RAYAT BAHRA INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING AND BIO-TECHNOLOGY

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION LAB

Submitted To:
Er. Rupali Kamboj

Submitted By:
Gagan Maggo
ECE 7A
1247808

Table of Contents
Sr. No

Topic

1.

Study and measurement of attenuation and loss in optical

fiber.

2.

Study and measurement of bending loss in optical fiber

3.

Study and measurement of numerical aperture of optical

fiber.

4.

5.

6.

Measurement of optical power using optical power

meter.
To study the transmission of TDM signal through
optical fiber
Study various multiplexing techniques.

Page
No.

EXPERIMENT No.: 1

Aim : Study and measurement of attenuation and loss in optical fiber

Equipments Required
Scientech 2501A TechBook with Power Supply and mains cord
Optical Fibre cable
Scientech Oscilloscope
THEORY:When the light crosses an absorbing medium, as in the case of optical fiber, the luminous
energy decrease as distance increases. The loss in a fiber length (attenuation) is expressed by
the ratio between the power entering one end of the fiber (P IN) and power coming out from
the opposite end (Pout). Attenuation is normally measured in decibel:
Att (dB) = 10 log (Pout/Pin)
It can ranges fro some db/m for plastic fiber ,to fraction of db/km for glass fibers.
The attenuation of the light signal due to the fibers depends on the wave length and on the
material which the fiber has been constructed with . In glass fiber the main causes of
attenuation are the absorption losses and the scattering losses. Combining these losses lead to
plotting the intrinsic attenuation curve like that shown in the fig 1 whereas the fig2 shown the
attenuation curve of a plastic fiber. Following losses leads to attenuation
Absorption loss: When the light photons have a certain value of energy, the atoms of glass of
the core (SiO2) absorb a part of this energy. This phenomenon depends on wavelength and
there are two different absorption zones, occurring in the infrared spectrum and in the ultra
violet spectrum. Furthermore, during the chemical process of glass manufacturing, various
metallic impurities are trapped in the core, among these impurities there are also some ions
OH- which provoke absorption peaks at discrete value of wavelength.
Scattering loss: They are due to the granular structure (at microscopic level) of the material
which the fiber is constructed with. This structure includes some scattering centers which are
material point that scatter the radiation in all directions, even backwards this phenomenon is
called Rayleigh scattering or material scattering.
Other losses: In an optical fiber link, other can be due to too narrow loops in the path of the
optical cable (Bending losses), or to junction of more lengths of fiber. Of course they are not
intrinsic losses of the fiber, but they depend on cable laying.
Procedure:
Connect the TechBook Power Supply with mains cord to TechBook Scientech
2501A.
Make the connections as shown in next figure
Connect the Function Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to emitter input.
Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter output and detector input.
Connect Detector output to amplifier input.Put the mode switch SW1 to Analog to drive the
emitter in analog mode. Switch On the Power Supply of TechBook and Oscilloscope.

Touch the Power symbol for few seconds to switch on the TechBook. Power symbol is
given at Left side top position of mimic near the Power Connector.
Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V/ Div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using X 1
probe with the help of variable potentiometer in Function Generator block at input of emitter.
Observe the output signal from detector on Oscilloscope.
Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the
help of gain adjusts pot in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it V 1.
Now replace the previous fiber optic cable with 1 m cable without disturbing any previous
setting.
Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier. Note this value end
name it V 2 . Calculate the propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula.
V1/V2= e -(L1+L2)
Where = loss in nepers / meter
1 nepers = 8.686 dB
L1= length of shorter cable (0.5 m)
L2= Length of longer cable (1 m)

EXPERIMENT No.:2

Aim: Study and measurement of bending loss in optical fiber

Equipments Required:
Scientech 2501A Tech Book with Power Supply and mains cord
Optical Fiber cable
Scientech Oscilloscope
Mandrel
Theory:Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are
introduced
due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of
curvature more is the loss.

Procedure:
Connect the TechBook Power Supply with mains cord to TechBook Scientech 2501A.
Make the connections as shown in next figure
Connect Function Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to emitter input.
Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter output and detectors input.
Connect Detector output to amplifier input
Put the mode switch SW1 to Analog to drive the emitter in analog mode.
Switch On the Power Supply of the TechBook and Oscilloscope.
Touch the Power symbol for few seconds to switch on the TechBook. Power symbol is given
at Left side top position of mimic near the Power Connector.
Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V/ Div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using X 1 probe
with the help of variable pot in Function Generator Block at input of Emitter.
Observe the output signal from detector on Oscilloscope.
Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the help of gain
adjusts potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it V1.
Wind the fiber optic cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier output
on Oscilloscope, it will be gradually reducing, showing loss due to bends.

EXPERIMENT No.: 3

Aim: Study and measurement of numerical aperture of optical fiber.

Equipments Required:
Scientech 2501A Tech Book with Power Supply and mains cord
Optical Fiber cable
Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

THEORY:Numerical Aperture is defined as the light gathering capability of the fiber

Mathematically given by:
NA= Sin A
Sin A = (D/2L)
Where:
L is the distance between the cable end and the measurement bench L=20mm
D is the diameter of the acceptance cone

Procedure:
Connect the TechBook Power Supply with mains cord to TechBook Scientech 2501A.
Put the mode switch SW1 to Digital to drive the emitter in digital mode.
Switch On the Power Supply of TechBook and Oscilloscope.
Touch the Power symbol for few seconds to switch on the Tech Book. Power symbol is given
at Left side top position of mimic near the Power Connector.
Connect the Frequency Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter circuit. Adjust
its amplitude at 5Vp-p. .
Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the other end to
the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber such that its
cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25 mm diameter) vertically at a

suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with 10 mm circle.
Record the distances of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the spot.
Compute the numerical aperture from the formula given below.
N.A= W/(4L2+W2)1/2
= Sin max (Acceptance angle)
Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with one of the
concentric circles. Note its distance.
Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen and
computer the numerical aperture from the formula given above.
Questions:
What is numerical aperture?
Write the formula for numerical aperture?
What is the significance of numerical aperture?

EXPERIMENT No.: 4

Aim: Measurement of optical power using optical power meter.

Equipments Required:
Scientech 2501A TechBook with Power Supply and mains cord
Optical Fibre cable
Scientech Oscilloscope
Scientech 2551 - Optical Power Meter

Procedure:
Connect the TechBook Power Supply with mains cord to TechBook Scientech 2501A.
Ensure that all switched faults are Off.
Connect the fiber optic cable between emitter output & power meter.
Put the mode switch in emitter block to analog mode.
Connect the Scientech 2551 Optical Power Meter to emitter input.

Keep the power meter wavelength selector switch in 660 nm.

Switch On the Power Supply of the TechBook and Power meter.
Touch the Power symbol for few seconds to switch on the TechBook. Power symbol is given
at Left side top position of mimic near the Power Connector.
Note the reading displayed in power meter.
Switch the wavelength selector switch to 950 nm positions.
Again note the reading displayed on power meter.

EXPERIMENT No.: 5

Aim :To study the transmission of TDM signal through optical fiber
APPARTUSE:
1. TDM PAM Trainer kit.
2. Fiber Optic Trainer Kit.
3. Fiber Optic link
4. Connecting wires.
5. Oscilloscope.
THEORY:
INTRODUCTION TO PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Most digital modulation systems are based on pulse modulation. It involves variation of a
pulse parameter in accordance with the instant value of the information signal. This
parameter can be amplitude, width, repetitive frequency etc. Depending upon the nature of
parameter varied, various modulation systems are used. Pulse Amplitude Modulation, Pulse
width Modulation, Pulse Code Modulation are few modulation systems cropping up from the
pulse modulation technique. In pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) the amplitude of the
pulses are varied in accordance with the modulating signal. In true sense, Pulse Amplitude
Modulation is analog in nature but it forms the basis of most digital communication and
modulation systems. The pulse modulation systems require analog information to be sampled
at predetermined intervals of time. Sampling is a process of taking the instantaneous value of
the analog information at a predetermined time interval.
The receiver can reconstruct the signal from these samples, provided the sampling meets the
Nyquist criteria. Nyquist criteria states that for a band limited signal with highest frequency
component fm, the signal must be sampled at a rate greater then twice the highest frequency
component in the signal for the sampled signal to be recovered exactly i.e. fs > 2fm where fs
= sampling frequency The pulse amplitude modulation system can be simulated as shown in
Fig. 1.

The control signal is totally electrically isolated from the information signal. Also the switch
is considered ideal i.e.
(i) It should offer negligible resistance, when closed and should have infinite resistance when
open.
(ii) The opening and closing operations are delay free.
(iii) The switch is free of contact bounce problem.
The control signal closes the switch when it is at one level and opens it when it is at another.
When the switch is closed the output voltage is equal to Zero volts. The width of the sample
depends upon the time duration for which the switch remained closed. In practice, the switch
is operated electrically. The resulting PAM wave is as shown in Fig. 2.

Because of its wideband and analog nature, PAM has -restricted of applications for direct
transmission of signals. It is used, for example in instrumentation systems and in A/D
Converters used for computer interfacing. It is also used as an intermediate stage in the
generation of very popular digital modulation system viz. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation.)
Another advantage of PAM is that it allows for multiplexing of the signals.
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the process of combining signals from different information sources of that
they can be transmitted over a common channel. Multiplexing is advantageous in cases where
it is impracticable and uneconomical to provide separate links for the different information
sources. The price that has to be paid to acquire this advantage is in the form of increased
system complexity and bandwidth.
The two most commonly used methods of multiplexing are:
(1) Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
(2) Time division multiplexing (TDM)
Time Division Multiplexing:

Time Division Multiplexing is the process of combining the samples from different
information signals, in time domain so that they can be transmitted over the same channel.
The fact utilized in TDM technique is that there large intervals between the message samples.
The samples from the other sources are placed within these time intervals. Thus every sample
is separated from other in time domain.
The time division multiplexing system can be simulated by two rotating switches, one at
transmitter and the other at receiver. (See Fig. 4.) The two wipers rotate and establish
electrical contact with one channel at a time.

Each signal is sampled over one sampling interval and transmitted one after the other along a
common channel. Thus part of message 1 is transmitted first followed by part of message 22,
message 33 and then again message 1 so on.
It can be anticipated from above process that the receiver switch has to follow two
constraints:
(1) It must rotate at the same rate as the transmitter switch.
(2) It must start at the same time as the transmitting switch and it must establish electrical
contact with the same channel no. as that of the transmitter. If these two conditions are met,
the receiver is said to be in synchronization with transmitter. If constraint one is not met, the
samples of different sources would get mixed at the receiver. If constraint two is not met, the
information from source 1 will be received by some other channel which is not intending to
accept the information from that particular channel. To establish synchronization, the receiver
needs to know:
(1) frequency/rate of operation at transmitter.

(2) Sample identification. This increases the transmitter and receiver complexity and cost.

Practical Aspects of Time Division Multiplexing:

In time division multiplexing the correct operations of transmitter switch which creates
samples, is a must. The functioning of TDM switch is complex. But its understanding is easy,
provided you are aware of the existence of circuit delays and setting times. Theoretically
large number of samples can be multiplexed in time domain, but its practical implementation
becomes harder and harder as the time interval between consecutive samples decreases. In ST
2102 trainer, the operations of transmitter switch are controlled by the transmitter timing
logic. (See Fig 6)

SYNCHRONIZATION
The most vital requirement of a time division multiplexed system is synchronization. The
transmitter and receiver are said to be synchronized when:
(1) The rate of operation at transmitter is same as the rate of operation at receiver.
(2) Samples can be identified with different channels i.e. timeslot 0 samples must go to
channel 0 output, timeslot 1 samples must go to channel 1 output and so on.
The circuitry that generates the timing signal for the system is called clock. Often the clock
generates periodic rectangular pulses and hence are known as clock pulses. The question may
arise why is the clock so important?
As we know, the time division multiplexing and demultiplexing requires a particular
operation to occur on the precise time interval. Failure to meet this requirement leads to
signal corruption, distortion and even complete system breakdown. The circuit which ensures
precisely timed action is the clock circuit. All the time related processes derive the timing
directly or indirectly from the system clock. For correct operation of receiver, the switching
rate should be same as that for transmitter. To do this the receiver clock must match with the
transmitter clock.
Besides clock signal, the receiver also requires information from the transmitter to identify
one Timeslot per frame and so as to pass the time slot to correct output channel. If it is
achieved for one timeslot. then other timeslots in the frame are passed to the correct channels.
It is ensured by frame synchronization signal. These two signals namely the clock signal and
Frame synchronization signal should be transmitted by the transmitter along with the
information signal. The ST 2102 provides you the flexibility of using three different modes of
these information transfers.
Mode 1 : Three links between transmitter & Receiver (Diagram A)
It gives rise to the most simple receiver circuitry. In this mode a separate transmission
media are used to carry the information signal, the clock signal, and the Frame
synchronization signal.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switched faults are off in TDM PAM & Fiber Optic Trainer Kit.
3. Make the following connections. (As shown in Diagram 1)
4. Connect the Function Generator 250Hz, 500Hz, 1 KHz & 2KHz sine wave output to CH0,
CH1, CH2 & CH3 in TDM PAM Transmitter.
5. TDM PAM Transmitter output Connects emitter 1 's input.
6. the Fiber Optic cable Connects between emitter output and detectors input.
7. Detector 1's output given to Comparator.
8. Output of Comparator is given to Receiver Input and demodulated output observed.
9. Connect Tx Clock & Tx Sync with Receiver in TDM PAM Trainer kit.
10. On the board, switch emitter 1's driver to Analog mode.
11. Switch ON the power.

EXPERIMENT No.: 6

Aim: Study various multiplexing techniques

EQUIPMENT: Educational Trainer Board.
Cables
THEORY:Wavelength Division Multiplexing:
WDM enables the utilization of a significant portion of the available fiber bandwidth by allowing
many independent signals to be transmitted simultaneously on one fiber, with each signal located
at a different wavelength. Routing and detection of these signals can be accomplished
independently, with the wavelength determining the communication path by acting as the
signature address of the origin, destination or routing. Components are therefore required that are
wavelength selective, allowing for the transmission, recovery, or routing of specific wavelengths.
In a simple WDM system, each laser must emit light at a different wavelength, with all the lasers
light multiplexed together onto a single optical fiber. After being transmitted through a highbandwidth optical fiber, the combined optical signals must be demultiplexed at the receiving end
by distributing the total optical power to each output port and then requiring that each receiver
selectively recover only one wavelength by using a tunable optical filter. Each laser is modulated
at a given speed, and the total aggregate capacity being transmitted along the high-bandwidth
fiber is the sum total of the bit rates of the individual lasers. An example of the system capacity
enhancement is the situation in which ten 2.5-Gbps signals can be transmitted on one fiber,
producing a system capacity of 25 Gbps. This wavelength-parallelism circumvents the problem of
typical optoelectronic devices, which do not have bandwidths exceeding a few gigahertz unless
they are exotic and expensive. The speed requirements for the individual optoelectronic
components are, therefore, relaxed, even though a significant amount of total fiber bandwidth is
still being utilized.
Subcarrier Multiplexing
Another method conceptually related to WDM is subcarrier multiplexing (SCM). Instead of
directly modulating a ~terahertz optical carrier wave with ~100s Mbps baseband data, the
baseband data are impressed on a ~gigahertz subcarrier wave that is subsequently impressed on
the THz optical carrier. Figure 3 illustrates the situation in which each channel is located at a
different subcarrier frequency, thereby occupying a different portion of the spectrum surrounding
the optical carrier. SCM is similar to commercial radio, in which many stations are placed at
different RF (Radio Frequency) such that a radio receiver can tune its filter to the appropriate
subcarrier RF. The multiplexing and demultiplexing of the SCM channels is accomplished
electronically, not optically. The obvious advantage of cost-conscious users is that several
channels can share the same expensive optical components; electrical components are typically
less expensive than optical ones. Just as with TDM, SCM islimited in maximum subcarrier
frequencies and data rates by the available bandwidth of the electrical and optical components.

Therefore, SCM must be used in conjunction with WDM if we want to utilize any significant
fraction of the fiber bandwidth, but it can be used effectively for lower-speed, lower-cost
multiuser systems.

OBSERVATION:Compare the SCM and WDM schemes used in the trainer and state in what circumstances you
prefer each

RESULT:-