Date: 06/10/2024 Level: Master2

time: 11-12:30
Module: Learning Languages and LearningStyles

Learning theories
Introduction
The concept of learning can never be indivisible from teaching or searching. Efficient

teaching would certainly take place when the teacher knows what is meant by learning. It is

only then can one understand the nature of output we expect the students to achieve. If for

example, learning, in a given context, aims at preparing students to pass a large scale exam

such as 'Baccalauréat or BEM’, the teacher is bound to adopt an approach which copes with

this goal and responds to the relevant learning process. If learning aims at preparing the

student for the present and future life, then a different approach to teaching is to be taken.

Learners’ expectations do dictate the approach to teaching a teacher has to take whenever

planning her/his lessons. Is he going to focus on increase in knowledge, problem solving

tasks, or skills acquisitions? Most Algerian teachers still believe that learning occurs through

what is termed "frontal teaching" or "chalk and talk" . As "innovation" they have shifted to the

"whiteboard and marker" to make their learners and themselves too, believe that they have

integrated the 21st century education. This mode of dealing with learning has not been

successful for all of our students as is evidenced by the considerable dropout rate in our

schools. Hence, new theories, including multiple Intelligences theory, can never be correctly

applied in the field if the meaning of learning is not clear for both the teacher and the learner.

For this purpose, we believe it is crucial to deal with and clarify the concept of learning, with

a strong urge to make it the front cover page of any teaching operation. (By HAMMOUDI

A/EL Hak)
Definitions of learning

Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines the word ‘learn’ as:

1- To get knowledge or skill in a new subject or activity.

2- To make yourself remember a piece of writing by reading it or repeating it many times.

3- To start to understand that you must change the way you behave.

4- To be told facts or information that you did not know.

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines learn as “to gain knowledge or under- standing

of a skill by study, instruction, or experience.

According to Gow and Kember (1993), the following points subsume the majority of

approaches to learning: (a) a quantitative increase in knowledge, (b) memorization, (c) the

acquisition of facts and procedures which can be retained and / or used in practice, (d) the

abstraction of meaning and (e) an interpretive process aimed at the understanding of reality

Learning Theories

1.Behavioral Theory and Learning

Behaviorism was founded in the early 1900s by John B. Watson. Watson was a

psychologist who believed that psychology should be a science that studies observable

behavior. He rejected the traditional focus on internal mental states. This theory quickly

became dominant in psychology. It was used to explain a wide range of human and animal

behavior, including learning, memory, and emotion.

In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism came under criticism from other schools of

thought, such as cognitive psychology and humanistic psychology. Cognitive psychologists

argued that behaviorists ignored the role of internal mental states in learning and behavior.

Humanistic psychologists argued that behaviorists focused too much on observable behavior
and not enough on the individual's subjective experience. Despite these criticisms,

behaviorism remains an influential theory in psychology today. It is used in a variety of fields,

including education, therapy, and business.

1.1 Key principles of behaviorism include:

1. Stimulus-Response Association: Behaviorists emphasize the relationship between

external stimuli and observable behaviors. They argue that behaviors are learned

through associations between specific stimuli and responses.

2. Conditioning: Behaviorism proposes two main types of conditioning:

 Classical Conditioning: This involves learning by association. For example,

Pavlov's famous experiment with dogs demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (a

bell) could become associated with a reflexive response (salivation) when

paired with a naturally occurring stimulus (food).

 Operant Conditioning: This type of conditioning focuses on the

consequences of behavior. Skinner's work on operant conditioning showed

how behaviors can be strengthened or weakened based on the rewards

(reinforcement) or punishments they receive.

3. Reinforcement and Punishment: Behaviorism emphasizes the role of reinforcement

(increasing the likelihood of a behavior) and punishment (decreasing the likelihood of

a behavior) in shaping behavior. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding a

behavior, while negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to

reinforce behavior.

4. Observable and Measurable: Behaviorists stress the importance of studying

behaviors that are observable and measurable, rather than focusing on internal mental

processes, which are not directly observable.

 5. Environmental Influence: Behaviorism contends that the environment plays a crucial

role in shaping behavior. Learning occurs as individuals interact with their

environment and respond to various stimuli.

Behaviorism has had a significant impact on education, therapy, and animal training. It

provided a foundation for the development of techniques like behavior modification and

applied behavior analysis. While it has been influential, contemporary psychology has

evolved to incorporate cognitive processes and internal mental states, which behaviorism

largely ignores, leading to the emergence of cognitive and cognitive-behavioral theories of

learning and behavior.

1.2 Behaviorism in the classroom

Teachers can apply principles of behaviorism in various ways to enhance classroom

management, facilitate effective teaching, and promote student learning. Here are some

strategies and practices that teachers can use based on behaviorism:

1. Setting Clear Expectations: Clearly define and communicate classroom rules,

expectations, and behavioral objectives. Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of

explicitly stating what behaviors are expected from students.

2. Positive Reinforcement: Use positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors.

This can include praise, rewards, or other incentives when students exhibit appropriate

conduct or achieve academic milestones. Positive reinforcement can motivate students

to engage actively in learning.

3. Negative Reinforcement: Remove or reduce aversive stimuli when students exhibit

desired behaviors. For example, if students complete their assignments on time, they
 may be exempt from additional homework. Negative reinforcement can motivate

students to avoid undesirable behaviors.

4. Immediate Feedback: Behaviorism highlights the importance of providing

immediate feedback on student performance. Constructive feedback helps students

understand their strengths and areas for improvement, guiding them toward desired

behaviors and learning outcomes.

5. Behavior Contracts: Create behavior contracts with students to outline specific

behavioral goals and rewards or consequences for meeting or failing to meet those

goals. Behavior contracts can be effective tools for addressing individual behavior

concerns.

6. Behavioral Interventions: Develop and implement behavior intervention plans

(BIPs) for students with challenging behaviors. BIPs involve systematic strategies to

modify behavior, including identifying triggers, teaching alternative behaviors, and

using reinforcement.

7. Classroom Routines: Establish consistent classroom routines and procedures to help

students understand expectations and reduce uncertainty. Predictable routines can

create a structured learning environment.

2.1 Cognitivism

Cognitivism, strong criticism came from Gestalt psychologists (Gestalt meaning

pattern or configuration in German), is a learning theory that focuses on the internal processes

involved in learning, such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving. Unlike

behaviorism, which emphasizes observable behaviors, cognitivism looks at how the mind

processes information and how it is stored, retrieved, and applied. It views the learner as an

active participant in the learning process, constructing knowledge based on cognitive

structures. For cognitive psychologists, going beyond merely descriptive adequacy to

explanatory power took on the utmost importance. Both the structural linguist and the

behavioral psychologist were interested in description, in answering what questions about

human behavior by means of objective measurement in controlled circumstances. The

generative linguist and cognitive psychologist were, to be sure, interested in the what

question. But, they were far more interested in a more ultimate question: why? What

underlying factors—innate, psychological, social, or environmental circumstances caused a

particular behavior in a human being?

The principles Hartley (ibid) identifies are:

 Instruction organization: To be easier to learn and to remember, materials should be

well organized.

 Instruction structuring: Subject matters should have inherent structures. Key ideas and

concepts should have logical relationships. These would link the parts together.

 The task and its perceptual features: The way a problem is displayed is important if

students are to understand it. This is so because different aspects of the environment

are attended selectively by learners.

 Individual differences: They are very important since they affect directly learning.

These differences are often in the form of cognitive styles or methods of approach.

 Information about students’ success or failure concerning the task at hand is given by

cognitive feedback. Hence, reinforcement comes through giving information-a

knowledge of results – rather than a reward.

Application of Cognitivism in the Classroom:

1. Organized and Structured Learning: Teachers can help students organize new

information into meaningful categories or schemas, making it easier to retrieve later.

Lessons should be logically structured, with clear connections between concepts.

2. Use of Prior Knowledge: Teachers should activate students’ prior knowledge before

introducing new content, which helps learners integrate new information with what

they already know. For example, using analogies and examples that relate to the

student's life can make learning more relatable.

3. Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking: Lessons can be designed to encourage

critical thinking and problem-solving. Cognitivism supports the use of tasks that
require students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information rather than just
memorizing it.

4. Visual Aids and Concept Mapping: Visual tools like concept maps, charts, and
diagrams help learners organize information and see relationships between different
concepts. These tools support the cognitive process of organizing and retrieving
information.

5. Active Learning Techniques: Teachers can promote active learning strategies such
as discussions, debates, role-playing, and project-based learning. These activities help
students process information deeply and apply it to new contexts.

6. Chunking Information: Since working memory has limited capacity, breaking

down complex information into smaller, manageable chunks (or "chunking") can help
learners process and store information more efficiently.

3.1 Constructivism Theory and Learning

Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Constructivism is hardly a new school of thought. Piaget and Vygotsky,

names often associated with constructivism, are not by any means new to the

scene of language studies. Yet, in a variety of post-structuralist theoretical

positions, constructivism emerged as a paradigm of intense interest in the last

part of the twentieth century. A refreshing characteristic of constructivism is

its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms, in contrast to the

professional chasms that often divided those disciplines in the

previous century. Now, with its emphasis on social interaction and the discovery, or

construction, of meaning, the three disciplines have much more

common ground.

What is constructivism, and how does it differ from the other two viewpoints

described above? First, it will be helpful to think of two branches of constructivism: cognitive

and social. In cognitive constructivism, emphasis is placed

on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality.

“Learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they

are to make it their own, [suggesting] a more active role for students in their

own learning than is typical in many classrooms” (Slavin, 2003, pp. 257–258).

Such claims are rooted in Piaget’s seminal work in the middle of the twentieth

century, (Piaget, 1954, 1955, 1970; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) but have taken a

long time to become widely accepted views. For Piaget, “learning is a developmental process

that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each

building on prior learning experiences” (Kaufman, 2004, p. 304).

this theory posits that cognitive development occurs in a series of distinct stages, each

characterized by specific cognitive structures and ways of thinking.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

Key Characteristics:

 Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

 They explore the world through touch, taste, and movement.

 Development of object permanence (the understanding that objects continue to exist

even when they cannot be seen).

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

Key Characteristics:

 Children begin to use symbols (like words and images) to represent objects.

 They are egocentric, meaning they struggle to see things from others' perspectives.

 Thinking is intuitive and not yet logical.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

Key Characteristics:

 Children's thinking becomes more logical and organized, but it is still concrete

(focused on real, tangible objects and events).

 They begin to understand concepts such as conservation, reversibility, and cause and

effect.

 They can perform mental operations, like math problems, but struggle with abstract

ideas.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older)

 Key Characteristics:

 Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

 They can use deductive reasoning and understand hypothetical situations.

 They can think about abstract concepts like morality, love, politics, and ethics.

Key aspects:

- Stages are sequential and universal

- Each stage builds upon the previous one

- The timing of stages can vary, but the order remains constant

The Theory of Genetic Epistemology

The Theory of Genetic Epistemology examines how knowledge forms in humans.

According to Piaget, children build their understanding of the world by actively exploring and

interacting with their environment. This process involves children actively engaging with

their surroundings to develop their own understanding of concepts and ideas.

The theory consists of the following key principles.

1. Schema: Piaget proposed that individuals organize their knowledge into mental

structures called schemas. Schemas are like cognitive templates or frameworks that

help individuals interpret and understand the world around them. For example, a child

may have a schema for "dog," which includes characteristics like "four legs" and

"barks."

2. Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which individuals incorporate new

information or experiences into their existing schemas. When a child encounters a new
 dog that fits their existing schema of a dog, they assimilate this information by

recognizing it as a dog.

3. Accommodation: Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas or creating

new ones to accommodate new information or experiences that do not fit existing

schemas. If a child encounters a cat for the first time and realizes that it doesn't fit their

schema for a dog, they may create a new schema for "cat."

4. Equilibration: Piaget proposed that cognitive development is driven by the desire for

cognitive equilibrium or balance. When individuals encounter new information that

challenges their existing schemas (a state of cognitive disequilibrium), they seek to

resolve the imbalance by either assimilating the new information or accommodating it

through schema modification.

Learning Animal Categories

Initial Equilibrium: A child has a schema that all four-legged animals are "dogs" based

on their experiences with their pet.

New Experience (Disequilibrium): The child visits a farm and sees a cow. At first, the

child may call the cow a "dog" because it also has four legs. This creates confusion

because the cow looks and behaves very differently from a dog.

Assimilation Attempt: The child tries to assimilate the cow into their existing schema

for "dog," but the differences in size, sound, and behavior make this difficult.

Accommodation (Restoring Equilibrium): To resolve this conflict, the child

accommodates by creating a new schema for cows, understanding that not all four-

legged animals are dogs. The child reaches a new equilibrium, now able to distinguish

between dogs and cows.

 Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction

and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment. Spivey (1997, p. 24) noted

that constructivist research tends to focus on “individuals engaged in social

practices … on a collaborative group, [or] on a global community.” The champion of

social constructivism is Lev Vygotsky (1978), who advocated the view

that “children’s thinking and meaning-making is socially constructed and emerges out

of their social interactions with their environment” (Kaufman,

2004, p. 304). One of the most popular concepts advanced by Vygotsky was the notion

of a zone of proximal development (ZPD): the distance between learners’

existing developmental state and their potential development. Put another way,

the ZPD encompasses tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of

learning with appropriate stimuli. The ZPD is an important facet of social

constructivism because it involves tasks “that a child cannot yet do alone but could

do with the assistance of more competent peers or adults” (Slavin, 2003, p. 44;

see also Karpov & Haywood, 1998). A number of applications of Vygotsky’s

ZPD have been made to foreign language instruction (Lantolf, 2000, 2011;

Nassaji & Cumming, 2000; Marchenkova, 2005) in both adult and child second

language learning contexts.

Principles of Constructivism

1. Social Interaction: Social constructivism posits that learning is inherently social.

Learners engage with others in meaningful interactions, discussions, and

collaborations to construct knowledge. These social interactions can occur with peers,

teachers, experts, or through participation in communities of practice.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The concept of the Zone of Proximal

Development, developed by Lev Vygotsky, is central to social constructivism. It refers

to the range of tasks that learners cannot yet perform independently but can

accomplish with guidance and support from a more knowledgeable other. Social

interaction, especially with a knowledgeable partner, is seen as essential for learning

within the ZPD.

3. Scaffolding: Scaffolding by Jerome Bruner is the support and guidance provided by a

more knowledgeable person to help learners advance their understanding and skills.

Scaffolding can take various forms, such as asking questions, providing hints,

modeling, or offering feedback. It is designed to help learners move from dependence

to independence in problem-solving.

4. Cultural Context: Social constructivism recognizes the influence of cultural factors

on learning. Cultural context, including language, norms, values, and practices, shapes

how individuals interpret and make meaning of their experiences. Culture provides the

framework for understanding and communicating knowledge.

5. Language and Communication: Language is considered a powerful tool for

constructing knowledge. It allows individuals to share their thoughts, negotiate

meaning, and co-construct understanding. Social constructivists emphasize the

importance of rich, meaningful language interactions in the learning process.

6. Collaborative Learning: Collaborative learning is a fundamental aspect of social

constructivism. Learners often work together on tasks, projects, or problem-solving

activities, where they share ideas, perspectives, and insights. Collaborative learning

environments encourage active engagement and multiple viewpoints.

 7. Situated Learning: Social constructivism emphasizes that learning is situated within

a specific context or community. Learning is most effective when it occurs within

authentic, real-world contexts that are relevant to the learner.

8. Cultural Tools: Vygotsky introduced the idea of "cultural tools," which are various

cultural artifacts, symbols, and practices that mediate learning and cognitive

development. These tools include books, technology, diagrams, and other resources

that facilitate understanding.

9. Expertise and Novice Interaction: Interactions between experts and novices are seen

as particularly valuable in social constructivism. Experts can provide guidance, model

expert thinking, and help novices develop more advanced skills and understanding.

In summary, social constructivism asserts that learning is a social and cultural process

that occurs through active engagement with others and the cultural context. It emphasizes the

importance of social interaction, collaboration, and the role of cultural factors in shaping how

individuals construct knowledge and make meaning of their experiences

Multiple Intelligences Theory and Learning

The Multiple Intelligences Theory, proposed by Howard Gardner in the early 1980s, is

a cognitive theory that suggests that individuals possess multiple forms of intelligence, each

of which represents different ways of processing information and understanding the world.

Gardner's theory challenges the traditional notion of a single, general intelligence (often

measured by IQ tests) and instead recognizes a broader spectrum of intelligences. Here's an

overview of the Multiple Intelligences Theory and its implications for learning:

1. Linguistic Intelligence (Verbal): Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use

words effectively, both in written and spoken forms. Learners with strong linguistic
 intelligence excel in activities like reading, writing, storytelling, and debating. In

educational settings, teachers can enhance learning by providing opportunities for

reading, writing, and oral expression, encouraging discussions, and using literature as

a teaching tool (Gardner, 1983).

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Logical-mathematical intelligence centers

around logical reasoning, problem-solving, and mathematical thinking. Learners with

this intelligence excel in tasks that involve abstract reasoning and quantitative

analysis. In education, teachers can foster this intelligence by presenting challenging

problems, encouraging critical thinking, and engaging students in hands-on

experiments (Gardner, 1983).

3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: Visual-spatial intelligence relates to the capacity to

perceive the world accurately, manipulate mental images, and understand spatial

relationships. Individuals strong in this intelligence often excel in activities such as

drawing, painting, map reading, and puzzle-solving. Educators can support visual-

spatial learners by using visual aids, graphic organizers, and art-related projects in the

curriculum (Gardner, 1983).

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves physical

coordination, dexterity, and a keen sense of body awareness. People with this

intelligence excel in activities like sports, dance, acting, and hands-on learning

experiences. In education, teachers can facilitate learning for bodily-kinesthetic

learners by incorporating movement, role-playing, and interactive activities into

lessons (Gardner, 1983).

5. Musical Intelligence: Musical intelligence encompasses the ability to perceive,

create, and appreciate musical patterns and rhythms. Learners with strong musical

intelligence often excel in playing musical instruments, composing music, and

 recognizing tonal variations. Educators can enhance learning by integrating music into

the curriculum, encouraging musical exploration, and using rhythm to aid memory

(Gardner, 1983).

6. Interpersonal Intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to

understand and relate to others effectively. Individuals strong in this intelligence excel

in social interactions, empathizing with others, and working collaboratively. In

educational settings, teachers can promote interpersonal learning by fostering group

projects, peer mentoring, and opportunities for discussions and debates (Gardner,

1983).

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Intrapersonal intelligence pertains to self-awareness, self-

reflection, and a deep understanding of one's own emotions and motivations.

Individuals with this intelligence often excel in activities like journaling, setting

personal goals, and self-directed learning. In education, teachers can support

intrapersonal learners by encouraging self-assessment, reflective journals, and

independent research projects (Gardner, 1983).

8. Naturalistic Intelligence: Gardner later added naturalistic intelligence, which

involves an affinity for understanding and connecting with the natural world. People

with this intelligence are skilled at recognizing patterns in nature, such as plants,

animals, and ecosystems.

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

1. dentify and Celebrate Individual Strengths: Ts can begin by identifying the

multiple intelligences that are most prominent in your students. This can be done
 through observation, informal assessments, and discussions with students. Recognize

and celebrate each student's unique strengths and talents.

2. Varied Instructional Methods: Ts can design lessons and activities that tap into

different intelligences. For example:

 For linguistic learners, incorporate reading, writing, and storytelling.

 For logical-mathematical learners, present problems to solve and encourage

critical thinking.

 For visual-spatial learners, use visual aids, diagrams, and hands-on projects.

 For bodily-kinesthetic learners, include movement, role-playing, and

interactive tasks.

 For musical learners, integrate music and rhythm into lessons.

 For interpersonal learners, promote group discussions and collaborative

projects.

 For intrapersonal learners, provide opportunities for self-reflection and goal

setting.

 For naturalistic learners, incorporate environmental or nature-related topics.

Learning styles theory

Learning styles theory is a framework that suggests individuals have different

preferred ways of learning and processing information. These learning styles are believed to

influence how individuals approach and engage with educational material. This theory is a

valuable tool for teachers who want to create learning environments that are inclusive and

effective for all students. By designing instruction that is tailored to different learning styles,

teachers can help all students to learn and reach their full potential. However, it is important

to note that learning styles theory is not without its critics. Some researchers argue that there
is not enough evidence to support the claims of learning styles theory. Additionally, some

critics argue that learning styles theory can lead to labelling students and tracking them into

different learning groups, which can be harmful.

Types of Learning Styles:

1. Visual Learners: Visual learners prefer to learn through visual aids such as diagrams,

charts, images, and videos. They often benefit from seeing information presented in a

graphical or visual format.

2. Auditory Learners: Auditory learners learn best through listening. They tend to

benefit from lectures, discussions, audio recordings, and spoken explanations.

3. Kinesthetic/Tactile Learners: Kinesthetic or tactile learners are hands-on learners

who prefer to learn by doing. They benefit from physical activities, hands-on

experiences, and interactive tasks.

4. Reading/Writing Learners: Reading/writing learners excel when information is

presented in text form. They prefer reading materials, taking notes, and engaging in

written assignments.

Implications for Learning:

 Customized Instruction: Learning styles theory suggests that educators should tailor

their instruction to match students' preferred learning styles. This may involve using a

variety of teaching methods to accommodate different learning preferences within the

classroom.

 Multimodal Instruction: Many proponents of learning styles theory advocate for

incorporating multiple modes of instruction in the classroom to cater to various

 learning styles. This can include using visual aids, audio presentations, hands-on

activities, and written materials in lessons.

 Student Engagement: Recognizing and addressing individual learning styles can help

increase student engagement and motivation. When students are taught in ways that

align with their preferences, they may feel more connected to the material and find

learning more enjoyable.