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CHICKPEA (Cicer arietinum L.) PRODUCTION in the Southern Nations,

Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region of Ethiopia

Method · December 2015

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Sheleme Beyene Legesse Hidoto

Hawassa University Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI)
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 CHICKPEA (Cicer arietinum L.)

GUIDE FOR
PRODUCTION in the
Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and
Peoples’ Region of Ethiopia
Producers (Consultants)
Million Eshete (Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center)
Asnake Fikre (Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research)

Contributors

Hawassa University
Sheleme Beyene
Walelign Worku
Berhanu Abate
Endalkachew W/Meskel
Molla Assefa
Legesse Hidoto
Wondwosen Tena
Tussa Dedefo
Regassa Ayana

University of Saskatchewan
Bunyamin Tar’an
Fran Walley
Atul Nayyar (Editor)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.0 PLANT DESCRIPTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Stems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Leaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Pods and Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.0 ADAPTATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 Soil Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Rainfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.0 VARIETY SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.0 CHICKPEA PRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.1 Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Land Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3 Sowing Time and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.4 Seeding Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.5 Optimum Tillage Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.6 Weed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.7 Fertilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.8 Harvesting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.9 Threshing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.0 MAJOR DISEASES OF CHICKPEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.1 Fusarium wilts (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.2 Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.3 Dry root rot (Rhizoctonia bataticola). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.4 Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.0 MAJOR FOLIAR DISEASES OF CHICKPEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.1 Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.2 Botrytis grey mold (Botrytis cinerea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.3 Stunt Virus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.0 INSECT PESTS OF CHICKPEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.1 Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.2 Adzuki Bean Beetle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.0 CHICKPEA RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
 List of Tables

Table 1 Improved chickpea varities released by national and reginal

program in Ethiopia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Table 2 Grain yield (t/ha) as influenced by dates of planting at

Halaba and Meskan districts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Table 3 Grain yield (t/ha) as influenced by inoculation and

P application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 4 Chickpea seed produced by chickpea producing

organization (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Major chickpea growing regional states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 2. Production area by wereda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Figure 3. Productivity potential wereda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Figure 4. Trend of chickpea area coverage and productivity during

1999/2000 -2011/. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 5. Chickpea plant and its growth stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 6. Distribution of area under chickpea production in Ethiopia (ha). . . 8

Figure 7. Effects of land preparation method and sowing date on chickpea

biomass weight and grain yield in Taba, southern Ethiopia. . . . . 11

Figure 8. Chickpea crop grown in drained seed bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Figure 9. Symptoms of wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri . . . . 17

Figure 10. Symptoms of Collar rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 11. Symptoms of dry root rot caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola. . . . 19

Figure 12. Symptoms of ascochyta blight caused by Ascochyta rabiei. . . . . 20

Figure 13. Symptoms of grey mold caused by Botrytis cinerea. . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 14. Cut worm: plant damaged by cutworm (left) and moth of cutworm
(right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Figure 15. Bruchids attack in chickpea seed under storage condition. . . . . . 23

1. INTRODUCTION
Chickpea is considered less labor-intensive crop and its production
requires less external inputs as compared to cereals. Chickpea is
widely grown around the world and serves as a multi-use crop.
It plays a significant role in improving soil fertility by fixing the
atmospheric nitrogen. It can fix up to 140 kg N ha-1 from air and
meet most of its nitrogen requirement. After harvest, it leaves
substantial amount of residual nitrogen for subsequent crops and
adds some amount of organic matter to maintain and improve soil
health and fertility. This saves the fertilizer input cost not only for
chickpea but also for the subsequent crops. Chickpea has the ability
to grow on residual moisture which gives farmers the opportunity
to engage in double cropping, where chickpea is sown at the end
of the rainy season following the harvest of the main crop. This
allows more intensive and productive use of land, particularly in
areas where land is scarce. It is also an excellent source of protein,
fiber, complex carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals thus can help
alleviating malnutrition and improving human health. The growing
demand in both the domestic and export markets provides a source
of cash for smallholder producers. Because of its deep tap root
system, chickpea can withstand drought conditions by extracting
water from deeper soil layers. It also increases livestock productivity
as the residue is rich in digestible crude protein content compared
to cereals.

Chickpea was first produced in the Middle East about 7,000 years
ago. At present, it is produced in over 40 countries represented in
all continents. However, the most important chickpea producing
countries are India, Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Mexico, Australia,
Ethiopia, Myanmar, and Canada. Chickpea is currently grown on
about 11 million hectares worldwide with 65% and 8% share
belonging to India and Pakistan, respectively. Average annual
production of chickpea is about 9 million tonnes with 95% of
chickpea cultivation and consumption occurring in the developing
countries.

The diverse agro-climatic conditions in Ethiopia make it very

suitable for growing chickpeas. Chickpea is widely grown across

1
the highlands and semi-arid regions of Ethiopia and serves as a
multi-purpose crop. The country is also considered as the secondary
centre of diversity for chickpea (Anbessa and Bejiga, 2002). It has
a major role in the daily diet of the rural community and parts of
urban population. The crop is being exported to Asian countries and
is contributing positively to the country’s foreign exchange earnings.
Currently, chickpea is cultivated in four regions of the country,
Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s
Region (SNNPR) and Tigray (Figure 1). Amhara and Oromia regions
together produce 93% of total chickpea production in Ethiopia
while SNNPR and Tigray produce 3.5% and 3%, respectively. The
area coverage and the productivity of chickpea at district level are
shown in figures 2 and 3. In future, chickpea can also be grown in
other regions such as Benshngule, Somali, Afar and Harar. Thus, the
area coverage and the importance of the crop in the country are
expected to increase in the future.

Figure 1. Major chickpea growing regional states

2
  

Figure 2. Production area by wereda

Figure 2. Production area by wereda
Figure 2. Production area by wereda

Figure 3. Productivity potential wereda

Figure 3. Productivity
Figure potential
3. Productivity potentialwereda
wereda

11  
11  
 
 
3
Chickpea area coverage and productivity in Ethiopia have been
increasing over a period of time (Figure 4). These clearly show the
importance of the crop in the country as well as the utilization of
improved technologies by the farming community. The last fifteen
years data (1995 – 2010) obtained from the Central Statistics office
show that chickpea production area, productivity and production in
Ethiopia increased by 60, 100 and 200%, respectively (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Trend of chickpea area coverage and productivity during

1999/2000 -2011/2012

2.0 PLANT DESCRIPTION

Chickpea is an annual legume that stands erect and its height
ranging from 30 to 70 cm. The plant produces primary, secondary
and tertiary branching, resembling a small bush. The plants are
naturally resistant to lodging and have the inflated pods. Each pod
contains 1 to 2 seeds that are formed several inches above the
ground and are relatively shatter resistant. The seeds of the plant
remain below the ground during germination, offering the plant
some tolerance to cool soil and ability to regrow if the top growth is
damaged in the seedling stage (Figure 5)

4
2.1 Roots

The root system of chickpea plant is quite robust. It penetrates up

to 2 m deep, although the major portions are found in the top 60
cm. Chickpea has a large tap root which allows the plant to access
deeper water supplies.

2.2 Stems

Chickpea stems are branched, erect or spreading, sometimes shrub-

by. They can grow to a height of upto 1 m. The stems are glandular,
hairy and have an olive, dark green or bluish-green colour.

Source:Saskatchewan
Source: Saskatchewan Pulse
Pulse Production
Production Manual
Manual 2000 2000

Figure 5. Chickpea plant and its growth stages

5
2.3 Leaves
Some chickpea varieties have compound leaves with 8 to 20 leaflets,
while some have simple leaves which are pubescent in appearance
and have a top rachis (ending in a leaflet). Leaflets are ovate to
elliptic in shape and their length ranges from 0.6 to 2.0 cm. The
colour of the leaf is olive, dark green or bluish.

2.4 Flowers
Desi and Kabuli chickpea types can be easily identified by flower
colour. The Desi varities have purple/violet flowers while Kabuli
types have white flowers. The flowers are solitary, sometimes 2
per inflorescence, auxiliary, pendulous 0.6 to 3 cm long, and with
pedicles 0.5 to 1.3 cm long. Chickpea flowers are profuse and have
an intermediate growth habit, continuing to flower and set pods as
long as conditions are favourable.

2.5 Pods and Seeds

Pods set on chicpea plant occur on the primary and secondary
branches, as well as on the main stem. Pods are short, pubscent and
about 2 to 5 cm long and appear to be inflated. The individual round
pods generally contain one seed in Kabuli types and often two seeds
in Desi types. Kabuli chickpeas often have rounded and pale cream
seeds, while Desi chickpeas are usually dark and angular shaped.
Pods have a unique spherical shape with only a hint of a tail.

3.0 ADAPTATION
3.1 Soil Type
The plant requires fertile soil with good drainage system. Any
waterlogged conditions can severely damage the crop. Chickpeas
generally grow on heavy black or red soils and require a soil pH of
6.0 to 7.0. They prefer soil with good residual soil moisture content.
Inoculating chickpeas with rhizobium, when planting first time in
virgin sandy soils or in heavier soils can increase yield by 10-62%.
In Ethiopia, chickpea is best adapted to the areas having Vertisols.

6
3.2 Temperature
Chickpea is a self-pollinated crop and usually grown as a rain-fed
cool-weather crop or as a dry climate crop in semi-arid regions. The
optimum daily temperature ranges from 18 to 29°C. Occurance of
frost and hailstones can severely damage the crop. Though sensitive
to cold, some cultivars can tolerate temperatures as low as -9.5°C
in early stages. A relative humidity of 21-41% is optimum for seed
setting.

3.3 Rainfall
The plants grow well in areas with annual rainfall of between
600 - 1000 mm. However, chickpea productivity under marginal
rainfall conditions may be increased through genotype selection
and manipulation of planting density. Owing to its deep tap root,
chickpea is fairly drought tolerant as it is able to extract moisture
from deep layers of soil profile, but its productivity is reduced by the
recurrence of the terminal droughts.

4.0 VARIETY SELECTION

There are two different types of chickpea that are grown worldwide-
Desi and Kabuli.

Desi
Desi chickpeas have colored and thick seed coat. The seed colors
of Desi chickpeas are brown, yellow, green or black. The seeds are
generally small and angular with a rough surface. The flowers are
generally pink and the plants show various degrees of anthocyanin
pigmentation, although some Desi types have white flowers and no
anthocyanin pigmentation on the stem. The Desi types account for
80-85% of world’s chickpea area. The splits (dal) and flour (besan)
are invariably made from desi type.
Kabuli
The Kabuli type chickpeas are characterized by white or beige-
colored seed with ram-head to rounded shape. The seed coat is thin
with smooth seed surface. The flowers of Kabuli type are white and

7
lack anthocyanin pigmentation on the stem. As compared to Desi
type, the Kabuli type has higher levels of sucrose and lower levels
of fiber. The Kabuli type generally has large seed size and receive
higher market price than Desi type. The price premium in Kabuli
type generally increases as the seed size increases. Among the two
chickpea types, the Desi type is dominantly grown in Ethiopia. The
major chickpea growing zones include: East Shewa, West Shewa and
North Gonder (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Distribution of area under chickpea production in Ethiopia (ha)

There are many agronomic and market factors to consider when

choosing a variety.

Yield is an obvious consideration within a market class. However,

other characteristics such as disease tolerance, maturity or
harvestibility can quickly overshadow potential yield gains, if the
plant is limited in reaching its full potential.

Disease resistance, specifically resistances to ascochyta blight, wilts

and root rot, are important factor in variety selection. Ascochyta
blight easily overcomes the typical chickpea disease defense

8
mechanisms. As a result, complete resistance to blight has not been
identified in chickpea. Resistance is most pronounced in young
plants which become more susceptible to disease attack as they age
(Jayakumar et al., 2005). Partial resistance to ascochyta alone may
not provide sufficient disease control (Chongo and Gossen, 2001)

In Ethiopia, the national chickpea improvement program (Debre

Zeit Agricultural Research Center) has released seventeen improved
chickpea varieties from landraces and distributed to farmers (Table
1). Additional five improved varieties have also been released by the
regional research centers, Srinka and Debre Brhan. The improved
varieties released by the national research program are highly
productive and have larger seeds as compared to local variety.
TableTable
1. Improved chickpea
1. Improved chickpea varieties
varieties released byreleased
national and by theprogram
regional national and regional
in Ethiopia
programs in Ethiopia

Variety Center Year Days to 100 seed Seed rate Altitude Rainfall Productivity (Q/ha)
released of Mat. wt (g) (kg/ha) (m.a.s.l.) (mm) Research Farmers
the variety release station field
DZ-10-4 Debre Zeit 1974 111-135 10.2 65-75 1800 – 2300 700 - 1100 16.22 10-14
DZ-10-11 Debre Zeit 1974 106-123 13.0 70-80 1600 – 2000 700 - 1100 15-28 11-19
Dubie Debre Zeit 1978 110-115 22.0 80-90 1800 – 2300 700 - 1100 17.28 16-17
Mariye Debre Zeit 1985 106-120 25.5 120-140 1500 – 2300 700 - 1300 18-30 14-23
Worku Debre Zeit 1994 100-149 33.0 100-120 1900 – 2600 700 - 1200 19-40 19-29
Akaki Debre Zeit 1995 57-147 21.0 90-120 1900 – 2600 700 - 1200 18-42 14-26
Arartie Debre Zeit 1999 105-155 25.7 100-115 1900 – 2600 700 – 1200 26-46 20-32
Shasho Debre Zeit 1999 90-155 29.9 100-125 1800 – 2600 700 - 1200 26-52 18-22
Habiru Debre Zeit 2004 91-150 31 110-140 1800 – 2600 700 - 1200 14-50 20-40
Chefe Debre Zeit 2004 93-150 31 110-140 1800 – 2000 700 - 1200 12-48 18-36
Ejere Debre Zeit 2005 118-129 32 120-140 1800-2600 700-1200 15-35 12-28
Tjie Debre Zeit 2005 122-130 32 120-140 1800-2700 700-1200 20-35 16-29
Natoli Debre Zeit 2007 136 22 120-130 1800-2700 700-1200 22-26 20-25

Acos Dubie Debre Zeit 2008 136 64 140 -160 1600 -2400 600 -1200 11-24 10-13
Minjar Debre Zeit 2010 86 -143 28 120 -140 1800 -2600 700 -1200 22–50 20-40
Teketay Debre Zeit 2013 85-150 26 120-160 1800-2700 700-1200 20-27 16-22

Dalota Debre Zeit 2013 90-145 31 130-135 1800-2600 700-1200 25-28 20-23

Fetenech Srinka 2005 80-120 - 75-80 660-1025 660-1025 16-25 14-18

Mastewal Debre 2006 105-139 - 100-115 700-1000 700-1000 25-33 15-19

Brehan
Yelebe Srinka 2006 77-106 - 120-130 660-1025 660-1025 18.2 14

Kasech Srinka 2011 100 , 130-150 660-1025 660-1025 20-25 16-20

Akuri Srinka 2011 98 - 130-150 660-1025 660-1025 21-26 17-20

9
Fifteen genotypes including Desi (4 varieties), Kabuli (5varieties)
and introduced materials (6 Kabuli types) were evaluated in zinc
deficient soils in Jolle andegna (Gurage), Taba (Wolayita) and
Huletegna choroko (Halaba). Based on the result across location,
the highest grain yield was obtained from variety Natoli followed
by Butajira local and Arerti. The variety Arerti was also found to be
highest in seed zinc concentration. Its Zn concentration was equal
to that of FLIP07-27C and FLIP08-60C. The variety FLIP08-60C also
had highest seed Fe concentration followed by the FLIP03-53C and
Arerti.

Results of 2012 trials showed statistically significant yield differ-

ences among the genotypes. Variety Mastewal gave the highest grain
yield at Halaba and Butajira, while variety Natoli was best at Taba.
During the 2013 trial, varieties Mastewal and Natoli maintained
their good performances at Halaba and Butajira.

5.0 CHICKPEA PRODUCTION

5.1 Site Selection
It is important to know the history of the land before selecting the
site for chickpea cultivation. For example, a stony land could be a
great challenge during cultivation and land where excess water ac-
cumulates during the rainy season is not recommended for chickpea
production. Planting chickpea in waterlogged soil leads to rotting
of seeds and also exposes the seeds to damping off fungal diseases.
Heavily waterlogged soil considerably reduces the root volume,
number of nodules and the plant growth of chickpea. As a result,
water uptake, nutrient uptake, nitrogen fixation process and finally
the productivity of the crop will be adversely affected. Thus, land
for chickpea cultivation needs to be free from water logging prob-
lem throughout the growth stage of the crop. If the land is sloppy,
soil conservation measures have to be taken to minimize the runoff
of the soil. Likewise, the use of various drainage practices such as
broad bed and furrow and ridge and furrow is also important for
lands where excess water accumulates during the rainy season and
create serious waterlogging problems.

10
5.2 Land Preparation
Chickpeas are poor competitors with weeds. It is important to
eradicate as much weeds as possible from the soil. It is therefore,
advisable to plough the soil deep once from March to May in dry
season and disk twice from Mid-June to early August. This will
expose the weeds and finally kill them. In addition, the soil will
be aerable and more condusive for chickpea cultivation. Where
chickpea is grown on flat heavy clay soils, it is advisable to use ridge
and furrow (RF) plots as it facilitate the removal of excess water
from the field. Broad bed and furrow (BBF) can also be used on
gentle slopes of 0-0.8% to get well established crop.

A study on land management practices and sowing time conducted

at Taba, southern Ethiopia showed that cultivating chickpeas on
broad bed and furrow (BBF) increased grain yield of chickpeas on
Vertisols over other land preparation methods (Figure 7). Early
planting also enabled the plant to have longer vegetative and grain
filling time resulting in higher yield. Thus, it can be recommended
that the use of BBF (Figure 8) combined with sowing in mid-August
is useful practice that can be adapted by farmers of this region.

BBF= Broad bed furrow, RF= Ridge and furrow and FB=flat bed

Figure 7. Effects of land preparation method and sowing date on chickpea

biomass weight and grain yield in Taba, southern Ethiopia.

11
Numerous herbicides are available in the market that can control
weed, which are competing with chickpea. However, before using
these herbicides, it is important to know the field’s weed history
and herbicide resistant weeds. If certain weeds are present in high
numbers and cananot be controlled, a different field should be
selected for chickpea cultivation.

Figure 8. Chickpea crop grown in drained seed bed

5.3 Sowing Time and Methods

Planting time is an important factor in increasing chickpea yield.
The recommended sowing times for chickpea vary with altitudes,
locations, and depends upon site specific seasonal rain fall, soil type
and maturity period of specific chickpea variety. The recommended
sowing date for Vertisols of medium and high altitude areas is from
mid August to early September depending upon the intensity of
rainfall. Advancing planting time to mid August increase about 50%
yield in chickpea since planting during this rainy season allows
the crop to grow vigorously and enable it to make efficient use of
conserved moisture during germination, establishment and seed
filling stage. In low moisture stressed environments such as low
lands or sandy soils, early planting in July is advantageous. Chickpea
can be sown in rows or broadcasted. Planting in row gave higher
yields as compared with broadcast method as the former facilitates
inter-row cultivation and weed management practices.

12
Determinations of appropriate planting date revealed that early
sowing resulted in significantly higher growth and yields of chickpea
at Halaba, whereas only plant height and grain yield were improved
at Meskan. In Halaba, the varieties planted at the second sowing
date (August 20th) gave highest grain yields (3.8t/ha), followed by
the third (August 27th) and first (August 13th) planting dates with
grain yields of 3.0 and 3.2 t ha-1, respectively. From the two varieties,
Mastewal was better in grain yield (3.1 t/ha) than variety Habru
(2.8 t/ha). In Meskan district, the variety Habru planted on 13th
September produced the highest grain yield of 2.5 t ha-1 compared
to the lowest yield of 1.5 t ha1 harvested from the last (4th October)
sowing date. The study showed that planting chickpea in Halaba
in early August was more productive than late planting, while in
Meskan sowing chickpea from late August to September enhanced
grain yield. Sowing date of chickpea, therefore, varied from location
to location depending on soil moisture and duration of the rainy
season (Table 2).

Table 2 Grain yield (t/ha) as influenced by dates of planting at Halaba and

Meskan districts

Halaba Meskan
Grain Grain yield
Sowing date Sowing date
yield t/ha t/ha
13/8/2014 3.2 23/8/2014 2.1
20/8/2014 3.8 30/8/2014 1.7
27/8/2014 3.0 06/9/2014 2.5
3/9/2014 2.8 13/9/2014 2.1
10/9/2014 2.5 20/9/2014 2.2
17/9/2014 2.4 27/9/2014 1.5
04/10/2014 1.5
Variety
Habru 2.8
Mastewal 3.1

13
Six nationally released varieties (Habru, Mastewal, Natoli, Arerti,
Shasho and Ejere) and one local variety were used to evaluate the
influence of preceding crop on chickpea performance on farmers’
fields at Halaba. The performances of all varieties including the local
were higher under “maize-chickpea” than “haricot bean-chickpea”
double cropping, which was attributed to higher pest incidence
when chickpea followed haricot bean. Thus, growing chickpea as
double cropping after cereal crop is more advantageous in terms of
yield and cost of production.

5.4 Seeding Rate

The optimum planting density for chickpea varies with location, the
growing conditions and growth habit of the variety. In some cases,
seeding rate has no significant effects on seed yield due to the capac-
ity of the crop to produce large number of branches to compensate
for low plant population. However, it is essential to use high seed
rate in ensuring good plant stand under adverse environmental con-
ditions. For row planting, a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 10
cm between plants is recommended (i.e. a density of about 333,334
plants/ha). A reduced spacing between plants can be used for vari-
eties that are more erect and hence plant density can be increased.
However, seed rate by broadcast application method appears to vary
depending up on the seed size of the cultivars and growth habit.
High seed rates for large seeded and low seed rates for varieties
with small seed size are recommended.

5.5 Optimum Tillage Practices

Studies conducted at Akaki and Debre Zeit to assess the response
of chickpea to tillage and weed control practices indicated that first
plowing at mid April before planting with weeding gave a higher
seed yield. This can be followed by second plowing at mid April to
late June before planting.

5.6 Weed Management

Chickpea is a poor competitor with weeds at all stages of growth.
Pre-emergence herbicides, such as Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i. ha-1or
Pendimethalin @ 1.0 to 1.5 kg a.i. ha-1 were found effective in con-

14
trolling early flush of weeds. Mechanical and/or manual weeding
can also be done where wide row spacing is used.

5.7 Fertilization
From different fertilizer trials conducted around Debre Zeit, it was
confirmed that neither fertilizer rates nor sources have a marked
effect on yield of chickpea on Vertisols. Significant influence of NP
fertilizers on growth and yield of chickpea was also not obtained
from the experiments conducted in Meskan, Sodo and Damot
Gale woredas during the 2013 cropping season. Furthermore,
experiments on growth and yield response of chickpea to seed
inoculation with rhizobium and NP fertilizer application at Halaba,
Damot Gale, Meskan and Sodo districts showed no significant
difference in grain yield between seed inoculation with Cp41 strain
alone and inoculated seed plus 60 kg DAP fertilizer application.
However, highest grain yields of chickpea were harvested from the
inoculated seed with Cp41 rhizobium strain and the inoculated seed
with 60 kg DAP fertilizer per hectare across locations. In addition,
chickpea straw and grain yields were enhanced by inoculating seeds
with Cp41 rhizobium strain and application of 12 kg P ha-1. Thus,
inoculation of Mesorhizobium strain Cp41 along with 12 kg ha-1 P
application can serve as a potential option to improve the grain
yield and total biomass of chickpea (Table 3). Therefore, there
are advantages to be gained successfully through inoculation with
efficient inoculant like Cp 41 with or without 60 kg DAP ha-1 under
existing environments.

Table 3 Grain yield (t/ha) as influenced by inoculation and P application

Variety Habru Variety Arerti
Choroko- Jole-
Treatment/location 2 Taba 2 Gogeti
0 1.2 1.8 1.9 2.0
60kg DAP/ha 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.1
CP41inoculant 2.5 2.5 3.0 2.0
CP41 + 60kg DAP 2.6 2.5 3.0 2.2

15
5.8 Harvesting
The time of harvesting is crucial in maintaining the quality of seeds.
The crop should be harvested when leaves start to senesce and start
shedding. The pods on the plant will turn yellow and seeds in the
pods feel hard and rattle within the pod. After harvest, the plants
can be dried in the sun for a few days to ensure that seeds get dry
enough. Depending on the varieties, chickpea matures usually within
95 -140 days after emergence and is manifested by light green
coloration of pods. It is advisable to harvest when about 90-95% of
the crop matures. Chickpea harvesting in Ethiopia is done by hand
and the use of combine harvester has not yet been practiced in the
country.

5.9 Threshing
Threshing is ususally done by driving animals on the plants on well-
prepared threshing ground or by threshers. When threshing is done
by driving animals, cemented ground is advised for maintaining
the quality of the crop; however, threshing the large Kabuli seeds
by driving animals could result in broken seeds thus reducing their
quality, market value and germination.

6.0 MAJOR DISEASES OF CHICKPEA

Chickpea is prone to damage by many diseases and insect-pests.
In general, root diseases (fusarium wilt, collar rot and dry root
rot) and foliar diseases (ascochyta blight, botrytis grey mold) are
important diseases in Ethiopia. Among the insect pests, infestation
by pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera) is the most severe. The insect
infestation is severe throughout the country and has been reported
to significantly reduce the crop yield. Cutworm is next to pod borer
in affecting chickpea. It is more common in the northern part of the
country. Bruchids (Callosobruchus chinesis) is yet another insect
that damages the seeds during storage. Timely preventive measures
should be taken to prevent chickpea from insect or pest attack and
to maximize the yield.

16
6.1 Fusarium wilts (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri)
Fusarium wilt is the most important disease-affecting chickpea yield
in Ethiopia. The fungus infects chickpeas via the roots system and
moves throughout the plant’s vascular system. The cell wall starts
degrading by the enzymes produced by the pathogen. The pathogen
then forms the gels that block the plant’s transport systems and
cause yellowing and wilting of the plant. Vascular discolouration
occurs on the roots and then towards the young stems, followed
by yellowing and wilting of the leaves before final necrosis. The
seedlings that are affected with fusarium, first show dropping of the
leaves and then finally collapse (Figure 9). The roots look healthy
but when split vertically the vascular tissues show brown to black
discoloration. The fungus is seed and soil borne and can survive in
the soil even in the absence of the host.

Control measures: Fusarium resistant varieties (eg, Arerti, Habru)

should be planted in the areas that are affected with fusarium
wilt. Deep plowing during short rain season (March to April) and
removal of host debris from the field can reduce the level of inocula.
Excluding chickpea from the crop rotations in infested fields for at
least 3 years and seed treatment with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g kg-1
seed has been found effective in reducing incidence of wilt.
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 9. Symptoms of wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri

17

 
6.2 Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii)
The disease is usually observed under wet warm conditions. The
first visible symptoms appear as yellowing or wilting of the lower
leaves which progresses towards the upper ones (Figure 10). The
collar region of the chickpea plant is constricted and begins to rot.
White mycelia strands with minute mustard seed-sized sclerotial
bodies are seen growing over the affected tissue. The affected
seedlings turn yellow and wilt.

Control measures: The only economic control consists of long term

rotations with non- susceptible host, deep plowing and removing
undecomposed debris from the field before sowing.

Figure 10. Symptoms of Collar rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii

6.3 Dry root rot (Rhizoctonia bataticola)

It is a serious disease under moisture stress conditions and when
the crop is exposed to temperature above 30°C. The disease
generally appears around flowering and podding stage. Dropping
of petioles and leaflets occurs and is confined to top of the plant.
Sometimes, when the rest of the plant is dry, the top most leaves are
chlorotic. The whole plant finally dries up and turns straw-colored
(Figure 11). Roots become black and brittle and have only a few or
no lateral roots.

18
 Figure 11. Symptoms of dry root rot caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola

Control measures: Apply crop rotation with cereals. A longer

crop rotation of at least 3 years is recommended after harvest
of chickpea. Seed treatment with fungicides can reduce initial
development of the disease. Timely sowing of chickpea should be
done to avoid post-flowering drought and heat stresses, which
aggravate the disease.

6.4 Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani)

The disease is favored by a temperature between 22 and 28OC and
high soil moisture. The disease can appear at any growth stage of
the crop. It causes yellowing of the basal foliage, stunted growth and
reddening of the vascular tissue below the soil line.

Control measures: Since the level of resistance in chickpea to

Fusarium root rot is not high, an integrated approach that includes
cultural practices (drainage), maintenance of good seed vigor and
genetic resistance is required.

7.0 MAJOR FOLIAR DISEASES OF CHICKPEA

Historically, chickpea production has not been threatened by foilar
disease in Ethiopia. However, due to changes in chickpea production,
germplasm exchanges and changes in rainfall pattern, foliar diseases
(ascochyta blight, grey mold and stunt virus) are becoming a
problem in Ethiopia.

19
7.1 Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei)
Ascochyta blight is a devastating disease when cool and wet weather
condition prevails. The pathogen is seed and stubble borne. In
Ethiopia, it is an important disease in early-planted chickpeas in the
lowlands and when rainfall extends beyond September.

Symptoms: Symptoms of the disease usually appear around

flowering and podding time. The plants are destroyed and appear as
patches of blighted plants in the field. Typical circular spots appear
on leaves and pods, elongated lesions on stem, and deep cankerous
lesions on seeds (Figure 12).

Control measures: Ascochyta blight can be controlled through

the use of resistant cultivars, such as Arerti, Habru and Ejere.
However, other practices such as the use of pathogen free seeds,
seed treatment with fungicides, foliar fungicide spray, stubble
management and crop rotations can augment disease resistance.

Figure 12 Symptoms of ascochyta blight caused by Ascochyta rabiei

7.2 Botrytis grey mold (Botrytis cinerea)

It is one of the foliar diseases of chickpea in Ethiopia. Affected leaves
become yellow followed by defoliation.Water soaked lesions and
rotting of terminal buds with moldy growth are the main foliage
symptoms (Figure 13). The disease can cause flower drop resulting
in poor pod setting, and extension of the crop duration.

20
Control measures: Use of resistant varieties is the best control
measure. Additionally, thinning out an infected crop to allow more
light to penetrate the canopy; intercropping with a crop such
as linseed, which is resistant to the pathogen; and foliar sprays
of captan, carbendazim, chlorothalonil or mancozeb at regular
intervals (2-3 times) starting at first appearance of the disease can
control an epidemic and further spread of the disease.

Figure 13. Symptoms of grey mold caused by Botrytis cinerea

7.3 Stunt Virus

Stunt virus is an important group of virus that affects legumes
grown in cool season and causes yellowing, chlorosis, reddening and
stunting of the plant. The viruses that are involved in various legume
are Bean Leaf roll Luteovirus, beet western yellows virus, soybean
dwarf virus and chickpea Luteovirus. They are transmitted by aphids
like Aphis craccivora and Acrythosiphon pisum.

Control measures: Cultural practices such as varying sowing dates,

plant density and using borders plants which are not hosts to the
virus are effective in reducing yield losses.

8.0 INSECT PESTS OF CHICKPEA

Chickpea is an important crop grown in different parts of the country.
Despite its wide cultivation, it is attacked by a various insect pests.
Most common pests that attack chickpea in field are African Bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera) and cut worm (Agrotis segetum), whereas

21
most common pest that affect chickpea in store is Adzuki bean beetle
(Callosobruchus chinensis) which is also sporadic in its status.

8.1 Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

It is the most important pest of chickpea in all the chickpea growing
areas. It damages almost all the pods in case of severe damage, but
causes nearly 20-30% annual yield losses in Ethiopia. The eggs (1
mm diameter) are laid singly on the leaflets, flowers, immature
pods and stems. Larvae can be green, brown, yellow, or pink, but
are usually striped, irrespective of their color. Larvae feed on leaves
during the vegetative phase and on flowers and pods during the
reproductive phase. The third- to fifth-instar larvae feed on the
developing seed after making a hole in the pods.

Control measures: Varieties with high levels of resistance to

pod borer are not available, though accession ICCV-7 was found
relatively tolerant to the pest. Though pod borer can be effectively
controlled through application of insecticides at the first and second
stage{e.g. Cypermethrin (45g ai/ha) and Endosulfan (472 g ai/ha)},
an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy is recommended
as it is eco-friendly, does not eliminate natural enemies of pod
borer, reduces pesticide residues, and the risk of development of
resistance to insecticides.

Population monitoring: Monitoring of H. armigera population in the

field is a prerequisite for successful plant protection. Sex pheromone
traps are used to monitor the pest population build-up. Pheromones
are specific to individual species. These traps are of different shapes
or colors and can be placed at different heights depending upon
insect activity and crop architecture. In chickpea, these are placed
at 1 m height from the ground level immediately after sowing. The
pheromone traps are not useful in controlling the pest directly, but
provide an estimate of the pest population, and are an effective
tool for timely use of control measures. Visual observations should
regularly be made on the larval population in the field. The action
threshold is 1-2 larvae (2nd to 3rd instars) per meter row. To count
the larvae, one should observe 10 plants at random at five locations

22
diagonally across the field, and calculate mean larval density to
decide on use of control measures to be adopted.

Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon)

This is generally a pest of minor importance, but may reduce plant
stand in case of severe infestation. Gray-black larvae hide beneath
the soil surface during the day, and become active at night. They cut
the seedlings at or below ground level (Figure 14).

Control measures: Most broad-spectrum insecticides are effective

  in
controlling cutworm.

   
Figure 14. Cut worm: plant damaged by cutworm (left) and
moth of cutworm (right).

8.2 Adzuki Bean Beetle

The beetle causes substantial weight loss under farmers’ storage
conditions (Figure 15). A loss assessment study using improved
variety revealed a mean weight loss of 52% within eight months of
storage period.

Figure 15. Bruchids attack in chickpea seed under storage condition

23
Control measures

Chemical: Different insecticides were screened and Actellic 2% dust

at the rate of 50 g/100kg was found effective in controlling this
storage pest. However, recent studies showed that the insecticide is
less effective and frequent applications are required.

Botanicals: Several plants species were evaluated and efficacious

plant was found. Birbira Melletia feruginea at 5% w/w gave com-
plete protection of chickpea for long period. Nonetheless, the toxic-
ity of this species to human being has not yet been investigated.

9.0 CHICKPEA RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

In current scenario chickpea variety, seed supply and availability,
mechanization, processing, market and management practice are
factors which need major attention in promoting the current chick-
pea research and development.

Variety: In chickpea research and development program, the supply

of varieties is one of the most important components to meet the
varying interests and changing demand of the ultimate users. In this
regard, the national research system is expected to make continuous
efforts in evaluating the landraces, exotic germplasm and finished
technologies and continuously develop varieties, which are adapted
to the different chickpea growing agro ecologies of the country. In
addition, the research system needs to work its best to bring into
picture the so far released chickpea varieties to contribute their part
in the countries development program. The research system also
needs to work hand in hand with extension system to popularize and
scale up the varieties, especially those which have high demand in
overseas market. Developing varieties that are adaptive to moisture
stress environments and expanding the varieties in the areas are
important tasks, which need to be worked out immediately, as well.

On the basis of the 2010 Central Statistics Authority data, coverage

of improved chickpea technology in the country is 25% which is also
expanding fast from time to time. The remaining 75% chickpea area
is covered by the desi type chickpeas which has got high diversity in

24
the country. The pre-scaling works of the Debre Zeit Agricultural re-
search center that have been undertaken in some selected districts
of chickpea growing areas have also shown outstanding results in
expanding the improved chickpea varieties in the areas. Hwassa
University through its collaborative project with University of Sas-
katchewan “Promoting Adoption of Chickpea Technology in South-
ern Ethiopia” has also conducted pre-scaling work that showed the
preformances of improved varieties differing under different growth
conditions.

Seed supply and availability. Seed is an important component that

should be given emphasis and strong support in chickpea research
and development relations. The formal seed sector contributes
7-10% of the chickpea seeds demand in the country and the
Ethiopian Seed Enterprise is the main contributor of chickpea seed
for the sector. Thus, formal seed sector need to be given the first
priority.

In the informal seed sector, seed producing organization, individual

farmers, farmer’s research group and seed producing organization
under unions are the main sources of seed. A total of eight chickpea
seed producing organizations have been established in the country
in the past seven years, since 2007.These organization reached a
production management stage that answer the demand of chickpea
seed in the country(Table 4). The seed production exercise followed
by this organization is complicated and their capacity is also limited.
Thus, great efforts need to be made to strengthen the capacity of
these organizations.

Mechanization. Improved agricultural equipment is one of the

inputs, which help to improve the productivity and quality of
chickpea and hence have high demand by producers. It is important
that farm equipments used for land preparation, planting and
trashing need to be improved and supplied to farmers with
reasonable/affordable prices. Thus, to fill the gap in the area, all
stakeholders have to give emphasis for team work. The sectors like
agricultural technology and mechanizations need to work together
in developing and expanding the implementation initial stage of the
work.

25
Table 4 Chickpea seed produced by chickpea producing organization
Table(2011)
4 Chickpea seed produced by chickpea producing organization (2011)

Seed Variety Particip Area Producti Production Total

producing ating (ha) on (ton) (ton) productio
organization farmers farmers n (ton)
own seed
source
Lemlem Chefe Arerti,Natoli,Teji 28 7 25 450 475
Hawi Boru Arerti,Natoli,Teji 28 7 25 380 405
Bifetu Arerti,Habru,Shasho 64 16 64 670 734
Chala Arerti,Habru,Shasho 64 16 66 650 716
Megertu Arerti,Habru,Natoli 95 24 96 980 1076
Ude Arerti,Natoli,Teji 48 12 48 895 943
Mmehere Agre Arerti 44 11 44 240 284
Hundufa Hatau Arerti,Natoli,Teji 154 35 120 320 440
Total 525 128 488 4585 5073

Agro


processing. Agro processing industries using chickpea as
inputs are few in numbers. In addition, no works so far have been
done in food science area of chickpea. As chickpea production and
quality of product are getting improved, different ways of food
preparation methods need to be develop to get the best out of it.
Institutions associated with this also need to make efforts to solve
the agro processing related problems in chickpea, as gap in the area
is wide in Ethiopia.

Methods of production. Depending upon the growing environments

and the farmers’ experiences, different methods of chickpea
production are used. About 85% of chickpea in Ethiopia is grown
as rainfed crop, sole or double cropped or in rotation with other
cereals. Growing chickpea under irrigated condition (in rotation
with cotton, vegetables, and cereals) is also getting importance
in areas where the irrigation infrastructure exists. Traditionally
chickpea is grown in residual moisture.The crop is often exposed to
moisture stress and this in turn results in 20-40% yield reduction,
although this practice is claimed to minimize the incidence of
insect pests, weed and disease. Thus, the production methods to be
followed depend on the advantage gained by the producer.

26
Bibliography
Anbessa, Y and G. Bejiga. 2002. Evaluation of Ethiopian chickpea
landraces for tolerance to drought. Genetic resources and Crop
Evolution 49:557-564

Chongo, G. and Gossen, B.D. 2001. Effect of plant age on resistance

to Ascochyta rabiei in chickpea. Canadian Journal of Plant
Pathology 23:358-363

Jayakumar, P., Gossen, B. D., Gan, Y. T., Warkentin, T. D., and Banniza,
S. 2005. Ascochyta blight of chickpea: infection and host
resistance mechanisms. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 27:
499-509

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