Chapter VII

Azolla, A Low Cost Aquatic

Green Manure for
Agricultural Crops
Thomas A. Lumpkin
Department of Agronomy and Soil Science
College of Tropical Agriculture
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
and
Donald L. Plueknett
Consultative Group on international
Agricultural Research
World Bank
Washington, D.C.
Contents

Page
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
What Is Azolla? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
What Are the Benefits of Using Azolla? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
The Present Status of Azolla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Where Azolla Is Being Used in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
How Azolla Is Used as a Green Manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Who Is Doing Azolla Research? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
What Organizations Are Financing Azolla Research? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Azolla’s Effect on the Need for Agricultural Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... ... ...O... 115
Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
The Potential Use of Azolla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
How Does Azolla Affect the Productivity of Tropical Soils? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
The Potential Use of Azolla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
A Research, Development, and Implementation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
The Program Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
What Organizations Should Be Involved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
What Is the Necessary Level of Financial Support?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
What Are the Personnel Requirements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
What Are the Attitudes of Those Who Would Be Affected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
What Are Conducive Conditions for Implementation of the Technology? . . . . . 119
Where Do Conducive Conditions Exist and Where Are
They Likely to Develop? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
What Is the Sequence of Steps Leading to Successful Implementation?. . . . . . . 120
Constraints on the Development and Implementation of Azolla Technology . . . . . . 120
Scientific Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Environmental Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Cultural and Economic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Political Constraints .. .. .. .. .<. ... .$..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Effect of the Implementation of Azolla Technology on the Need for Inputs . . 122
Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Farm Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Figures
Figure No. Page
l. Azolla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2. Azolla as Food and Fodder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3. Geographic Distribution of Azolla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4. Incorporating Azolla Into Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
 Chapter Vll

Azolla, A Low Cost Aquatic Green

Manure for Agricultural Crops

INTRODUCTION
The air we breathe is 79 percent nitrogen. fertilizer and causing farmers to reconsider
Plants need nitrogen to make the proteins that traditional methods for maintaining soil fer-
allow them to harvest sunlight and carry on tility.
natural processes. Unfortunately, nitrogen in
the air is in an inert N2 form that cannot be The traditional legume crops are and will
used by plants. Only two kinds of organisms continue to be the most commonly used ni-
have the ability to convert inert atmospheric trogen-fixing green manures, especially for
nitrogen to a usable form such as ammonia, upland crops. However, they have certain
These two organisms are blue-green alga (cy- weaknesses for rice farmers. One of these
anobacteria) and certain species of bacteria. weaknesses is that rice is traditionally grown
Rhizobium bacteria are the nitrogen-fixing on the most fertile and, consequently, inten-
partners of the well-known legume/Rhizobium sively managed land. Rice farmers are reluc-
symbiosis of soybeans, alfalfa, etc. The blue- tant to use part of the valuable growing season
green alga anabaena are the nitrogen-fixing on a relatively slow-growing, legume green
partners of the virtually unknown Azolla/Ana- manure crop, Another problem is that many
baena symbiosis, rice paddies are flooded or waterlogged, par-
ticularly during the potentially productive early
Until this century, nitrogen-fixing bacteria part of the rice season when most of the trans-
and blue-green alga, existing under freeliving planted rice is still in the nursery beds. Unfor-
or symbiotic conditions, produced most of the tunately, under waterlogged or flooded condi-
new nitrogen entering the cropping system. tions most legumes cannot grow or fix nitrogen,
Almost all farmers had to include legumes in so usually the paddy fields stand idle for a
their crop rotation in order to maintain soil month or more while the rice seedlings mature
fertility. This traditional practice continued in the nursery beds. The fast-growing aquatic
until the discovery of fossil-fuel-dependent Azolla has neither of these two weaknesses,
methods of producing nitrogen fertilizer that
radically changed the economics of agriculture, What Is Azolla?
The use of legumes in crop rotation was soon
considered to be too expensive and trouble- Azolla is a genus of small aquatic ferns that
some and fell into disuse, except when grown are native to Asia, Africa, and the Americas
as a cash crop. The change was most appar- (figure 1), Three Azolla species are native to
ent in developed countries and in developing parts of the United States, They live naturally
countries that adopted the “green-revolution” in lakes, swamps, streams, and other bodies of
technology. water, Some have been spread by man or nat-
ural means to various parts of the world. Some
However, during the 1970s this change began are strictly tropical or subtropical in nature,
to reverse itself, The rapidly rising price of while others grow and thrive in either temper-
fossil fuel-dependent nitrogen fertilizers caused ate or tropical climates. Azolla has been of in-
the economics of agriculture to shift again, terest to botanists and agriculturists for years
Rising prices are causing researchers to seek because of its symbiotic relationship with a
alternative methods for producing synthetic nitrogen-fixing, blue-green alga, Anabaena.

107
108
—

Figure 1.—Azolla

Cells of the nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae, Anabaena, look

like a string of beads. The larger egg-shaped cells special-
ize in producing nitrogren fertilizer while the more numer-
ous smaller cells harvest sunlight.

Anabaena azollae. The delicate fern provides

nutrients and a protective leaf cavity for the
Anabaena, which in turn provides nitrogen for
Vietnam. the fern. Under suitable field conditions, the
fern/alga combination can double in weight
every 3 to 5 days and fix atmospheric nitrogen
The Azolla/Anabaena Relationship
at a rate exceeding that of the legume/Rhizo-
The most remarkable feature of azolla is its bium symbiotic relationship. Azolla can ac-
symbiotic relationship with the blue-green alga, cumulate up to 2 to 4 kilograms of nitrogen/
 109

ha/day (equivalent to 10 to 20 kg of ammonium Even though azolla appears to be a rather

sulfate), and since the Azolla/Anabaena com- delicate plant that would rapidly decompose,
bination grows in aquatic conditions, it can it actually takes six weeks or more for most of
provide a potential nitrogen source for flooded the nutrients to be released because the plant
crops such as rice. The exploitation of this po- has a rather high lignin content. Slow decom-
tential is a challenge to agricultural scientists. position gives a natural slow release effect that
is ideal for efficient absorption of the nutrients
What Are the Benefits of released. Another factor in azolla effectiveness
Using Azolla? as a green manure is its low carbon to nitro-
gen ratio of about 10:1. This high ratio ensures
Producing Nitrogen Fertilizer for that azolla nitrogen will not be tied up by
increasing Crop Yields bacteria that are involved in decomposition of
Azolla plants are described by the Chinese an over abundance of carbonaceous plant
residues.
and Vietnamese as being miniature nitrogen
fertilizer factories. Indeed the Vietnamese call
them indestructible fertilizer factories, since Producing Fodder for Pigs, Ducks,
azolla continued to produce nitrogen fertilizer and Fish
for Vietnamese rice paddies even during the
Azolla has traditionally been used as a fod-
height of the Vietnam war.
der throughout Asia and parts of Africa. It is
The nitrogen fertilizer fixed by azolla be- fed to pigs, ducks, and fish (figure 2), The grass
comes available to the rice after the azolla mat carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), Israeli Carp
is incorporated into the soil and its nitrogen (Cyrinus carpis), and Tilapia mossambica pre-
begins to be released through decomposition. fer azolla over most other aquatic weeds as a
In 25 to 35 days azolla can easily fix enough source of food, Small lots of azolla growing in
nitrogen for a 4 to 6 ton/ha rice crop during canals and ponds as food for pigs and ducks
the rainy season, or a 5 to 8 ton/ha crop under are ubiquitous throughout southern China.
irrigation during the dry season. Azolla as a fodder probably has a longer his-
tory than as a green manure, There may even
Maintaining Soil Fertility be potential for direct consumption by man,
In India, women make a tasty deep fried dish
As a green manure, azolla’s influence on soil of azolla mixed with batter (7),
fertility is due to its organic matter and nitro-
gen. A humus compound is formed as a result On a dry weight basis, azolla has a protein
of the incorporation and decomposition of content between 13 to 24 percent, One hectare
azolla. Humus increases the water holding ca- of azolla can produce 1 to 2 tons of fodder per
pacity of soil and promotes aeration, drainage, hectare per day, equivalent to 10 to 30 kg of
and the aggregation essential for highly pro- protein per day. When these statistics are con-
ductive soils, Organic matter can bind together sidered, azolla has a tremendous potential as
soil particles and makes clayey soils more a fodder crop in developing countries and also
friable. in the United States.
In addition to its influence on soil physical Recent work in India at G. B. Pant Univer-
properties, azolla is important in the cycling sity indicates that azolla maybe useful as a fod-
of nutrients, While azolla is growing in the der for cattle. In trials there, growing heifers
paddy, it fixes nitrogen and also absorbs nu- gained 0.33 kg/day when fed 0.9 kg of dried
trients out of the water that might otherwise azolla with 2.1 kg of a 2:1 ratio of dry wheat
be washed away. When the azolla is incor- straw and sugarcane tops. Control animals that
porated into the soil and humus is formed, were fed the same amount of wheat straw and
these nutrients are slowly released into the soil sugarcane tops, but also received 1.5 kg of a
as decomposition progresses. concentrate feed, gained only 0.14 kg/day (l).
110

Figure 2.— Azolla as Food and Fodder

Although azolla is most commonly used as an organic fertilizer for rice, it can also be used as a fodder for pigs (left), duck
(center) and fish and as a compost (right) for upland crops. Many of the pigs which are grown to produce China’s famous Jin-
hua hams are fed on a diet which includes azolla.

Azolla is a preferred forage for many species of herbivorous fish. Azolla may also have potential for direct consumption by
man if attractive uses can be developed. The photo on the right shows a deep fried dish of azolla mixed with batter.

Suppressing the Growth this suppression, the most effective being the
of Aquatic Weeds
light-starvation of young weed seedlings by the
Agricultural economists have estimated that blockage of sunlight. The other is the physical
Asian farmers, particularly women, spend resistance to weed seedling emergence created
more time weeding than on any other activity by a heavy, interlocking azolla mat. In some
required for rice production. Although re- weed-infested rice fields, the benefit from
search is insufficient, it is commonly believed azolla weed suppression may even surpass its
that azolla suppresses the growth of certain benefit as a nitrogen source. Rice seedlings are
aquatic weeds. Weed growth is suppressed not affected by azolla’s weed suppression ef-
when azolla forms a thick, virtually light-proof fect because, when transplanted, they stand
mat. There are probably two mechanisms for above the azolla mat.
 111

THE PRESENT STATUS OF AZOLLA

Where Azolla Is Being Used in tected during seasons that are too severe for
Agriculture its survival.
Azolla is already being grown commercially The original sites of azolla cultivation are
in China and Vietnam, where its usefulness has thought to have been Zhejiang Province in
been known for years, Once restricted in use China and Thai Binh Province in Vietnam. Un-
because of propagation problems, the fern is til recently certain villages in these places had
now being used in larger crop areas (figure 3), temples dedicated to the mythological dis-
coverers of azolla. At the end of the 19th cen-
Chinese use of azolla goes back hundreds of tury azolla was being cultivated at favorable
years, at least to the Ming dynasty, Its use in sites along the east Asian Coast as far south
Vietnam dates to the 1lth century. These two as 200 N latitude on the Red River delta in Viet-
are the only countries with a long history of nam and northeastward through Guangdong
azolla cultivation. The practice probably began and Fujian Provinces to Wenzhou District near
with recognition that the spontaneous growth 280 N latitude in Zhejiang Province, China.
of wild azolla in rice fields had a beneficial ef-
fect on the crop. Organized use of the fern A major push for expanding the use of azolla
could not occur, however, until reliable meth- began in China and Vietnam in the early 1960s.
ods were developed to overwinter and over- Before that time it was common for certain
summer the fern. Since azolla can only be families or villages that had mastered the in-
grown from vegetative material, it must be pro- tricate techniques of oversummering and over-

Figure 3.—Geographic Distribution of Azolla

Distribution of Azolla species throughout the world, This distribution map is rapidly becoming outdated because many azolla
species and varieties are being moved about and introduced into new places as research on azolla grows.
112

wintering azolla to control the supply of azolla- availability of publications in English and
starter-stocks in the spring. Peasants had to French as well as in Vietnamese. Recently, in-
travel to these villages to purchase their spring formation from China has become available
plants. (3,4,11,2,5).
After the revolutions in China and Vietnam, Today, azolla is grown as a green manure on
the new governments eventually recognized about 1.3 million hectares of rice in China. Re-
the worth of azolla and began officially pro- search and development activities have in-
moting its use and organizing the construction creased significantly, as have extension activ-
of propagation centers. ities to promote its use. Large posters have been
produced to inform the public of azolla’s use-
During colonial days in Vietnam, French fulness and of its management requirements.
scientists reported on the use of azolla and did
some preliminary research, but its cultivation
was never promoted officially. At the end of How Azolla Is Used as a Green Manure
the colonial period, azolla was grown on about
40,000 hectares 1 as a green manure during the Azolla can be used as a green manure (fig-
winter for the spring rice crop. In 1958, the ure 4):
new government established an azolla research
center at the Crop Production Research Insti-
● by growing it as a monocrop and then in-
tute and set up an extension network with over corporating it as a basal manure before the
rice is transplanted; or transported to
1,000 inoculum production bases to stimulate
use. another site for use on upland crops;
● growing it as an intercrop and incorporat-
Despite this promising beginning, the big ing it as a top dressing manure after the
push in azolla research did not come until the rice is transplanted; or
early 1960s. Articles on azolla began appear- ● by growing it both as a monocrop and an
ing in 1962, culminating in several articles and intercrop.
a large book (9).
All three systems can be successful but, as
Since the introduction of high yielding rice is common in agriculture, use of the green
varieties to Vietnam in the early 1960s, most manure crop requires some adjustments in
azolla has been grown as a monocrop before management of both the green manure and the
the spring rice. The cultivated area reportedly main crop.
doubled from 1965 to about 700,000 hectares
Monocrop Azolla is used in China and Viet-
in 1978. As in China, azolla cultivation in Viet-
nam is seldom practiced in summer because nam during winter and spring to produce ni-
trogen for the spring rice crop. The same tech-
the A. pinnata var. imbricata native to the
Asian continent is sensitive to high tempera- nique is used to produce nitrogen for the early
tures and insects. summer rice crop, but this is less common
since the growth of Azolla pinnata is affected
Vietnamese scientists have collected over 30 by high temperature and heavy pest attack dur-
varieties of local azolla and have selected ing mid to late summer.
superior strains for heat, cold, salt, and acid
Intercropped Azolla is usually grown with
tolerances. Despite these advances, reportedly
most communes and cooperatives have not the rice in places where there is no time avail-
adopted these improved azolla varieties. able in the cropping system for the monocrop-
ping of azolla. As an intercrop azolla will be
The Chinese story is much the same as that initially incorporated by hand or rotary rice
of Vietnam, although much more was known weeder and then later killed by heavy shading
of the Vietnamese experience because of the and/or high temperatures—with subsequent
decomposition and release of nitrogen to the
‘1 hectare = 2.47 acres. crop—at the stage of maximum rice tillering.
 113

Figure 4 . — Incorporating Azolla Into Soil

-4-

Two of several methods for soils incorporating a monocrop of azolla as a basal green manure for rice. Both photos were taken
during the spring of 1980 in Guangdong province, China. The photo on the left is A. filiculoides, the photo on the right IS Azolla
imbricata

The photo on the left shows an azolla beater being used to spread inoculum azolla after it was introduced into the field of
a second later summer rice crop to grow with the-rice as an intercrop.

The top center photo shows an azolla pusher which is used to spread inoculum azolla if it is applied to a rice crop after the
rice is transplanted, or is used to concentrate and collect azolla in a nursery. The bottom center photo shows a bamboo pole
being used to collect azolla growing in a canal.
114

Growing both monocrop and intercropped Studying azolla management to fit temperate,
Azolla is a technique that is designed to use broadcast-sown production systems is the
the growing period for azolla before the plant- focus of the research program at the Univer-
ing of the rice crop, plus production of added sity of California at Davis (8). Research objec-
nitrogen for the crop through cultivation of in- tives at UCD include use of A. filiculoides a s
tercropped azolla, In this system two different a monocrop basal green manure crop for
varieties of azolla may be used in each of the springsown rice and A. mexicana as an inter-
different periods. Different temperature and crop in rice. The UCD program received a
light sensitivities of azolla varieties make this grant from the USDA Competitive Grants Pro-
possible. gram in 1980 and a grant from the National
Science Foundation.
Who Is Doing Azolla Research? Basic physiology studies are the focus of the
A number of centers are conducting azolla program at the Kettering Laboratory focused
research. Most of this work is less than 5 years on understanding the Azolla/Anabaena rela-
old. Both China and Vietnam are studying tionship (6). The program has been supported
Azolla pinnata var. imbricata under their own by a grant from the National Science Founda-
conditions. Recently, the Zhejiang Academy of tion and a grant in 1979 from the USDA Com-
Agricultural Sciences has had an opportunity petitive Grants Program.
to evaluate the other Azolla species (caroli- Another azolla research program that we
nian, filiculoides, mexicana, microphyhlla, know less about is at Virginia Commonwealth
and nilotica) for use in China. University, where the isolation and reconstitu-
Many developing country rice research tion of the Azolla/Anabaena association are be-
centers have begun azolla research, but with ing studied. This work has been supported by
little success to date. Probably the most suc- a grant from the USDA Competitive Grants
cessful program is in Thailand, where the Min- Program; the first grant was made in 1979. Dr.
istry of Agriculture has been sponsoring an Jack Newton of the USDA in Peoria, Illinois,
azolla program that has progressed through the has done some research on isolation of Ana-
regional extension stations and has now baena from Azolla.
reached the stage of demonstration plots in the Countries that have initiated or plan to initi-
fields of progressive farmers. ate azolla research include: India, Nepal, Thai-
The International Rice Research Institute land, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia,
started an azolla research program nearly 8 The Philippines, Sri Lanka, Egypt, Peru, and
years ago (10), IRRI is studying the use of sev- the West African Rice Development Associa-
eral azolla species for use in flooded rice. tion, headquartered in Liberia. In addition, sev-
eral other countries have expressed an inter-
There are three major centers of azolla re- est in the fern and its uses.
search in the United States. One is the Univer-
sity of Hawaii, where agronomic and physiol-
ogy studies are underway to characterize and What Organizations Are Financing
understand the usefulness of all azolla species AzoIla Research?
in tropical crop production systems, including
rice and taro (5). The work is led by T. A. Lum- Current financial support for azolla research
pkin who was selected by the National Acad- in the U.S. comes from AID (a small 211(d)
emy of Sciences to conduct research on azolla grant), the National Science Foundation (2
in the People’s Republic of China in 1979 and grants), and the USDA (Section 406 and Com-
1980 at its foremost azolla research center, the petitive Grants). The USDA Competitive Grants
Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences at office has made three grants totaling $278,000
Hangzhou. to the University of California at Davis, Ket-
 115

tering Laboratory, and Virginia Common- at Hawaii is sponsored by small 211(d) grant
wealth University. The National Science Foun- for nitrogen fixation from the Agency for In-
dation has made two grants: one each to ternational Development and by a research
University of California at Davis and Ketter- grant from the U. S.D.A. under the Section 406
ing Laboratory. In all probability, less than program of the 1966 Food for Peace Act, and
$300,000 per year is now being invested i n by Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station
azolla research in the United States, The work funds,

AZOLLA’S EFFECT ON THE NEED FOR AGRICULTURAL INPUTS

Fertilizers Pesticides
Successful cultivation of azolla requires the Azolla is attacked by larvae of several spe-
application of a certain amount of phosphorus cies of moths and midges and by certain kinds
fertilizer (0.5 to 1.0 kg p/ha/week), but this does of snails and beetles. These pests are especially
not necessarily mean an increase in the amount destructive during the summer season and
of phosphorus fertilizer required to produce a must be carefully controlled or the azolla can
crop of rice. The application of phosphorus is be devastated. However, azolla is usually not
usually necessary for a good crop of rice, but cultivated on a large scale during the seasons
instead of applying it directly to the rice, the when insects are rampant, but is maintained
phosphorus can be given to the azolla first in in oversummering nurseries, In addition, even
small weekly applications. Once the azolla is when azolla is cultivated in the field during the
incorporated into the soil and begins to decom- summer season, the pesticides normally used
pose, the phosphorus becomes available for the on rice crops, such as diptenex, sumithion,
rice crop. Thus phosphorus originally intended malathion, and carbofuran are usually ade-
for the rice crop is first cycled through the quate for controlling azolla insects,
azolla. The phosphorus enables the azolla to
grow and fix nitrogen that will be used by the
rice. One kilogram of phosphorus applied to Irrigation
azolla results in the fixation of 5 kilograms of Azolla is a delicate, freefloating aquatic plant.
nitrogen, North Vietnam is deficient in petro-
Although it can last for months in a refrig-
leum products for the production of nitrogen
erator, it cannot survive for more than a few
fertilizer, but has sufficient phosphate depos-
hours on a dry soil surface under direct sum-
its to fuel its miniature azolla nitrogen fac- mer sunlight, Since technology has not been
tories. developed for the use of azolla seeds (spores)
In certain deficient soils, azolla responds to in cultivation, a small amount (1 to 10 percent
the applications of other nutrients such as of inoculation requirements) of azolla plants
potassium, but these usually must also be ap- must be maintained through the seasons when
plied for a high yielding rice crop. In some rare azolla is not being cultivated in the fields. This
deficient soils, the addition of small amounts means that in tropical and subtropical areas a
of molybdenum and/or iron have proved useful certain amount of water must be available
to increase azolla’s rate of nitrogen fixation. throughout the year either to maintain azolla
The Chinese often apply river mud, ash, and in nurseries or to cultivate it in the fields. The
animal manure to supplement the phosphorus oversummering maintenance of azolla should
given to azolla. not be a problem in regions where standing
116

present throughout the year, such as

water is Even though azolla cultivation require some
in Bangladesh, or in regions where azolla can extra irrigation water, it must be remembered
be maintained in small nurseries beside moun- that in fields where little or no nitrogen fer-
tain springs. tilizer is used, the cultivation of azolla will sig-
nificantly increase the efficiency of water use.
The period when irrigation is most critical
If azolla increases the yield of rice from 2.5 tons
is when azolla is to be grown in the fields as to 5 tons, then the efficiency of water use has
a green manure. If azolla is cultivated as a
nearly doubled.
monocrop before the rice, which is the most
effective way, water must be available for
flooding the fields. If water is not available, Machinery
azolla cultivation will have to be delayed until The need for machinery is not a handicap to
it can be grown as an intercrop with the rice. successful azolla cultivation. Even the most
Azolla grows as an intercrop with rice during primitive villages can manufacture the basic
the first 20 to 30 days after transplanting. In tools required for the cultivation of azolla.
this period, the paddy fields must remain These are made from such locally available raw
flooded with at least a few centimeters of materials as bamboo and wood. A simple
water, Although some species of azolla can sur- metal/wood tool, costing a few dollars, for in-
vive on mud, as is commonly seen in Hawai- corporating intercropped azolla into the soil
ian taro fields, they need standing water for can be manufactured in villages by a black-
good growth. Thus rice paddies dependent smith. This tooI is not essential, but is more ef-
upon rain water, where short periods of ficient than soil incorporation by hand. An
drought often occur during the first month of even more efficient multiple row incorporating
rice cultivation, will not be suitable for azolla machine, with a small gas engine, would have
cultivation. Also, if extremely hot periods oc- to be manufactured commercially.
cur when water temperatures exceed 40 0 C ,
cooler water must be available for pumping
into the fields to prevent the azolla from dy-
ing of heat stress.

How Does Azolla Affect the cation exchange capacity. Cultivated tropical
Productivity of Tropical Soils? soil tend to have lower organic matter contents
and soil nitrogen than undisturbed tropical
Azolla affects soils in the same way as any soils. This is especially true with Oxisols and
other nitrogen-fixing green manure. It contrib- Ultisols.
utes nitrogen, which, after water, is the most
common limiting factor to higher crop yields.
The application of nitrogen to increase crop
yields is the cornerstone of the “green revolu-
What is the likelihood of Azolla widespread
tion.” All new rice varieties are bred for high
use? Azolla is cultivated as a green manure on
yielding response to nitrogen fertilizers.
about 2 percent of the harvested rice area of
The loss of organic matter is a primary cause China and about 5 percent of the spring rice
of decreasing crop yields in the Tropics. A de- crop. In Vietnam, azolla is grown as a winter
crease in soil organic matter results in soil green manure for 8 to 12 percent of the coun-
structure deterioration, lower plant nutrient re- try’s total harvested rice area, and about 40 to
serves from the organic matter, and a lower 60 percent of the irrigated spring rice in the
 117

Red River delta. Estimates of China’s terrestrial Azolla technology is not applicable yet for
green manure crop (mostly legumes) are as areas where rice is broadcast-sown, except as
high as 7 million hectares, or about five times a monocrop, preplant, basal green manure. An
the total estimated cultivation area of azolla. azolla mat can suppress tiny, broadcast-sown
rice seedlings; for that reason, intercropped
As strains or species of azolla are found that
azolla will probably not be successful in broad-
are less sensitive to high water temperatures
cast-sown rice unless it is inoculated in the
during summer, the areas of azolla in China
fields after the rice seedlings have become
and Vietnam will probably expand.
established and are growing well above the
The major areas where azolla should prove water surface.
useful in rice production in the Tropics are
With the above criteria in mind, the most
those where: 1) rice is transplanted, 2) labor is
likely countries to adopt azolla include parts
plentiful, and 3) some control of irrigation
of India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia,
water is possible. Also, countries with effec-
Philippines, Nepal, Peru, and the Dominican
tive research and extension services may have
Republic.
more success with popularization of azolla.

RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAM

The Program Elements where it could be a primary green manure
in summer in transplanted rice.
Two basic azolla management systems need 2. To collect and characterize all of the six
research attention; these are: 1) tropical, labor known azolla species, and to evaluate
intensive systems; and 2) temperate, capital in- them for use year-round in tropical trans-
tensive systems, The tropical systems will be planted rice production systems. [Note: in
focused mainly on developing countries, and 1980 preliminary studies by Lumpkin and
will include these principles: his Chinese co-workers in China, A. micro-
● labor intensive, phylla shows great promise as a summer
● land intensive, green manure in south Central China, and
● small farm based, a winter green manure in the south. Also,
● crop intensive, A. nilotica shows promise as a fall green
● maximizing opportunities for year-round manure in China. Neither of these species
production, has ever been tested in rice before. Further
● first priority to more intensive use of azolla mission-oriented research could have high
in transplanted rice systems, and payoff in the near future.]
3. After characterization and early testing,
● second priority to use in broadcast-sown
systems. distribute promising strains to - national
program centers for synthesis, design, and
The tropical program should set the follow- testing of new rice cropping systems based
ing objectives: on azolla as a green manure.
1. To find azolla varieties that are less sen- Temperate, capital-intensive rice production
sitive to high water temperatures (above systems, primarily centered on broadcast-sown
27° C) and pest and disease attack. This or drill-sown rice. This work should focus on
would have the effect of expanding azolla developed countries, and on middle-income
use from its present primary role as a countries (e.g., Brazil and Colombia, and other
spring green manure and its secondary countries, primarily in Latin America where
role as a fall green manure to the point similar rice production systems are used).
118

What Organizations Should Be azolla because the array of variability avail-

Involved? able in nature is clearly great, and this
should be collected and characterized
In the United States there are two places before beginning breeding programs.
where azolla is being studied for use in agri- Characterization of azolla varieties as to
culture. The University of California at Davis tolerance of high and low temperature,
is conducting research on azolla for use in phosphorus levels in water, pH, light, and
temperate zone, broadcast-sown rice, and other growing conditions should be of high
would be the logical leader for the temperate priority.
rice work, The University of Hawaii has a pro- Testing and fitting existing azolla varieties
gram on evaluation of azolla for use in tropi- into rice production systems should re-
cal production systems, and would be the ceive high priority.
logical leader for the tropical efforts. Ketter-
These three priority areas should receive first
ing Laboratory, Virginia Commonwealth Uni-
attention for funding. Related basic research
versity and USDA have specialized programs
that could play supporting basic research roles on physiology of the Azolla/Anabaena sym-
for the temperate and tropical programs. biosis, biochemistry of the association, etc., can
probably be funded through basic research
Links to developing countries will be neces- grants from NSF or USDA.
sary. Important programs elsewhere include
The applied aspects of collection, character-
the Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
ization for use in agriculture, and fitting into
Hangzhou People’s Republic of China, (the
rice production systems could be done for the
University of Hawaii has a cooperative pro-
Tropics for about $400,000 to $600,000 per
gram there already); the Fujian Province, PRC
(IRRI has links with this group); IRRI, and na- year. This would allow funds for collaborative
collecting trips to assemble a wider germplasm
tional programs in Thailand, India, and Nepal.
base, to conduct screening trials for tolerance
Several national research programs were ini-
to the physical and growing environment, and
tiated after an FAO-sponsored azolla training
to run first assessments of potential usefulness
mission by T. A. Lumpkin in 1977. Also T. A.
in production systems. Such funding would
Lumpkin and J. L. Walker of the University of
also allow some limited funds for working with
Hawaii, on behalf of the Inter-American De-
collaborators in a tropical azolla network, It
velopment Bank, visited Uruguay, Brazil, Peru,
would be desirable to have some funds for
and Colombia in 1979 to assess the potential
assisting, through small subgrants, the conduct
for azolla in those countries.
of specific desired research programs in coop-
The West African Rice Research and Devel- erating countries.
opment Association (WARDA) is also inter-
Training, both nondegree and degree, should
ested in establishing an azolla research pro-
receive attention early in the program. The first
gram, and they should be tied into the tropical
training should emphasize azolla research tech-
network,
niques (e.g., many programs have failed be-
cause researchers did not know how to keep
What Is the Necessary Level of azolla alive during hot or cold weather). Later,
Financial Support? training could begin to stress field manage-
ment, We believe the general principle to fol-
We will speak first of priority areas of re-
low in funding azolla research is probably that
search. There is need to carry out several
continuity of funding over the first several
priority activities soon. These include:
years will be more effective than heavy fund-
c More extensive and complete collection of ing over a shorter time. Collecting, characteriz-
azolla species and varieties for evaluation ing, and evaluating production systems needs
in agriculture. Indeed, collection should to be done by a team that will require continu-
take precedence over efforts to breed ity for effectiveness. Such a team should in-
 119

elude an algologist or cyanobacteria specialist. What Are the Attitudes of Those

It should have access to laboratory, green- Who Would Be Affected?
house, and field facilities. The tropical leading
institution should be able to grow azolla in the Most research organizations have become
field at any time of the year, and to grow azolla aware of azolla and have some idea as to its
in such a way that all growth stages can be potential. A few extension specialists (notably
available at any time. in rice) probably also know something about
it. Beyond that, except in China and Vietnam
The temperate program will probably require and a few individuals in developed countries,
funding in the same order of magnitude as the the farmers would know nothing of the plant
tropical program. The temperate network may and its potential use in rice. It may be that since
be easier to establish because: 1) the potential azolla is already used successfully in China and
countries involved are either in the developed Vietnam it may be easier to popularize
or middle income categories and therefore may elsewhere.
have more resources at their disposal, and 2)
the countries’ institutional research capacity
What Are Conducive Conditions for
will be much stronger than those of the tropi-
cal LDCs. Implementation of the Technology?

Some savings may be made and efficiency Conditions conducive to azolla use in the
gained through close cooperation between the Tropics include:
temperate and tropical programs. Joint collec- ● transplanted rice;
tion trips and close adherence to jointly— ● rural labor supply;
determined protocols for testing and evalua- ● assured water supply and some control of
tion within the networks should save both time water; and
and funds. ● also, for now, places that grow spring or
late summer/fall rice crops because of the
What Are the Personnel Requirements? high temperature susceptibility of A. pin-
nata in summer.
We believe the major research networks
should be oriented toward practical adaptation For rice in temperate zones, the conducive
of azolla to agricultural production. Therefore, conditions are much less certain because suc-
agronomists with strong physiology and field cess has not yet been conclusively demon-
production backgrounds will be required, As strated. Factors thought to be important for
was previously stated, specialists in blue-green broadcast-sown rice include:
alga should be available in the parent institu- ● growing cold-tolerant azolla (e.g., A .
tion or nearby.
filiculoides) as a monocrop green manure
The program should provide for laboratory to be incorporated into the soil before
and greenhouse assistance, as well as field sowing;
workers for the field experiments, It is prob- ● growing heat-tolerant, shade-sensitive
able that some of this work may be provided azolla as an intercrop with the broadcast
by graduate students and student help and by sown rice during the summer; and
existing institutional farm staff, but some full- ● having an assured source of water to grow
time assistance will be needed. the monocrop azolla before planting of
rice.
Research assistantships should be provided
in the program; this will get the training pro-
gram going as early as possible.
120

Where Do Conducive Conditions Exist In some conditions in Asia, A. pinnata, A .

and Where Are They Likely to Develop? pinnata v a r . i m b r i c a t a and perhaps A .
filiculoides could be used now as a monocrop
Most of the countries of Asia have conducive basal fertilizer before transplanting of rice.
conditions for use of azolla. Special oppor- This should be easy to popularize for the late
tunities for success seem to be present in Thai- winter or early spring rice crops.
land, Bangladesh (aus crop), and the Philip-
Before azolla is used in rice, however, it
pines (irrigated dry season crop). In Latin
should be tested under local conditions. As was
America, Peru and the Dominican Republic ap-
stated, keeping azolla alive throughout the year
pear to have the proper rice production sys-
and finding ways to multiply it for field use are
tems to make Azolla use a possibility.
the most important steps in beginning a pro-
gram. The next step is testing under local con-
What IS the Sequence of Steps Leading ditions to find ways to fit it into the existing
to Successful Implementation? production system. Use as a basal fertilizer
before transplanting is probably easiest, but if
The first two things a country must learn to
the crop cycle doesn’t allow time to grow an
do are how: 1) to keep azolla plant materials
azolla green manure crop between rice crops,
alive year-round and 2) to multiply azolla stocks
then it will be necessary to grow it as an inter-
in order to have inoculant materials available
crop. In that case the rice must be grown in
for use in the rice crop. Principles for such
rows so that incorporation of the azolla can be
techniques can be learned in training programs
done. This is just an illustration of some of the
at the network headquarters or azolla research
considerations to be dealt with in using azolla
centers. Such techniques need to be taught
in agricultural production systems.
widely to extension workers and to innovative
farmers.

CONSTRAINTS TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

OF AZOLLA TECHNOL0GY
Scientific Constraints Funding agencies can assist in ensuring that
azolla research will be directed toward real
The global azolla research effort is disorga- problems and needs by requiring multidisci-
nized and much of the work is repetitious and plinary, linked efforts that focus on use of
often useless. Certain problem areas, such as azolla on farms. This does not mean that basic
those involving agricultural engineering, have research will be precluded, but it will ensure
been ignored. Much of the support is going to that practical, mission-oriented research will
finance esoteric work, while many of the peo- not be neglected.
ple doing the research have little understand-
ing of the problems that prevent azolla’s wide- Environmental Constraints
spread use by peasant farmers. Much of the
work is involved in trying to improve labora- Water is the primary environmental con-
tory specimens of azolla, while the vast dif- straint to the cultivation of azolla. Azolla is a
ferences in wild varieties remain unexamined. freefloating aquatic fern and is therefore lim-
ited to locations that have an abundant, stable
Many of the problems preventing the wide-
water supply during field cultivation.
spread use of azolla require a multidisciplinary
research approach, but so far azolla research Temperature and humidity: For practical
has been cloistered into individual depart- purposes, azolla survives within the water tem-
ments, even in the international institutes. perature range of O to 40 0C; beyond this range,
 121

death will result, For adequate growth during The year-round cultivation of azolla is more
field cultivation, the daytime water tempera- complex than the cultivation of rice. Without
ture should stay within the range of 15° to support, many poor uneducated rice farmers
35 ‘C. Humidity and temperature interact in probably would not or could not grow azolla,
their effect on azolla. Very high humidity and Diligent rice farmers, such as those in Nepal
high temperature or very low humidity and low or Thailand, probably could master azolla
temperature are both detrimental to the growth cultivation techniques, just as farmers in China
of azolla. and Vietnam have. As a result of unfavorable
land ownership patterns, low grain prices, and
pH: The pH of the paddy water plays an im
other social or economic difficulties, some
portant part in the ability of azolla to survive
peasant rice farmers do little more than hap-
Besides directly affecting the growth of azolla, hazardly plant their fields and then wait for
pH also affects the availability of nutrients,
harvest time. For them, meticulous farming
especially phosphorus. Low pH and high pH
does not yield sufficient benefits to their family,
can cause formation of insoluble compounds Furthermore, transplanted rice in some parts
that tie up available phosphorus; the phos-
of Asia is not planted in rows, a necessary
phorus in such insoluble compounds is un-
measure for azolla to be incorporated as a basal
available to azolla. Azolla grows best within a fertilizer.
pH range of 5 to 7 and can survive a range of
3.5 to 10. Also, many farmers who could not be con-
vinced to use nitrogen fertilizer in the 1960s
Available nutrients: Azolla growth depends
when it was inexpensive, will be unlikely to
on an adequate supply of essential elements in
cultivate azolla. The exceptions might be peas-
the water or in the surface layer of mud. These
ant farmers who want to improve their crop
elements must also be relatively balanced, Usu-
yields but do not have the capital to purchase
ally the addition of phosphorus and sometimes
nitrogen fertilizers. Also, farmers who have
potassium is all that is necessary to ensure
given up using nitrogen fertilizer because of
good growth. the high cost might be convinced to use azolla
as long as they can afford the cash outlay for
Cultural and Economic Constraints relatively small amounts of phosphorus fer-
tilizer and pesticides. They would have to pur-
For most farmers, azolla cultivation would chase about 100 kg of single superphosphate
be an entirely new way of using green manure. to grow one hectare of azolla for 4 to 5 weeks.
The idea of using an aquatic plant for such pur- If properly applied, the phosphorus would re-
poses is not part of most agricultural heritages, sult in as much nitrogen as 500 kg of commer-
Farmers in tropical Asia traditionally have cial ammonium sulfate fertilizer,
grown upland legume crops, such as milk vetch
or lentils (as a cash crop), after harvesting the Azolla cultivation could significantly reduce
monsoon rice crop. Most have never grown an the fertilizer input costs of raising high yielding
aquatic green manure, and many have rarely rice crops, but would still require the purchase
grown a legume that is not a food or forage of certain inputs, especially phosphorus fer-
crop. To some, especially the hungry, growing tilizer. Farmers unable to obtain these inputs
a crop that is to be plowed under as a green would probably find it difficult or impossible
manure may seem impractical. to raise azolla.
Azolla can be used as a forage for pigs, Political Constraints
ducks, and fish. However, the raising of swine,
ducks, and fish is uncommon in some places. The widespread cultivation of azolla is found
Also, it is generally believed, although untested, only in Communist countries. Azolla was
that cattle and water buffalo will not eat azolla. cultivated in both China and Vietnam before
122

the present governments came to power, but trained azolla teams, whose sole function is to
on only a small fraction of the area that azolla ensure the success of azolla cultivation. Train-
covers today. Analyzing the elements of this ing workshops to learn the newest techniques
situation is difficult because the cultivation of are held annually from the national level down
azolla in China and Vietnam cannot be com- to the local azolla team level. In addition, every
pared to its cultivation in countries with dif- level regularly publishes pamphlets about the
ferent political systems. Because azolla cul- practical applications of azolla.
tivation is just being introduced to farmers
The higher levels of the Chinese and Viet-
elsewhere, there has been insufficient time for
namese systems can be transferred with minor
other countries to develop successful azolla
programs that are in line with their political modifications to other countries, but not the
lower local levels. Most governments do not
systems.
have the power to enforce their will on inde-
Even without an adequate comparison, it is pendent peasant farmers as effectively as China
obvious that the successful azolla programs in and Vietnam can influence their communes
China and Vietnam owe a considerable amount and cooperatives. Nor can a peasant farmer be
to the way their farming systems are organized. expected to master all the intricacies of suc-
The commune and cooperative organizations cessful azolla cultivation that are known by a
of these countries that use azolla have highly highly trained commune azolla team.

THE EFFECT OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AZOLLA TECHNOLOGY ON

THE NEED FOR INPUTS
capital ment year-round because of the need to main-
tain azolla nurseries during the off season.
Capital requirements for azolla cultivation
are quite small. For most farmers, only a small Rice requires about 20 kg of nitrogen per ton
amount of phosphorus fertilizer, often no more of the harvested crop. About half of this is
than would be required for the rice crop, and recycled into the soil in the crop residue; there-
pesticides to protect the azolla from pests and fore about 10 kg of nitrogen is removed per ton
diseases are all that will be required. of harvested grain. A 6 ton rice harvest re-
moves about 60 kg of nitrogen from the soil,
equivalent to 300 kg of ammonium sulfate fer-
Farm Labor tilizer. If azolla was substituted for ammonium
sulfate, nearly all of the money required to pur-
In essence, the cultivation of azolla ex-
chase the 300 kg of ammonium sulfate fertilizer
changes labor for nitrogen fertilizer. The pres-
could theoretically be used to pay farm labor
ent azolla technology is based on the Chinese
to grow azolla, or to gain a greater return on
and Vietnamese models and thus is extremely
family labor.
labor intensive. In fact, the cultivation of azolla
cannot be adopted by countries with mech- Azolla appears to offer special opportunities
anized rice farming systems until new capital for small farms, particularly family farms with
intensive technology is developed. abundant labor. Conversely, suitable azolla
technology for large mechanized farms is not
Adoption of azolla cultivation by a develop-
available.
ing country can only increase the demand for
farm labor, especially when nursery stocks are Azolla is used successfully on large com-
being multiplied and during field cultivation. munes in China, but the organization of these
In addition, a few workers will have employ- communes is difficult to relate to family farms.
 123

Land For farming systems that use azolla as a

basal, soil incorporated green manure before
The land required for azolla cultivation the rice crop, all of the land to be planted into
mainly is related to nursery and field multi- rice and fertilized with azolla will need to be
plication. For overwintering or oversummer- devoted to azolla cultivation for about a month
ing, very small protected greenhouse or field prior to transplanting.
areas are required, more in the area of small
garden plots than large field areas. However, In situations where azolla is used as a soil-
when azolla multiplication for field inoculation incorporated, top-dressed green manure or as
is to be achieved, much more land is required. an unincorporated intercrop with rice, no land
Perhaps as much as 10 percent of the rice crop will be required to be devoted solely to azolla,
area to be inoculated is a good estimate of the except for the inoculation nurseries.
land area needed for azolla field multiplication.
This land is not tied up permanently, however,
but it will be devoted to azolla multiplication
for a month or so prior to inoculation.

CONCLUSIONS
Azolla is being used as a primary source of 250 to 270 C) than A. pinnata. What is needed,
nitrogen on an increasing land area in trans- then, is an azolla that can tolerate high sum-
planted rice crops in China and Vietnam. The mer temperatures, up to 400 C or so. A .
largest use of azolla in these countries is in the microphylla, collected by T. Lumpkin in the
spring rice crop, mostly as a monocrop grown Galapagos Islands, shows promise of becom-
before rice as a basal, soil-incorporated green ing a suitable summer green manure for cen-
manure. Less is used as an intercropped top- tral China and a winter green manure in south
dressing green manure in transplanted rice that China.
is planted in rows.
There is a great need to collect and char-
Use of azolla in the summer rice crop is ham- acterize species and varieties of azolla extant
pered by high water temperatures and heavy in nature. This work is of the highest priority.
pest attack. A search for suitable temperature- The potential worth of A. microphylla in China
tolerant species or varieties could have high has already been mentioned. However, it may
payoff. be useful to point out that A. nilotica, collected
Species used in agriculture today are: A. pin- by T. Lumpkin in the Sudan, has shown the
nata, A. pinnata var. imbricata (sometimes re- highest nitrogen fixation of any azolla studied.
ferred to as A. imbricata, and A. filiculoides. Lumpkin was only able to collect three speci-
A. pinnata and imbricata have been used for mens of A. nilotica, yet many more strains and
a long time in China and Vietnam, but their types are available in the Nile Basin and these
susceptibility to high temperatures and pest at- should be collected and characterized as soon
tack makes them suitable only for spring and as possible.
some fall rice crops. A. filiculoides has just All species could prove useful. For example,
begun to be used widely in China, especially varieties of filiculoides look promising now for
in areas where-because of its cold tolerance— use in certain agricultural situations. The same
it can be grown in late winter and early spring can be said about microphylla, imbricata, pin-
as a green manure for early spring rice. Al- nata, and caroliniana.
though A. filiculoides has proved useful in
China because of its cold tolerance, it is even Research programs should stress multidisci-
less tolerant of high water temperatures (above plinary approaches, with close links between

38-846 0 - 85 - 5
124

institutions. Both tropical and temperate farm- (People’s Publisher, Guandong (in Chinese),
ing systems should be emphasized, but these 1975),
programs should be centered in different 5. International Rice Research Institute, Interna-
tional Bibliography on Azolla, IRRI (Los Ganos,
places. Both temperate and tropical research Philippines, 1979), 66 pp.
programs should be linked, and should coop- 6. Lumpkin, T. A., “Environmental Constraints to
erate in collection and characterization of spe- Azolla Cultivation, ” Proc. Second Review
cies and varieties. The tropical program should Meeting I.N.P. U.T.S. Project (Honolulu, Ha-
focus on using azolla in tropical farming sys- waii, May 18-19, 1978), pp. 175-180.
tems, notably small peasant farms, and the 7, Lumpkin, T. A, and Plucknett, D. L., “Azolla:
temperate program should focus on capital in- Botany, Physiology, and Use as a Green Ma-
tensive mechanized rice production systems. nure,” Econ. Bet. 34(2): 111-153, 1980.
An international meeting should be held that 8. Moore, A. W., “Azo]la: Biology and Agronomic
will have as its major agenda item the setting Significance, ” Bet. Rev. 35: 17-35, 1969.
of international research priorities for azolla. 9. Peters, G. A., “The Azolla-Anabaena Sym-
The primary focus of research programs biosis,” In: Alexander Hollaender (cd.), Genetic
Engineering for Nitrogen Fixation (Plenum
should be to find a useful role for azolla in Press, New York and London, 1977), pp. 231-
farming systems. Basic research should not be 258.
neglected, but the potential usefulness of azolla 10, Singh, P. K., “Use of Azolla in Rice Production
is too great to delay its wider use in agricul- in India,” In: Nitrogen and Rice (International
ture through emphasis on more esoteric topics Rice Research Institute, Philippines, 1980), pp.
at the expense of applied research. 407-418.
11 Talley, S. N., and Rains, D. W., “Use of Azolla
in North America, ” In: Nitrogen and Rice (In-
References ternational Rice Research Institute, Philippines,
1980), pp. 419-431.
1. Dolbert, Frands, DANIDA, personal communi- 12. Vo, M. K, am-l Tran, Q. T., Beo Hoa Dau ~Azo)la)
cation, 1980. (Agricultural Publisher, Hanoi, 1970), 171 pp.
2, Food and Agriculture Organization, China: 13. Watanabe, I., Espinas, C. R., Berja, N. S., and
Azolla propagation and small-scale biogas tech- Alimagno, V. B., “Utilization of the Azolla-
nology, Food and Agriculture Soils Bull. No. 41, Anabaena Complex as a Nitrogen Fertilizer for
FAO, Rome, 1978. Rice,” International Rice Research Institute,
3. Guandong Academy of Agricultural Science, Res. Paper Ser. No, 11, 1977.
Red Azol]a (People’s Publisher, Guandong (in 14, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Science,
Chinese), 1975). Cultivation, Propagation and Utilization of
4. Guandong Bureau of Agriculture, Questions Azolla (Agricultural Publishing House, Beijing
and Answers Concerning Azolla Cultivation (in Chinese]. 1975).