This document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in Week 9 of the ENG1013: Engineering Smart Systems course, including diodes, LEDs, and transistors. Jonathan Li will be the presenter. Diodes and LEDs are introduced as semiconductor devices that regulate current flow in one direction (diodes) and can also emit light (LEDs). Transistors are composed of three doped semiconductors and can operate in different states to control current flow. The document then goes into detail about biasing and modeling the I-V characteristics of diodes and LEDs, as well as defining the key terms and operating states of transistors. Analysis procedures for simple circuits involving diodes, LEDs,
This document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in Week 9 of the ENG1013: Engineering Smart Systems course, including diodes, LEDs, and transistors. Jonathan Li will be the presenter. Diodes and LEDs are introduced as semiconductor devices that regulate current flow in one direction (diodes) and can also emit light (LEDs). Transistors are composed of three doped semiconductors and can operate in different states to control current flow. The document then goes into detail about biasing and modeling the I-V characteristics of diodes and LEDs, as well as defining the key terms and operating states of transistors. Analysis procedures for simple circuits involving diodes, LEDs,
This document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in Week 9 of the ENG1013: Engineering Smart Systems course, including diodes, LEDs, and transistors. Jonathan Li will be the presenter. Diodes and LEDs are introduced as semiconductor devices that regulate current flow in one direction (diodes) and can also emit light (LEDs). Transistors are composed of three doped semiconductors and can operate in different states to control current flow. The document then goes into detail about biasing and modeling the I-V characteristics of diodes and LEDs, as well as defining the key terms and operating states of transistors. Analysis procedures for simple circuits involving diodes, LEDs,
This document provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in Week 9 of the ENG1013: Engineering Smart Systems course, including diodes, LEDs, and transistors. Jonathan Li will be the presenter. Diodes and LEDs are introduced as semiconductor devices that regulate current flow in one direction (diodes) and can also emit light (LEDs). Transistors are composed of three doped semiconductors and can operate in different states to control current flow. The document then goes into detail about biasing and modeling the I-V characteristics of diodes and LEDs, as well as defining the key terms and operating states of transistors. Analysis procedures for simple circuits involving diodes, LEDs,
Presenters: Jonathan Li Introduction to semiconductor devices • Diodes - p-n junctions that regulate the flow of charge such that current can only move in a designated direction
• Light emitting diodes (LEDs) - diodes that happen to also emit light
• Transistors - devices created from putting together three alternating
doped semiconductors - either n-p-n junctions or p-n-p junctions Diodes
anode (+) +
_ Stripe indicates cathode (-) cathode (-) “Biasing” of p-n junctions • Forward biased - when a positive voltage is applied to the p side (anode) relative to the n side (cathode) of the junction. • Reverse biased - when a positive voltage is applied to the n side (cathode) relative to the p side (anode) of the junction • Zero biased - when no voltage is applied to the p-n junction Shockley diode equation
+ _ Graphical solution V-I relationship for diode 0.06 0.05 Resistor Diode current ID (Amps)
0.04 0.03 (0.64 V, 0.044 A) 0.02 0.01 Diode 0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Diode voltage VD (Volts)
• A lot of work for such a simple circuit!
• Approximate solutions are much quicker and are often be good enough for simple prototyping Approximation of Shockley’s equation V-I relationship for diode V-I relationship for diode 5 1
4 0.8 Diode current ID (Amps)
Diode current ID (Amps)
VD,on = 0.7V 3 VD,on = 0.7V 0.6
2 0.4
1 0.2
0 0 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 -1 -0.2 Diode voltage VD (Volts) Diode voltage VD (Volts) Simple circuit model of diode V-I relationship for diode 1
0.8
Diode current ID (Amps)
VD,on = 0.7V 0.6
0.4
0.2 Diode Diode OFF Diode ON Diode OFF ON 0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 -0.2 Diode voltage VD (Volts)
Checking conditions: Checking conditions:
VD < VD,on and ID ≤ 0 VD ≥ VD,on and ID > 0 Light Emitting Diode (LED) Flat edge anode (+) indicates cathode (-) + Top view _ + _ Longer terminal cathode (-) indicates anode (+) VD,on for LEDs
ID (mA)
VD (V) Simple circuit model of LED
LED OFF LED ON
Checking conditions: Checking conditions:
VD < VD,on and ID ≤ 0 VD ≥ VD,on and ID > 0 Simple model Diode/LED analysis procedure Diode analysis example 1. Assume diode is off, replace with open circuit (b) 2. Find VD, since we need to check VD < 0.5V • Use KVL to subtract VR from 5V. Ohm’s law to find VR, noting ID = 0A:
3. Note that VD does not satisfy the required condition
that:
Our assumption is incorrect, try again!
Diode analysis example 1. Assume diode is on, replace with voltage source (c) 2. Find ID, since we need to check ID > 0 A • Use Ohm’s Law for resistor:
3. Current ID does satisfy the required condition:
Our assumption is correct! The “correct” values are thus:
Not bad, compared to “exact” values:
LED analysis example 1. Assume LED is on, replace with voltage source (c) 2. Find ID, since we need to check ID > 0 A • Use Ohm’s Law for resistor:
3. Current ID does not satisfy the required condition:
Our assumption is incorrect! Try again…
LED analysis example 1. Assume LED is off, replace with open circuit (b) 2. Find VD, since we need to check VD < 0.5V • Use KVL to subtract VR from 5V. Ohm’s law to find VR, noting ID = 0A:
3. Check VD satisfies the required condition that:
Our assumption is correct! The correct current and voltage values are thus: Multiple Diodes/LEDs • If there were multiple (N) diodes or LEDs in the circuit, to figure out exactly how the circuit operates, you would at worst need to analyse 2N circuits with each circuit having unique combinations for each diode being on or off.
• In reality, you should be able to estimate the voltages at either side of the diodes/LEDs and check if they are large enough to exceed the diode/LED turn on voltages, to help you to make good guesses of their states.
• This will come quickly with some practice and hands-on experience! Transistors The arrow is always located on the “Emitter” terminal
For NPN transistor, the arrow is “Not Pointing iN“ to the transistor Significance • An efficient way to control current movement using electrical signals • We refer to this as “electronic switching”
• A method to “copy” and “amplify” electrical currents
• We refer to this as “current amplification”
• Different types of transistors exist, some examples:
• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) • Field Effect Transistors (FET) • Even graphene based magnetic field transistors BJT structure Transistor quantity definitions
• Transistors must obey KCL:
• Transistors have a “current gain” parameter: ,
Transistor operating states
Each p-n junction can be on or off
Different combinations result in different
transistor operating states, summarised below Transistor operating states • Base-Emitter is “control” junction (on/off)
• Base-Collector controls how much
current can move between C and E.
• To keep things simple in this unit:
• we will not consider circuits operating in the Reverse Active state • will we not consider circuits that operate in the regions where 0.5V < VBE < 0.7V and 0.5V < VBC < 0.7V we will only consider the junctions to be fully on, or fully off. Cutoff state (open switch) • Base-emitter is off:
• Transistor behaves as open circuit -
all currents = 0
• Transistor acts as an open switch
Saturation state (closed switch) • Base-emitter is on:
• Base-collector is also on
• Transistor acts as a closed switch
Notes: • Any current can move through • vBE and vCE are “locked in” (like diodes):
• Current iC is not related to iB
Forward active state (current amplifier) • Base-emitter is on:
• Base-collector is off:
• Transistor acts as a current amplifier for
iB, with current gain β:
• Value β is dependent on manufacture
and temperature, ranging from 10 to 1000 with typical values 100-200. Simple model transistor analysis procedure Key quantities and models Transistor analysis example Assumption: Cutoff
• Required conditions to satisfy:
• The voltage at the base terminal can be found by using Ohm’s Law, KVL and the 100k resistor: • In cutoff state: • Using similar reasoning: • The emitter is connected to ground: • Using KVL, we determine:
• These do not satisfy the cutoff conditions, try again with different assumption… Assumption: Saturation
• Required conditions to satisfy:
• 0.7 V source connected to ground, so: • 0.2 V source connected to ground, so: • Using Ohm’s Law to find:
• First condition met, but second is not
since βiB is not greater than iC • So transistor is not in saturation and we need to try again… Assumption: Forward Active
• Required conditions to satisfy:
• Using same reasoning as saturation: • To find vCE, need to find vC using KVL, Ohm’s Law and iC = βiB
• Applying KVL and Ohm’s Law gives
• Remembering the emitter is connected to ground gives:
• Both conditions are met, so transistor is in forward active.
Analog vs Digital • Analog circuits have voltage and current values that can be any continuous value • Digital circuits classify voltages and currents into discrete values (usually 2 of them): • 0 or 1, high or low, on or off, true or false • Called “Boolean” values
• Check out the video in the lesson page:
Communication, intelligence and automation • Smart systems are made possible by communication of information between sensors, control units, people and between machines. • Communicating information is imperfect and affected by noise • Digital information transmission is more resilient to noise as classification of voltages to 0 or 1 allows tolerance in the receiver’s interpretation of the information sent • Claude Shannon showed how any information can be represented as numbers and binary, allowing digital circuits to transmit, store and process information, ushering in the digital age. • Check out the video in the lesson page: Digital circuits
A B O A B O A O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Digital circuits This circuit adds up two numbers A and B, giving the result encoded in binary outputs C and S, summarised in table below
Number A B C S Represented 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 2
This is called an “adder circuit” – a building block of a calculator circuit that can add numbers together Transistor logic gate examples
Check out the video in the lesson page:
Transistors at large scale • By combining lots (think hundreds of billions) of transistors together in clever ways, we combine these logic gates together to create modern computers! • The image below shows the zoomed in view of transistors connected by wires in a microchip using an electron microscope.
