popular variety due to their case of
fabrication. Standard TTL gate is used to drive a NPN transistor, which modulates the LED SFH450V
OR SFH756V source (Turns it ON and OFF).
RECEIVER:
There are various methods of configure detectors to extract digital data.
Usually detectors are of linear nature. Photo detector SFH551V has TTL type output. Usually it
consist of PIN photo diode, trans impedance amplifier and level shifter.
Model Graph:

Fiber Optic Communication - Analog Link:

Fiber Optic Communication – Digital Link:

PROCEDURE:
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION - ANALOG LINK:
1. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the
fiber is properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back. Keep INTENSITY pot P3 at
minimum position i.e. fully anticlockwise.
2. Make the connections and Jumper settings as shown in Figure. Connect the power supply cables
with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Select the frequency range of Function Generator with the help of Range Selection Switch
SW1, frequency can be varied with Pot P2. Adjust the voltage LEVEL of the Sine Wave with
Pot P1 as per following setting FREQUENCY:1 KHz, LEVEL:2Vp-p.
5. Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to IN post of Analog Buffer Section.
6. Connect OUT post of the Analog Buffer Section to TX IN post of Analog Buffer Section.
7. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V (RX 1) in kit very carefully as per the
instructions in step 1.
8. Check the output signal of the Analog Buffer at its OUT post in Kit. It should be same as that
of the applied input signal.
9. Observe the output signal from the detector at ANALOG OUT post on CRO by adjusting
INTENSITY (Optical Power Control) Pot P3 in kit and you should get the reproduction of the
original transmitted signal.
Observation:

ANALOG LINK:

Amplitude Time
Mode
(volts) (seconds)

Input

Output

DIGITAL LINK:

Amplitude Time
Mode
(volts) (seconds)

Input

Output
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION – DIGITAL LINK:
1. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the
fiber is properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back.
2. Make the connections and Jumper settings as shown in Figure. Connect the power supply cables
with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF. Now
Switch on the power supply
3. Feed the Onboard Square (TTL) signal of about 1 KHz to IN post of Digital Buffer Section and
observe the signal at OUT post. It should be same as that of the input signal.
4. Connect OUT post of the Digital Buffer section to TX IN post of TRANSMITTER.
5. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 551V RX 2 (Digital Detector) in kit very
carefully as per the instructions in step 1.
6. Observe the output signal from the detector at TTL OUT post on CRO. The Transmitted signal
and received signal are same. Vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the output
response.

RESULT:
Thus the frequency response was obtained for the transmitted signal by using optical fiber in an
analog and digital fiber optic link.
 EX.NO: 4 (b) EYE DIAGRAM

AIM:
To analyse the eye diagram using fiber optic link.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Quantity
1 Link – B Advance Fiber Optic Communication Trainer 1
Kit
2 Power Supply 1
3 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) 1 meter
4 20 MHz Dual channel Oscilloscope 1
5 Probes, Patch Chords Required

THEORY:
The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful measurement method for assessing the data-
handling ability of a digital transmission system. This method has been used extensively for evaluating
the performance of wire systems and can also be applied to optical fiber data links. The eye-pattern
measurements are made in the time domain and allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown
immediately on an oscilloscope.
To measure system performance with the eye-pattern method, a variety of word patterns should
be provided. A convenient approach is to generate a random data signal, because this is the
characteristic of data streams found in practice. This type of signal generates ones and zeros at a
uniform rate but in a random manner. A variety of pseudorandom pattern generators are available for
this purpose. A pseudorandom bit sequence comprises four different 2-bit-long combinations, eight
different 3-bit-long combinations, sixteen different 4-bit-long combinations, and so on (that is,
MODEL GRAPH:
Eye Pattern

Interpretation of Eye Pattern

sequences of different N-bit-long combinations) up to a limit set by the instrument. After this limit has
been generated, the data sequence will repeat.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as shown in figure. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Link
– B Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep switch SW7 as shown in figure to generate PRBS signal.
3. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.
4. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
5. Keep the switch SW10 to EYE PATTERN position.
6. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position.
7. Keep Jumper JP5 towards +5V position.
8. Keep Jumper JP6 shorted.
9. Keep Jumper JP8 towards TTL position.
10. Switch ON the power supply.
11. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS Generator to the IN post of digital buffer.
12. Connect OUT post of digital buffer to TX IN post.
13. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH 756V (660) nm. Do not remove the cap from the connector. Once
the cap is loosened, insert the one Meter Fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
14. Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 Photo Transistor with TTL logic output SFH 551V. Do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into the
cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
15. Connect CLK OUT of PRBS Generator to EXT.TRG. Of Oscilloscope.
16. Connect detected signal TTL OUT to vertical channel Y input of oscilloscope. Then observe EYE
PATTERN by selecting EXT.TRG. KNOB on oscilloscope as shown in figure. Observe the Eye
Pattern for different clock frequencies. As clock frequency increases the EYE opening becomes
smaller.
OBSERVATION:

PRBS Generator Sampling period of

Noise Margin (V)
Frequency received Signal (sec)

32 KHz

64 KHz

128 KHz
RESULT :
Thus the Eye Pattern was analyzed using Fiber optic Link.
 EX.NO.4 (c) BIT ERROR RATE

AIM:
To measure the bit error rate of a fiber.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipments Quantity
Link – B Advance Fiber Optic Communication
1 1
Trainer Kit
2 Power Supply 1
3 Fiber Optic Cable (Plastic) 1 meter
4 20 MHz Dual channel Oscilloscope 1
5 Probes, Patch Chords Required

THEORY:
BIT ERROR RATE:
In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is a Ratio of bits that have errors
relative to the total number of bits received in a transmission. The BER is an indication of how often a
packet of other data unit has to be retransmitted because of an error. Too high a BER may indicate that
a slower data rate would actually improve overall transmission time for a given amount of transmitted
data since the BER might be reduced, lowering the number of packets that had to be resent.
Measuring Bit Error Rate:
A BERT (bit error rate tester) is a procedure or device that measures the BER for a given
transmission. The BER, or quality of the digital link, is calculated from the number of bits received in
error divided by the number of bits transmitted.
BER = (Bits in error) / (Total bits transmitted)
Observation:
Tb = 320Kbits

S.No: Error Counter Eb BER

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

BER = Eb/Tb
Where Eb – Errored bits
Tb – Total bits Transmitted in a period of time t seconds.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as shown in figure. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Link
– B Kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep PRBS switch SW7 as shown in figure to generate PRBS signal.
3. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.
4. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
5. Keep the switch SW10 at fiber optic receiver output to TTL position.
6. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position.
7. Keep Jumper JP5 towards +5V position.
8. Keep Jumper JP6 shorted.
9. Keep Jumper JP8 towards Pulse position.
10. Switch ON the power supply.
11. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS Generator to the IN post of digital buffer.
12. Connect OUT post of digital buffer to TX IN post.
13. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH 756V (660) nm. Do not remove the cap from the connector. Once
the cap is loosened, insert the one Meter Fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
14. Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 Photo Transistor with TTL logic output SFH 551V. Do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into the
cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
15. Connect detected signal TTL OUT to Bit Error Rate event counter DATA IN post & post IN of
Noise Source.
16. Connect post OUT of Noise Source to post RXDATA IN of Bit Error Rate event counter.
17. Connect post CLK OUT of PRBS Generator to post CLK IN of Bit Error Rate event counter.
18. Press Switch SW 11 to start counter.
19. Vary pot P3 for Noise Level to observe effect of noise level on the error count.
20. Observe the Error Count LED’s for the error count in received signal in time 10 seconds as
shown in figure.
RESULT:
Thus the Bit error rate was measured for a fiber.
Block Diagram:

Simulation Outputs:

Impulse Response Frequency Response

EX.NO: 1 WIRELESS CHANNEL SIMULATION INCLUDING FADING AND DOPPLER
EFFECTS

AIM:
To simulate the wireless channel including Rayleigh and Rician multipath fading channel
system objects and Doppler shifts.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
 Personal computer
 MATLAB software

THEORY:
Fading:
Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases or multipath
delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance, so that large-scale path
loss effects may be ignored. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of
the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves called
multipath waves, combine at the receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary
widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the distribution of the intensity and relative
propagation time of the waves and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
The three most important effects are
 Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
Doppler Spectrum Impulse Response

Frequency Response Impulse Response

Frequency Response Multipath Gain

  Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals.
 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays.

Doppler Effects:

Due to the relative motion between the mobile and base station each multipath wave
experiences an apparent shift in frequency. The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is
called Doppler Effect, and it is directly proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the
mobile with respect to the direction of arrival of the received multipath wave.

PROCEDURE:
Processing a signal using a fading channel involves the following steps:
1. Create a channel System object that describes the channel that you want to use. A channel
object is a type of MATLAB variable that contains information about the channel, such as the
maximum Doppler shift.
2. Adjust properties of the System object, if necessary, to tailor it to your needs. For example, you
can change the path delays or average path gains.
3. Apply the channel System object to your signal using the step method, which generates random
discrete path gains and filters the input signal. The characteristics of a channel can be shown with
the built-in visualization support of the System object.

PROGRAM:
sampleRate500kHz = 500e3; % Sample rate of 500K Hz
sampleRate20kHz = 20e3; % Sample rate of 20K Hz
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Maximum Doppler shift of diffuse components
(Hz) delayVector = (0:5:15)*1e-6; % Discrete delays of four-path channel (s)
gainVector = [0 -3 -6 -9]; % Average path gains (dB)

KFactor = 10; % Linear ratio of specular power to diffuse

power specDopplerShift = 100; % Doppler shift of specular
component (Hz)

% Configure a Rayleigh channel object

rayChan = comm.RayleighChannel( ...
'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift, ...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed',
... 'Seed', 10, ...
'PathGainsOutputPort', true);

% Configure a Rician channel object

ricChan = comm.RicianChannel( ...
'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'KFactor', KFactor, ...
'DirectPathDopplerShift', specDopplerShift, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift, ...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed',
... 'Seed', 100, ...
'PathGainsOutputPort', true);
qpskMod = comm.QPSKModulator(
...
'BitInput', true, ...
'PhaseOffset', pi/4);

% Number of bits transmitted per frame is set to be 1000. For QPSK

% modulation, this corresponds to 500 symbols per frame.
bitsPerFrame = 1000;
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);

% Modulate data for transmission over channel

modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
% Apply Rayleigh or Rician channel object on the modulated data
rayChan(modSignal);
ricChan(modSignal);

release(rayChan);
release(ricChan);

rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';

rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '100%';

numFrames = 2;

for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames

% Create random data
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
% Modulate data
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
% Filter data through channel and show channel responses
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Doppler spectrum';
numFrames = 5000;

for i = 1:numFrames % Display Doppler spectrum from 5000 frame transmission

msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end
Narrowband or Frequency-Flat Fading
release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';
rayChan.SampleRate = sampleRate20kHz;
rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '25%'; % Display one of every four samples

numFrames = 2;

for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames

msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);
rayChan.PathDelays = 0; % Single fading path with zero
delay rayChan.AveragePathGains = 0; % Average path gain of 1
(0 dB)

for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames

msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization
ricChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization

% Same sample rate and delay profile for the Rayleigh and Rician
objects ricChan.SampleRate = rayChan.SampleRate;
ricChan.PathDelays = rayChan.PathDelays;
ricChan.AveragePathGains = rayChan.AveragePathGains;
% Configure a Time Scope System object to show path gain magnitude
gainScope = dsp.TimeScope( ...
'SampleRate', rayChan.SampleRate, ...
'TimeSpan', bitsPerFrame/2/rayChan.SampleRate, ... % One frame
span 'Name', 'Multipath Gain', ...
'ShowGrid', true, ...
'YLimits', [-40 10],
...
'YLabel', 'Gain (dB)');

% Compare the path gain outputs from both objects for one frame
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
[~, rayPathGain] = rayChan(modSignal);
[~, ricPathGain] = ricChan(modSignal);
% Form the path gains as a two-channel input to the time scope
gainScope(10*log10(abs([rayPathGain, ricPathGain]).^2));

RESULT:
Thus the wireless channel including Rayleigh and Rician multipath fading channel system
objects and Doppler shifts were simulated and the graphs are noted.
Block Diagram:
 EX.NO: 2 SIMULATION OF CHANNEL ESTIMATION, SYNCHRONIZATION
AND EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES
AIM:
To Simulate the Channel Estimation, Synchronization & Equalization techniques using
MATLAB.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
 Personal computer
 MATLAB
THEORY:
Channel Estimation:
In digital wireless communication systems, information is transmitted through a radio channel.
For conventional, coherent receivers, the effect of the channel on the transmitted signal must be
estimated to recover the transmitted information. For example, with binary phase shift keying (BPSK),
binary information is represented as +1 and −1 symbol values. The radio channel can apply a phase
shift to the transmitted symbols, possibly inverting the symbol values. As long as the receiver can
estimate what the channel did to the transmitted signal, it can accurately recover the information sent.
Channel estimation is a challenging problem in wireless communications. Transmitted signals are
typically reflected and scattered, arriving at the receiver along multiple paths. When these paths have
similar delays, they add either constructively or destructively, giving rise to fading. When these paths
have very different delays, they appear as signal echoes. Due to the mobility of the transmitter, the
receiver, or the scattering objects, the channel changes over time.
Program:
enb.NDLRB = 15; % Number of resource
blocks enb.CellRefP = 1; % One transmit antenna port
enb.NCellID = 10; % Cell ID
enb.CyclicPrefix = 'Normal'; % Normal cyclic
prefix enb.DuplexMode = 'FDD'; % FDD
SNRdB = 22; % Desired SNR in
dB SNR = 10^(SNRdB/20); % Linear
SNR
rng('default'); % Configure random number generators

cfg.Seed = 1; % Channel seed

cfg.NRxAnts = 1; % 1 receive antenna
cfg.DelayProfile = 'EVA'; % EVA delay
spread
cfg.DopplerFreq = 120; % 120Hz Doppler frequency
cfg.MIMOCorrelation = 'Low'; % Low (no) MIMO correlation
cfg.InitTime = 0; % Initialize at time zero
cfg.NTerms = 16; % Oscillators used in fading model
cfg.ModelType = 'GMEDS'; % Rayleigh fading model type
cfg.InitPhase = 'Random'; % Random initial phases
cfg.NormalizePathGains = 'On'; % Normalize delay profile power
cfg.NormalizeTxAnts = 'On'; % Normalize for transmit
antennas

cec.PilotAverage = 'UserDefined'; % Pilot averaging method

cec.FreqWindow = 9; % Frequency averaging window in
REs cec.TimeWindow = 9; % Time averaging window in REs

gridsize = lteDLResourceGridSize(enb);
K = gridsize(1); % Number of subcarriers
L = gridsize(2); % Number of OFDM symbols in one
subframe P = gridsize(3); % Number of transmit antenna
ports
txGrid = [];

% Number of bits needed is size of resource grid (K*L*P) * number of bits

% per symbol (2 for QPSK)
numberOfBits = K*L*P*2;

% Create random bit stream

inputBits = randi([0 1], numberOfBits, 1);

% Modulate input bits

inputSym = lteSymbolModulate(inputBits,'QPSK');

% For all subframes within the frame

for sf = 0:10

% Set subframe number

enb.NSubframe = mod(sf,10);

% Generate empty subframe

subframe = lteDLResourceGrid(enb);

% Map input symbols to grid

subframe(:) = inputSym;

% Generate synchronizing signals

pssSym = ltePSS(enb);
sssSym = lteSSS(enb);
pssInd = ltePSSIndices(enb);
sssInd = lteSSSIndices(enb);
 % Map synchronizing signals to the grid
subframe(pssInd) = pssSym;
subframe(sssInd) = sssSym;

% Generate cell specific reference signal symbols and

indices cellRsSym = lteCellRS(enb);
cellRsInd = lteCellRSIndices(enb);
% Map cell specific reference signal to
grid subframe(cellRsInd) = cellRsSym;

% Append subframe to grid to be transmitted

txGrid = [txGrid subframe]; %#ok

end

[txWaveform,info] = lteOFDMModulate(enb,txGrid);
txGrid = txGrid(:,1:140);

cfg.SamplingRate = info.SamplingRate;

% Pass data through the fading channel model

rxWaveform = lteFadingChannel(cfg,txWaveform);

% Calculate noise gain

N0 = 1/(sqrt(2.0*enb.CellRefP*double(info.Nfft))*SNR);

% Create additive white Gaussian noise

noise = N0*complex(randn(size(rxWaveform)),randn(size(rxWaveform)));

% Add noise to the received time domain waveform

rxWaveform = rxWaveform + noise;
offset = lteDLFrameOffset(enb,rxWaveform);
rxWaveform = rxWaveform(1+offset:end,:);

rxGrid = lteOFDMDemodulate(enb,rxWaveform);

enb.NSubframe = 0;
[estChannel, noiseEst] = lteDLChannelEstimate(enb,cec,rxGrid);
eqGrid = lteEqualizeMMSE(rxGrid, estChannel, noiseEst);
% Calculate error between transmitted and equalized
grid eqError = txGrid - eqGrid;
rxError = txGrid - rxGrid;

% Compute EVM across all input values

% EVM of pre-equalized receive signal
EVM = comm.EVM;
EVM.AveragingDimensions = [1 2];
preEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,rxGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Pre-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
preEqualisedEVM);
% EVM of post-equalized receive signal
postEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,eqGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Post-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
postEqualisedEVM);
% Plot the received and equalized resource grids
hDownlinkEstimationEqualizationResults(rxGrid, eqGrid);
Synchronization:
Synchronization is the process by which a receiver node determines the correct instants of time
at which to sample the incoming signal. Carrier synchronization is the process by which a receiver
adapts the frequency and phase of its local carrier oscillator with those of the received signal.
Equalization:
Equalization is the reversal of distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through a
channel. Equalizers are used to render the frequency response—for instance of a telephone line— flat
from end-to-end. When a channel has been equalized the frequency domain attributes of the signal at
the input are faithfully reproduced at the output. Telephones, DSL lines and television cables use
equalizers to prepare data signals for transmission.
Equalizers are critical to the successful operation of electronic systems such as analog broadcast
television. In this application the actual waveform of the transmitted signal must be preserved, not just
its frequency content. Equalizing filters must cancel out any group delay and phase delay between
different frequency components.
PROCEDURE:
The example generates a frame worth of data on one antenna port. As no transport channel is
created in this example the data is random bits, QPSK modulated and mapped to every symbol in a
subframe. A cell specific reference signal and primary and secondary synchronization signals are
created and mapped to the subframe. 10 subframes are individually generated to create a frame. The
frame is OFDM modulated, passed through an Extended Vehicular A Model (EVA5) fading channel,
additive white Gaussian noise added and demodulated. MMSE equalization using channel and noise
estimation is applied and finally the received and equalized resource grids are plotted.

Result:
Thus the Simulation of Channel Estimation, Synchronization & Equalization techniques was
done using MATLAB and the output was verified.
Block Diagram:
 EX:NO: 3 ANALYSING IMPACT OF PULSE SHAPING AND MATCHED FILTERING
USING SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIOS

AIM:
To analyse the impact of pulse shaping and matched filtering by using SDR.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
 Personal computer
 MATLAB software
 SDR hardware

THEORY:
Pulse shaping:
Pulse shaping is the process of changing the waveform of transmitted pulses. Its purpose is to
make the transmitted signal better suited to its purpose or the communication channel, typically by
limiting the effective bandwidth of the transmission. By filtering the transmitted pulses this way, the
intersymbol interference caused by the channel can be kept in control. In RF communication, pulse
shaping is essential for making the signal fit in its frequency band.
Typically pulse shaping occurs after line coding and modulation.
Examples of pulse shaping filters that are commonly found in communication systems are:
 Sinc shaped filter
 Raised-cosine filter
 Gaussian filter
PROGRAM:
M = 16; % Modulation order
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
numBits = 3e5; % Number of bits to process
sps = 4; % Number of samples per symbol (oversampling factor)
filtlen = 10; % Filter length in symbols
rolloff = 0.25; % Filter rolloff factor
rrcFilter = rcosdesign(rolloff,filtlen,sps);
fvtool(rrcFilter,'Analysis','Impulse')
rng default; % Use default random number generator
dataIn = randi([0 1],numBits,1); % Generate vector of binary data
dataInMatrix = reshape(dataIn,length(dataIn)/k,k); % Reshape data into binary 4-tuples
dataSymbolsIn = bi2de(dataInMatrix); % Convert to integers
dataMod = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M);
txFiltSignal = upfirdn(dataMod,rrcFilter,sps,1);
EbNo = 10;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
dataSymbolsOut = qamdemod(rxFiltSignal,M);
dataOutMatrix = de2bi(dataSymbolsOut,k);
dataOut = dataOutMatrix(:); % Return data in column vector
[numErrors,ber] = biterr(dataIn,dataOut);
fprintf('\nFor an EbNo setting of %3.1f dB, the bit error rate is %5.2e, based on %d errors.\n', ...
EbNo,ber,numErrors)

Visualize Filter Effects

EbNo = 20;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay

eyediagram(txFiltSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxFiltSignal(1:2000),2);

scatplot = scatterplot(sqrt(sps)*...
rxSignal(1:sps*5e3),...
sps,0,'g.');
hold on;
scatterplot(rxFiltSignal(1:5e3),1,0,'kx',scatplot);
title('Received Signal, Before and After Filtering');
legend('Before Filtering','After Filtering');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]); % Set axis
ranges hold off;

Matched Filter:
A matched filter is obtained by correlating a known delayed signal, or template, with an
unknown signal to detect the presence of the template in the unknown signal. This is equivalent to
convolving the unknown signal with a conjugated time-reversed version of the template. The matched
filter is the optimal linear filter for maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of
additive stochastic noise.
Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent out, and the
reflected signal is examined for common elements of the out-going signal. Pulse compression is an
example of matched filtering. It is so called because impulse response is matched to input pulse signals.
Two- dimensional matched filters are commonly used in image processing, e.g., to improve SNR for X-
ray. Matched filtering is a demodulation technique with LTI (linear time invariant) filters to maximize
SNR. It was originally also known as a North filter.
Software Defined Radio:
Software-defined radio (SDR) is a radio communication system where components that have
been traditionally implemented in hardware
(e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are instead implemented by
means of software on a personal computer or embedded system. While the concept of SDR is not new,
the rapidly evolving capabilities of digital electronics render practical many processes which were once
only theoretically possible.
A basic SDR system may consist of a personal computer equipped with a sound card, or other
analog-to-digital converter, preceded by some form of RF front end. Significant amounts of signal
processing are handed over to the general-purpose processor, rather than being done in special-purpose
hardware (electronic circuits). Such a design produces a radio which can receive and transmit widely
different radio protocols (sometimes referred to as waveforms) based solely on the software used.
Software radios have significant utility for the military and cell phone services, both of which must
serve a wide variety of changing radio protocols in real time.
In the long term, software-defined radios are expected by proponents like the SDR Forum (now
The Wireless Innovation Forum) to become the dominant technology in radio communications. SDRs,
along with software defined antennas are the enablers of the cognitive radio.
A software-defined radio can be flexible enough to avoid the "limited spectrum" assumptions of
designers of previous kinds of radios, in one or more ways including.
 Spread spectrum and ultrawideband techniques allow several transmitters to transmit in the
same place on the same frequency with very little interference, typically combined with one or
more error detection and correction techniques to fix all the errors caused by that interference.
 Software defined antennas adaptively "lock onto" a directional signal, so that receivers can
better reject interference from other directions, allowing it to detect fainter transmissions.
 Cognitive radio techniques: each radio measures the spectrum in use and communicates that
information to other cooperating radios, so that transmitters can avoid mutual interference by
selecting unused frequencies. Alternatively, each radio connects to a geolocation database to
obtain information about the spectrum occupancy in its location and, flexibly, adjusts its
operating frequency and/or transmit power not to cause interference to other wireless services.
  Dynamic transmitter power adjustment, based on information communicated from the receivers,
lowering transmit power to the minimum necessary, reducing the near-far problem and reducing
interference to others, and extending battery life in portable equipment.
 Wireless mesh network where every added radio increases total capacity and reduces the power
required at any one node. Each node transmits using only enough power needed for the message
to hop to the nearest node in that direction, reducing the near-far problem and reducing
interference to others.

Result:
Thus the impact of Pulse Shaping and Matched Filtering was analyzed using Software Defined
Radios and its outputs were verified.
Block Diagram:
 EX.NO: 4 OFDM SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION USING SDR

AIM:
To transmit and receive the OFDM signal using SDR.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED
 Personal computer
 MATLAB software
 SDR
THEORY:
Implementation of OFDM in actual hardware using Software Defined Radio (SDR) concepts
and verification of its performance with different channel estimation methods in various propagation
environments have been almost unexplored. The great flexibility feature of SDR systems facilitates the
implementation and experimentation of OFDM systems with less cost and effort, compared to the
implementation of the whole system in hardware. In this paper, a customized SDR testbed has been
developed based on the GNU radio software platform and version-2 Universal Software Radio
Peripheral (USRP2) devices to evaluate the practical error performance of OFDM-based systems in
both Gaussian and Rician propagation environments. Three different channel interpolation techniques,
namely linear interpolation, second-ordered interpolation and cubic spline interpolation, and a blind
SNR estimation algorithm have been implemented in our testbed. The performances show that, as
opposed to our intuition, linear channel interpolation in some cases might not only be simpler, but also
more accurate than the two other non-linear interpolation techniques, implying that channels might
change linearly between neighboring subcarriers. The experimental OFDM system on the developed
SDR testbed performs very close to the simulated OFDM system, thus the developed testbed can be
used to verify advanced signal processing techniques in OFDM systems in various realistic channels by
simply developing software, without the need for otherwise complicated hardware developments.
PROGRAM
%========================================================================
==
% The mfile investigates the generation, transmission and reception of
% the OFDM signal without channel noise or HPA effect
%========================================================================
==
clear all
clc
close
%
% A: Setting Parameters
%
M = 4; % QPSK signal constellation
no_of_data_points = 64; % have 64 data points
block_size = 8; % size of each ofdm block
cp_len = ceil(0.1*block_size); % length of cyclic
prefix
no_of_ifft_points = block_size; % 8 points for the
FFT/IFFT no_of_fft_points = block_size;
%
% B: % +++++ TRANSMITTER +++++
%
% 1. Generate 1 x 64 vector of data points phase representations
data_source = randsrc(1, no_of_data_points, 0:M-1);
figure(1)
stem(data_source); grid on; xlabel('data points'); ylabel('transmitted data phase representation')
title('Transmitted Data "O"')
% 2. Perform QPSK modulation
qpsk_modulated_data = pskmod(data_source, M);
scatterplot(qpsk_modulated_data);title('qpsk modulated transmitted data')
% 3. Do IFFT on each block
% Make the serial stream a matrix where each column represents a pre-OFDM
% block (w/o cyclic prefixing)
% First: Find out the number of colums that will exist after reshaping
num_cols=length(qpsk_modulated_data)/block_size;
data_matrix = reshape(qpsk_modulated_data, block_size, num_cols);
% Second: Create empty matix to put the IFFT'd data
cp_start = block_size-cp_len;
cp_end = block_size;
% Third: Operate columnwise & do CP
for i=1:num_cols,
ifft_data_matrix(:,i) = ifft((data_matrix(:,i)),no_of_ifft_points);
% Compute and append Cyclic Prefix
for j=1:cp_len,
actual_cp(j,i) = ifft_data_matrix(j+cp_start,i);
end
% Append the CP to the existing block to create the actual OFDM block
ifft_data(:,i) = vertcat(actual_cp(:,i),ifft_data_matrix(:,i));
end
% 4. Convert to serial stream for transmission
[rows_ifft_data cols_ifft_data]=size(ifft_data);
len_ofdm_data = rows_ifft_data*cols_ifft_data;
% Actual OFDM signal to be transmitted
ofdm_signal = reshape(ifft_data, 1, len_ofdm_data);
figure(3)
plot(real(ofdm_signal)); xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude');
title('OFDM Signal');grid on;
%
% E: % +++++ RECEIVER +++++
%
% 1. Pass the ofdm signal through the channel
recvd_signal = ofdm_signal;
% 4. Convert Data back to "parallel" form to perform FFT
recvd_signal_matrix = reshape(recvd_signal,rows_ifft_data, cols_ifft_data);
% 5. Remove CP
recvd_signal_matrix(1:cp_len,:)=[];
% 6. Perform FFT
for i=1:cols_ifft_data,
% FFT
fft_data_matrix(:,i) = fft(recvd_signal_matrix(:,i),no_of_fft_points);
end
% 7. Convert to serial stream
recvd_serial_data = reshape(fft_data_matrix, 1,(block_size*num_cols));
% 8. Demodulate the data
qpsk_demodulated_data = pskdemod(recvd_serial_data,M);
scatterplot(qpsk_modulated_data);title('qpsk modulated received data')
figure(5)
stem(qpsk_demodulated_data,'rx');
grid on;xlabel('data points');ylabel('received data phase representation');title('Received Data "X"')
Result:
Thus the OFDM signal transmission and reception was done using SDR.
EX.NO.1 VSWR AND IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT AND IMPEDANCE
MATCHING AIM:
To determine the VSWR, Impedance Measurement and Impedance Matching.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
i. Gunn Power Supply
ii. Gunn Oscillator
iii. PIN Modulator
iv. Isolator
v. Variable Attenuator
vi. Frequency Meter
vii. Slide Screw Tuner
viii. Tunable Detector Mount
ix. VSWR Meter, CRO
x. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
xi. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
xii. Cooling Fan
xiii. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net
THEORY:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line, may be considered as the sum of
two traveling waves the ‘Incident Wave, which Propagates from the source to the load and the reflected
wave which propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident
wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance. The superposition of the two
traveling waves, gives rise to a standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found
where the waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase. The distance
OBSERVATION:
Frequency of Oscillation = GHz.

No. of Threads VSWR (S) Reflection Co-efficient

K=(S-1)/(S+1)
between two successive minimum (or maximum) is half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of
electrical field strength of reflected and incident wave is called reflection coefficient.
The voltage standing wave Ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratio between maximum and minimum
field strength along the line

Hence VSWR denoted by S is as follows

S = Emax/Emin
= {|Ei| + |Er|}/{|Ei| – |
Er|} Where Ei = Incident Voltage
Er = Reflected Voltage
Reflection Coefficient, ρ is
ρ = Er/Ei = (ZL–ZO) / (ZL+ZO)
Where ZL is the load impedance, Zo is characteristics impedance.
The above equation gives following equation
(ρ) = (S–1)/(S+1)

INITIAL SETUP IN VSWR METER:

1. Set input selector switch in 200 Ohms.
2. Keep meter selector in Normal.
3. Select the range as 50db or 40db or 30db and then vary the gain knob (fine and coarse)
to get minimum attenuation. (VSWR = 1).
PROCEDURE:
1. Setup the equipment as shown in block diagram.
2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as
below. Meter Switch – off
Gunn bias knob – Fully
anticlockwise PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid
position
PIN Mod. Freq.knob – Mid position
3. SwitchON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage
at 7.5V.
4. Tune the frequency meter to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO. Measure the operating frequency using
frequency meter and detune the frequency meter.
5. Then remove the CRO and connect the VSWR meter to Tunable Detector mount.
6. If necessary change the range dB-switch, Variable attenuator position and gain control knob to
get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
7. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates 1.0
on normal VSWR Scale.
8. Set the depth of S.S Tuner to around 3-4 mm. Read the VSWR on scale and record it.
9. Repeat the above step for change of S.S. Tuner probe depth and record the corresponding SWR.
10. If the reading at the minimum is lower than 3 on the top scale, set RANGE Switch to next
higher range and read the indication on the second SWR or (3 to 10) scale of SWR.
11. If the range switch is changed by two steps used top SWR scale, however all indication on
this scale must be multiplied by 10.
12. Using the formula, K=S-1/S+1, find the reflection co-efficient.
RESULT:
Thus the VSWR, Impedance Measurement and Impedance Matching were determined.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:
 EX.NO.2 (a) CHARACTERIZATION OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

AIM:
To characterise the directional coupler.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
i. Gunn Power Supply
ii. Gunn Oscillator
iii. PIN Modulator
iv. Isolator
v. Variable Attenuator
vi. Frequency Meter
vii. Multihole Directional Coupler
viii. Tunable Detector Mount
ix. Matched Termination
x. VSWR Meter, CRO
xi. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
xii. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
xiii. Cooling Fan
xiv. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net
THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected
wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each
other. The power entering, in the main-arm gets divided between port 2 and 3, and almost no power
comes out in port (4) Power entering at port (2) is divided between port (1) and (4)
The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling (dB) = 10 log 10 [P1/P3] where port 2 is terminated.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log 10 [P2/P3] where P1 is matched.
With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a
measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave. Directivity is measured indirectly
as follows:
Hence Directivity D (dB) = Isolation – Coupling
= 10 log 10 [P2/P1]
Insertion loss = 10 log 10 [P1/P2]

INITIAL SETUP IN VSWR METER:

1. Set input selector switch in 200 Ohms.
2. Keep meter selector in Normal.
3. Select the range as 50db or 40db or 30db and then vary the gain knob (fine and coarse)
to get minimum attenuation. (VSWR = 1).
PROCEDURE:
1. Setup the equipments as shown in block diagram.
2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as
below. Meter Switch – off
Gunn bias knob – Fully
anticlockwise PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid position
PIN Mod. Freq. knob – Mid position
3. SwitchON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage
at 7.5V.
4. Tune the frequency meter to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO. Measure the operating frequency using
frequency meter and detune the frequency meter.
5. Then remove the CRO and connect the VSWR meter to Tunable Detector mount.
6. Remove the multihole directional coupler and connect the detector mount of the
frequency meter.
 7. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control knob of VSWR meter, and note down the reading (reference level let X)
8. Insert the directional coupler as shown in block diagram with detector to the auxiliary port 3 and
matched termination to port 2. (Without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain
control knob of VSWR meter).
9. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range-dB switch if
required. (Let it be Y).
10. Calculate coupling factor which will be X–Y=C(dB)
11. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and match termination from port
2 without disturbing the set-up.
12. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and measure the
reading on VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
13. Compute insertion loss X–Z in dB.
14. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction. i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side.
Matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3. (Without disturbing the position of
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.)
15. Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter. Let it be Yd. X–Yd gives Isolation I (dB).
16. Compute the directivity as Y–Yd = I – C

OBSERVATION:
Frequency of Oscillation = GHz.
X = dB (Without Directional Coupler)
Z = dB (I/p at port 1, o/p at port 2, Terminate at port 3) Y
= dB (I/p at port 1, o/p at port 3, Terminate at port 2) Yd =
dB (I/p at port 2, o/p at port 3, Terminate at port 1)
Coupling Factor, C = X–Y = dB Insertion
loss, = X–Z = dB
Isolation I = X–Yd = dB
Directivity D = Y–Yd = dB
RESULT:
Thus the Directional coupler was characterized and the following measurement was done.
Coupling Factor, C= dB
Insertion loss, = dB
Isolation I = dB
Directivity D= dB
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
 EX.NO. 2 (b) ISOLATORS

AIM:
To measure the S–parameter of isolators.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source (Gunn, Klystron)
2. Isolator
3. Frequency Meter
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Detector Mount
6. CRO / VSWR
7. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
8. Cooling Fan
9. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net

THEORY:
ISOLATOR:
An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation
and from output to input with very high attenuation
The isolator can be derived form a three-port circulator by simply placing a matched load
(reflection less termination) on one port.
The important isolator parameters are:
A. Insertion loss:
Insertion loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by source to
the input port, measured with other ports terminated in the matched load. It is expressed in dB.
READINGS:

PORT 1 (Volts) PORT 2 (Volts) S-PARAMETER

The S matrix of Isolator

S11 S12 
S

 S21 S22 
 B. Isolation:
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is
expressed in dB. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a
matched load.
C. Input VSWR:
The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage
minimum of the standing wave existing is the line with all parts except the test port are matched
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the components as shown in the block diagram,
2. Keep the control knob of microwave power supply as mentioned in the basic setup.
3. Switch on the power supply and energize the microwave source. Get the maximum output in
CRO without connecting the Isolator. Measure the voltage using CRO.
4. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip in CRO and note down the frequency of
oscillation directly. Detune the frequency meter.
5. Connect the Isolator in forward direction i.e. port 1 at input side(Frequency meter) and port
2 at output side (Tunable Detector) measure the input and output voltage using CRO.
6. Now connect the isolator in reverse direction i.e. Port 1 at output side and port 2 at input
side and measure the output voltage using CRO.

RESULT:
Thus the S-parameters of isolators were measured.
Block Diagram:
 EX.NO.4 (c) CIRCULATOR

AIM :
To find the S-parameters of Circulator.
COMPONENT REQUIRED:
i. Microwave Source (RKO/GO)
ii. Isolator
iii. Variable Attenuator
iv. Frequency meter
v. detector mount
vi. VSWR meter
vii. Circulator and
viii. Matched Terminations-2.
THEORY:
The circulator is a multi port junction that permits transmission in certain ways. The wave
incident at nth port can be coupled to (n+1)th port only.
 READINGS:

PORT 1 PORT 2 PORT 3

S-PARAMETER
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

S12=
S13=

S21=

S23=

S31=

S32=

The S matrix of circulator

S11 S12 S13 

S S S S
 21 22 23 

 S 31 S32 S 33 
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the components as shown in the block diagram,
2. Keep the control knob of microwave power supply as mentioned in the basic setup.
3. Switch on the power supply and energize the microwave source. Get the maximum output in
CRO without connecting the circulator. Measure the voltage using CRO.
4. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip in CRO and note down the frequency of
oscillation directly. Detune the frequency meter.
5. Connect the port 1 of circulator at input side (Frequency meter) and port 2 at output side
(Tunable Detector) and port 3 is at matched termination. Measure the output voltage using
CRO.
6. Similarly measure the output voltage by interchanging the ports.

RESULT:
Thus the S-parameters of circulator were found and its values are noted.
 EX.NO: 3 GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM :
To determine the characteristics of Gunn Diode.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
i. Gunn power Supply
ii. Gunn oscillator
iii. PIN modulator
iv. Isolator
v. Frequency Meter
vi. Variable Attenuator
vii. Detector Mount
viii. CRO
ix. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
x. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
xi. Cooling Fan
xii. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net
THEORY:
Gunn diodes are negative resistance device which are normally used as low power oscillator at
microwave frequencies in transmitter and as local oscillator in receiver front end. J.B. Gunn in 1963
discovered microwave oscillation. At low electric field in the material most of the electron will be
located in the lower central valley. At high electric field most of the electron will be transferred in to
the higher frequency satellite L and X valleys.
MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATION:

S.No Voltage (V) Current (mA)

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the components as shown in block diagram.
2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as
below. Meter Switch – off
Gunn bias knob – Fully
anticlockwise PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid position
PIN Mod. Freq.knob – Mid position
3. SwitchON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage
at 7.5V.
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
5. Measure the operating frequency using frequency meter.
6. Measure the Gunn Diode Current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage. Do
not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
7. Plot the voltage Vs Current and measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to
maximum current.
NOTE:
Do not keep gun bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds reading
should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating, Gunn diode may burn

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of Gunn Diode was determined.

Threshold voltage, Vth = Volts

 EX.NO:
DATE:

WAVE LENGTH & FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

AIM
To construct a microwave bench set up using Reflex Klystron to calculate the indirect frequency
and guide wavelength.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
1. Microwave source (klystron power supply)
2. Klystron Mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. Slotted section
7. Matched Termination
8. VSWR meter (or) CRO
THEORY
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular waveguide λ0, λc, λg are related as below
1 1 1
= 2+ 2
λ0 2
λc λg
Where λ0 is free space wave length
λg is guide wavelength
λc is cut off wavelength
For TE 10 mode λc=2a where a is broader dimension of waveguide
1 1
The operating frequency 𝑓 = 𝑐√( )+( )
λc2 λg2

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in figure.
2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as
below: Range - 50dB
Input Switch - Crystal low Impedance
Meter Switch - Normal Position
Gain Coarse Fine) - Mid Position
OBSERVATIONS
Beam Voltage =
Repeller Voltage =
Frequency reading from frequency meter =
First voltage minima position (d1) =
Second voltage minima position (d2) =

CALCULATIONS
λg = 2(d1-d2)
λc = 2a where a= 22.86mm for X band
1 1 1
= +
λ0 2
λc 2
λg2

λ0=
f=c/ λ0
 4. Keep the control knobs Klystron Power Supply as
below Beam Voltage - OFF
Mod-Switch - AM
Beam Voltage Knob - Fully Anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage - Fully Clockwise
AM Amplitude Knob- Around Fully Clockwise
AM Frequency Knob- Around Mid Position
5. Switch ON the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
6. Switch ON the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with the help of
beam voltage knob.
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron mount for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
10. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency directly from frequency meter.
13. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
14. Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary.
Move the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading. If
necessary increase the VSWR meter range dB switch to higher position. Note and
record the probe position.
15. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
16. Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.
17. Measure the guide waveguide inner broad dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.86mm for
X-Band.
18. Calculate the frequency by following equation.
f=c/λ where c=3*108 meter/sec.
19. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.
20. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.

RESULT
Thus, the indirect frequency and guide wavelength are calculated.
EX.NO:3
DATE:

ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
AIM
To measure the attenuation induced by the given wave guide.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
1. Microwave source (klystron power supply)
2. Klystron Mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. DUT (Fixed Attenuator)
7. Power Detector
FORMULA
Attenuation = 20 log (V1 / V2) db
PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the bench setup as shown in figure 1 and measure the input
power entering into the wave guide (P1).
2. Reconnect the circuit as shown in the figure 2 and find the power (P2) at the
output of the given wave guide.
3. Using formula find the attenuation introduced by the wave guide.

RESULT
Thus, the attenuation induced by the given wave guide was found and verified.
EX.NO:4
DATE:

RADIATION PATTERN OF HORN ANTENNA

AIM:
To measure the polar pattern and gain of the waveguide horn antenna.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
1. Klystron power supply with mount.
2. Isolator.
3. Variable attenuator.
4. Frequency meter.
5. Horn antenna.
6. Detector mounts.
7. CRO
PROCEDURE:
ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERN
1. Set up the equipments as shown in figure keep the axis of both the antenna in same line of sight.
2. Energize the Klystron Mount for maximum output at desired frequency with the square wave
modulation.
3. Tune the receiving horn to the left in 2 or 5 steps up to 0-5 and note corresponding output voltage.
4. Repeat the above step but this time turn the receiving horn to the light and note down the readings.
5. Plot the relative power pattern its output vs angle.
6. From diagram determine 3 db width of the horn antenna

RESULT:
Thus, the radiation pattern of an antenna was drawn.