PSYCHIATRIC NURSES’ TRAINING COLLEGE ANKAFUL

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

GROUP 5

TOPIC:
 OPERANT CONDITIONING BY B.F. SKINNER
 COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING
 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner, which suggests that behavior is
shaped by the consequences that follow it. According to this theory, behavior that is followed by positive
consequences is more likely to be repeated, while behavior that is followed by negative consequences is less
likely to be repeated.

Skinner proposed that there are three types of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, and punishment. Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable consequence to increase
the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant
consequence to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment involves adding an
unpleasant consequence to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Skinner believed that behavior could be shaped through reinforcement and punishment, and that this process
could be used to teach new behaviors or eliminate unwanted behaviors. He also believed that the
environment played a significant role in shaping behavior, and that behavior was influenced by the
consequences that followed it.

Overall, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning has had a significant impact on the field of psychology and
has been used to develop effective behavioral interventions for a variety of problems, including addiction,
phobias, and other behavioral disorders.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
Cognitive theories of learning focus on how people perceive, process, and remember information. These
theories suggest that learning involves actively constructing and modifying mental representations of
information in order to make sense of it and use it in different situations.

The most influential cognitive theories of learning include Piaget's cognitive constructivist theory,
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, and information processing theory.

Piaget's cognitive constructivist theory posits that learning occurs through the active involvement of learners
in constructing their own understanding of the world. According to Piaget, the construction of knowledge
occurs through a process of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process of incorporating
new information into existing mental structures, while accommodation involves modifying existing
structures to accommodate new information.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and cultural contexts in
shaping learning and cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, learning is a social activity that
involves collaborative problem-solving and guidance from more knowledgeable others. He also proposed
the idea of the "zone of proximal development," which refers to the level of challenge that is just beyond a
learner's current abilities but can be accomplished with the help of a teacher or mentor.

Information processing theory focuses on the cognitive processes involved in learning and remembering
information. This theory proposes that information is initially processed through attention, perception, and
sensory memory, then moves into working memory where it is actively processed and manipulated, and
finally into long-term memory where it is stored for later use. Information processing theory also
emphasizes the importance of metacognition, or the ability to monitor and regulate one's own thinking and
learning strategies.

Overall, cognitive theories of learning emphasize the importance of active engagement and cognitive
processing in the learning process. These theories have implications for how educators can design
instruction and assessment that promote deep understanding and long-term retention of information.

1. Scenario of Piaget's Cognitive Constructivist Theory:

A kindergarten teacher uses play-based activities to teach math concepts. The teacher introduces a simple
addition problem and encourages the students to solve it on their own. The students might not know the
exact steps for solving the problem yet but will try to make sense of it based on their previous knowledge.
Through trial and error, the students will revise their understanding and adjust their mental representation to
include the new information.
2. Scenario of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory:

A high school student is struggling with algebra, and the teacher assigns a group project where students
work together to solve problems. The student might observe and receive guidance from more
knowledgeable peers while working on the project, improving their understanding of the concepts. As the
student participates in the collaborative activity, their problem-solving skills and math abilities improve.

3. Scenario of Information Processing Theory:

A college student is preparing for a midterm exam and creates an outline of the main points and concepts
they need to remember. The student actively engages with the material, categorizing and organizing it for
easier encoding. During the test, the student retrieves the information from their long-term memory using
their working memory, demonstrating the cognitive processing evident in this theory.

4. Scenario of Constructivism:

A science teacher assigns a project where students design and construct a working model of the water cycle.
The students have to integrate the knowledge they have gained in their lessons to create a new
understanding of the concept. Students will use their prior experiences to make sense of the information,
then revise and adjust their understanding to match the new experiences gained through designing their
model.

COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

Traditional learning mainly focuses on memorization instead of trying to achieve mastery in a particular
subject.

The following are fundamental aspects of cognitive learning:

1. Comprehension

For cognitive learning to be efficient and benefit you, understand the reason why you are learning a specific
subject in the first place.

2. Memory
 Cognitive learning discourages cramming of information, which is very ineffective in education. Having a
deep understanding of a subject improves your ability to relate new knowledge with previous experiences or
information.

3. Application

Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills in life situations. They encourage you
as you continue to develop problem-solving skills.

TYPES OF COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Cognitive learning theory is dominant in psychology. It is broken down into two categories.

1. Social Cognitive Theory

 This theory helps us understand how people are influenced and their influence on the environment. One of
the major components of social cognitive theory is observational learning. It is the process of learning
others’ desirable and undesirable behaviors through observation. It is a quick way of acquiring information
when you individually take action. A person who demonstrates behavior for another person is known as a
model.

These may be real people such as teachers, our peers, and supervisors, or symbolic models, also known as
fictional characters that influence an observer’s behavior.

Observational learning teaches people both positive and negative behaviors. For example, a manager within
a company can teach the employees how they are supposed to behave ethically and be socially conscious
when interacting and dealing with rude customers. Moreover, the manager can also train his/her employees
on the different procedures that they can take in case of fire or other low probability hazardous scenarios.

2. Cognitive Behavioral Theory

This theory mainly refers to our mental processes, such as our thoughts and interpretations of life events.

It explains how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of a person interact with each other. Thoughts lead to
particular emotions, which in turn lead to specific behavioral responses.

When we change our thoughts, we can change our emotions and then our behaviors. It also works in reverse
where changing how we behave leads to changes in our feelings and, ultimately, our thoughts.

Let’s take an example of a developer who encounters a problem in a particular sphere and automatically
believes that the task is difficult for him/her right away. The employee is automatically likely to have a
negative attitude towards this particular task, and his performance will likely be poor.

BENEFITS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

The following are the major positive effects of cognitive learning:

1. Enhances learning

Cognitive learning theory enhances lifelong learning. Workers can build upon previous ideas and apply new
concepts to already existing knowledge.

2. Boosts confidence
Employees become more confident in approaching tasks as they get a deeper understanding of new topics
and learn new skills.

3. Enhances Comprehension

Cognitive learning improves learners’ comprehension of acquiring new information. They can develop a
deeper understanding of new learning materials.

4. Improves problem-solving skills

Cognitive learning equips employees with the skills they need to learn effectively. They are thereby able to
develop problem-solving skills they can apply under challenging tasks.

5. Help learn new things faster

Through the experience of learning, the employee will be able to recycle and use the same learning methods
that worked previously. This will help them learn new things a lot faster as they already know what works
for them when it comes to obtaining new knowledge.

6. Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract)

Cognitive learning can also teach your employees to form a range of different concepts such as easily
perceiving and interpreting information that could boost creativity and lead to innovations at the workplace.

INFORMATION STORES

SENSORY RECORD

The first step of gaining information and the first unit of memory system is sensory record. An

individual is always under the effect of stimuli coming from around. An individual is exposed to a lot of
information at one time by means of seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling. For example, a student
in class is under the effect of thousands of stimuli such as the sunlight coming through the window, the
teacher’s voice, reflection of data show, colour of the wall, the hardness of the desk she/he is sitting on,
whispers of friends, hunger, etc. However, among the endless stimuli coming into sensory record, a few
ones, which attract attention, which comply with the expectations and aims of the student, are chosen and
sent to short term memory; others are lost. Although the capacity of sensory record is limitless, the stimuli
coming here can stay here only for a few seconds (0.5-3 sec.). For example, when an picture is passed in
front of the eyes quickly, its sign stays in the eyes for a second, or when a fly touches on cheek, it is felt at
the very moment. These examples show that stimuli go into sensory record and the process takes place for
half of a second. The presence of sensory record is of critical importance for human life. If a person forgot
the first words of a sentence she/he was reading or hearing before it is completed, it would not be possible to
make sense of this sentence. The information included in sensory record is exactly the same as the stimulus
going into the record. Visual senses are coded as photograph and audio senses are coded as voice just for a
few seconds. Stimuli need to be transferred to short term memory by means of the processes of attention and
perception in order to be conscious and meaningful pieces.

SHORT TERM MEMORY

The information chosen through the processes of attention and perception among the sensory record goes
into the short memory, which is the second element of the system. Short-term memory, which is also called
as processor memory or active memory, is the memory where limited amount of information is stored
temporarily for a limited time. Both the duration of time and capacity to keep information are limited. Short-
term memory can keep about 7(+/-2) units of information (letter, number, shape, sentence, photograph, etc.)
for about 20-30 seconds. Short-term memory is in contact both with sensory record and long-term memory.
The information coming to short-term

memory is either filtered, organized and turned into behaviour to be used or is stored in the long-term
memory by means of relating to the current information and coding. Information should be repeated tos tay
in the processor memory for a while. Moreover, it is important to use some strategies such as repetition,
memorization, making sense, associating and grouping to increase the capacity of short term memory.

LONG TERM MEMORY

Long-term memory is the place where new information coming from short-term memory is united with the
previous information and stored. Abbot defines long term memory as a more permanent store where
information can stay asleep, out of conscious and without being used until it is called back to the
conscious64. The information processed in short-term memory is sent here to be kept for a long time. So,
this can be compared to a library. The limits of long-term memory are not certain. The duration of time
when information is kept here is very long. Information, which is active, in short term memory stay
passively in long term memory and a certain time should pass for this information to be remembered.
Information is retrieved from long-term memory sometimes intentionally and sometimes automatically
when necessary. However, the problem here is to use the correct information when necessary. If information
is not coded and located appropriately, there may arise difficulties in retrieving.

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Attention: It is the power to focus on a certain stimulus and it constitutes the focal point of conscious. In
other words, it is a kind of heading in order to response to stimuli. Suthers defines attention as the
limitations about perceptional process and producing answers70. Data processing starts with attention.
Stimuli coming from outside come into sensory record first of all and here the stimulus is sent to short term
memory and kept without making any changes, as it is taken from outside. Stimuli towards which attention
does not head are lost. Namely, attention determines which information will pass to short time memory and
which will not. Individuals have the capacity of directing their cognitive strengths towards certain resources
of information in the environment. In other words, selective attention is under the control of the individual
and efficient learning depends on the selective ability of the individual.

Perception: It can be defined as the process of describing the stimuli received through sensory organs or the
process of turning sensory signals into meaningful experiences. In the process of perception, what stimulus
is decided? As each individual has his/her own way of organizing the received signals, their perception of
the signals also differs. An individual can pass just the information she/he can perceive among the
environmental stimuli coming into sensory memory.

Repetition: Information is stored through repetition in order to stay in short term memory longer. The
reason why duration of keeping is longer is that coding is carried out and information is not lost before
being sent to long-term memory. Stimulus or stimuli should head towards reaction. “Perception has an
active and selective quality, and an individual’s perception of a certain stimulus or stimuli’s situations is
based on efficient preparation and directions”.

Coding: Most of the information coming from around is stored temporarily without coding. Coding is the
transfer of information by means of relating the information in long-term memory to the information in
short-term memory. The individual to be sent to long-term memory should code information meaningfully.
Each individual carries out coding in the most meaningful way according to him or her. There are four basic
elements in enriching the process of coding by means of increasing the meaningfulness of information72:
Efficiency, organization, articulation, and memory supporting clues.

Storing: Anderson and Bower suggested an important model in order to explain how accumulated
information is stored. This model is based on the idea that information is established on verbal units
including structures of subject and verb rather than perceptions73. Information is stored in long-term
memory. However, during the process of storing, information is stored in the appropriate part among
episodic, semantic and procedural memories. Thus, the process of retrieving is carried out correctly.

Retrieving: It is looking for, finding and activating the information stored in the long-term memory.

What is important is to find out the clues that will retrieve the stored information in this process.

According to Ashcraft, there is no real forgetting in long term memory. Forgetting is failure in

retrieving.
 NAMES OF THE GROUP 10 MEMBERS
NAMES INDEX NUMBER SIGNATURE
1. KPEVU - NARTEY PATIENCE RMN22081 ........……….………………

2. DANSO JESSICA RMN22059 ........……….………………

3. MENSAH FRANCISCA RMN22087 ........……….………………

4. EMMANUEL ADDO BOAMAH RMN22128 ........……….………………

5. GYASI GLORIA RMN22075 ........……….………………

6. DANIEL NKUAH RMN22170 ........……….………………

7. FRIMPONG JUSTICE RMN22157 ........……….………………

8. CHARITY ASARE RMN22039 ........……….………………

9. QUAINOO CHRISTOPHER RMN22185 ........……….………………

10. AGYEI FRANK RMN22130 ........……….………………

11. KUENYEDZI DEBORAH RMN22082 ........……….………………

12. LESLEY MBROWA HAYFORD CPN22090 ........……….………………

13. ADU GYAMFI THERESA CPN22015 ........……….………………

14. APPIAH RAYMOND CPN22043 ........……….………………

15. ABIGAIL DADZIE ........……….………………

16. BOADI EMMANUEL CPN22064 ........……….………………

17. AMISSAH KINGSLEY CPN22029 ........……….………………

18. ANGEL SMITH ARTHUR CPN22046 ........……….………………

19. SERWAH PHILLIS ........……….………………

20. HELENA ABAKAH CPN22001 ........……….………………

21. DIVINA EFABA DANQUAH CPN22074 ........……….………………

22. XETOR WONDER RMN22193 ........……….………………

23. CHUMBA GMANANTI AMOS RMN22149 ........……….………………
24. JOYCELYN HAGAN RMN22077 ........……….………………
25. NELLY MALWINE SELASE ASIMA RMN22043 ........……….………………
26. AKUFFO EMMANUELLA RMN22019 ........……….………………
27. ASIEDU EMELIA RMN22040 ........……….………………
28. ABRAHAM OFFOH HAMMOND RMN22174 ........……….………………
29. EUNICE GYAN RMN22074 ........……….………………
30. OWUSU GYAN FREDRICK RMN22180 ........……….………………
31. REBECCA ARABA FYNN RMN22070 ........……….………………
32. ALLANTIAS IMRAN RMN22135 ........……….………………
33. MOHAMMED MISBAHUDEEN CPN22022 ........……….………………
34. ABIGAIL ABBAN RMN22003 ........……….………………
35. JOANA ACQUAYE CPN22009 ........……….………………
36. GIFTY TETTEH CPN22137 ........……….………………
37. KOMBAT JERRY RMN22094 ........……….………………
38. ASARE JOHN CPN22051 ........……….………………
39. HELENA ALBRIGHT TAWIAH CPN22135 ........……….………………
40. MARY AKUMPI CPN22027 ........……….………………
41. AMANKWAAH JOSEPHINE CPN22028 ........……….………………
42. AKAN BAYADE RITA CPN22023 ........……….………………
43. DARKWA PRINCE ANNOR CPN22148 ........……….………………
44. ABEL SPIO-GARBRAH RMN22189 ........……….………………