1 VECTORS

Reference:
Croft, A., & Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for Engineers -
A Modern Interactive Approach, Pearson Education.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 1

Vectors
Type of physical Quantities
(1) Scalars
Can be fully described by a single number
known as the magnitude
e.g. speed of a car 50 km/hr
distance between A, B 20 m

(2) Vectors
In addition to a magnitude, direction is also
required

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 e.g. Velocity of a car 50 km/hr due east
Displacement 20 m from A to B

Two vectors are equal only when both their

magnitude and direction are the same
e.g. 20m displacement from A to B is not equal to
20m displacement from B to A

Mathematical description
A vector can be represented by drawing a line:
B

AB or a or a
head
A tail

The magnitude, or modulus, of a vector a or AB

can be written as a , a , AB or simply a .

Two vectors are equal if they have same length and

same direction.

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 Negative Vector
a

–a

The above two vectors are not equal

The lower vector has the same magnitude as
the upper one but with opposite direction.
Mathematically
If upper vector is a then the lower vector is –a

Zero Vector

Zero vector or null vector is a vector which has

zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction. It is
represented by 0.

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 Addition of vectors

b
a
a b

c=a+b

Vectors are added using the triangle law

a+b =b+a commutativity
a + ( b + c) = (a + b) + c associativity

Addition of three vectors OR

R B
C
A
C C
R

B B
A A A

R = A + B + C
B C
© VTC 2012
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 Subtraction of vectors

b
b
a

a a–b
–b

Subtraction of one vector from another is

performed by adding the corresponding
negative vector

Multiplying a vector by a scalar

 
k – a scalar
a ka
A – a vector If k is
positive
Note :
k (a + b) = ka + kb
 
(k+m)a = ka + ma a ka
k(m)a = (km)a If k is
negative

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, Unit Vectors
Unit vectors is very important in Cartesian
components of vectors.
A vector of length 1 unit is called a unit vector.
Mathematically,
𝑎
 Unit vector of 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎
ො=
𝑎

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Cartesian components of vectors

iˆ represents a unit vector in the direction of the
positive x-axis
ĵ represents a unit vector in the direction of the
positive y-axis

y y
 3iˆ
 2 ĵ
iˆ
2iˆ 4 ĵ
5iˆ ĵ

x x
12

6
 Cartesian components of Vectors
Any vector in the x y plane can be written as
r=ai+bj
p = 2i + 3j is representing a position vector 𝑂𝑃
whose tail is at the origin and its head is at
the Cartesian coordinates (2, 3)
Any vector whose tail is at coordinate (a,a) and
its head is at coordinate (a + 2, a + 3) is also
represented by p.

© VTC 2012

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Addition of Vector

If 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ and 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = (𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑥 )𝑖Ƹ + (𝑎𝑦 +𝑏𝑦 )𝑗Ƹ

 
e.g. p  2iˆ  3 ˆj and r  iˆ  2 ˆj
 
p  r  (2  1)iˆ  (3  2) ˆj  3iˆ  5 ˆj

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 Subtraction of Vector

If 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗Ƹ and 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏 = (𝑎𝑥 −𝑏𝑥 )𝑖Ƹ + (𝑎𝑦 −𝑏𝑦 )𝑗Ƹ

 
e.g. p  2iˆ  3 ˆj and r  iˆ  2 ˆj
 
pr  (2  1)iˆ  (3  2) ˆj  iˆ  ˆj

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Modulus
 
If r  xiˆ  yˆj then r  x2  y2

e.g. 
r  3iˆ  4 ˆj

r  32  4 2  25  5

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 More Examples

    
If a  7iˆ  2 ˆj and b  6iˆ  5 ˆj , find a  b ,  a  b ,
 
modulus of a  b and unit vector of a  b .
Solution
 
a  b  (7  6)iˆ  (2  5) ˆj  13iˆ  3 ˆj
 
a  b  (7  6)iˆ  (2  (5)) ˆj  iˆ  7 ˆj
 
a  b  132 (3) 2  169  9  13.34

  13iˆ  3 ˆj
unit vector of (a  b) 
13.34
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More Examples
Point P has coordinates (2, 3). Point Q has
coordinates (–1, 5).
(a) Sketch the position vectors of P and Q.
(b) Find the expression for PQ and PQ .

PQ
3

OQ
OP

-1 2

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Solution:
Point P has coordinates (2, 3). Point Q has coordinates
(–1, 5).
OQ QP
ˆ ˆ
OP  2i  3 j  QP  PQ

OQ  iˆ  5 ˆj OP

PQ  iˆ  5 ˆj  2iˆ  3 ˆj OQ  QP  OP
QP  OP  OQ
 3iˆ  2 ˆj
 PQ  OP  OQ
PQ  (3) 2  (2) 2  3.6
PQ  OP  OQ
PQ  (2iˆ  3 ˆj )  (1)iˆ  5 ˆj
 3iˆ  2 ˆj
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The Scalar product or dot product

Reference: Croft & Davison Chapter 13 Block 3


a
 
b
 
The scalar product, denoted ab
is defined as
   
a  b | a || b | cos

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 e.g. Two vectors 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏 have modulus 8 and 10 respectively.
The angle between them is 45°. Find the scalar product.
   
a  b | a || b | cos
 8(10) cos 45
 56.57

e.g. Find the dot product of iˆ iˆ, ˆ j  ˆj, iˆ  ˆj and ˆj iˆ

where 𝑖Ƹ and 𝑗Ƹ are unit vectors in the directions of the x
and y axes.
Solution
unit vector with modulus  1
iˆ  iˆ  (1)(1) cos 0  1
ˆj  ˆj  (1)(1) cos 0  1
iˆ  ˆj  (1)(1) cos 90  0
ˆj  iˆ  (1)(1) cos 90  0

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   
e.g. If a  4iˆ  6 ˆj and b  3iˆ  3 ˆj , find a b and
 
 
verify that a b  b  a .
Solution
 
a  b  (4iˆ  6 ˆj )  (3iˆ  3 ˆj )
 (4iˆ)  (3iˆ  3 ˆj )  (6 ˆj )  (3iˆ  3 ˆj )
 (4iˆ)  (3iˆ)  (4iˆ)  ( 3 ˆj )  (6 ˆj )  (3iˆ)  (6 ˆj )  ( 3 ˆj )
 12(1)  ( 12)(0)  18(0)  (18)(1)
 6
 
b  a  (3iˆ  3 ˆj )  ( 4iˆ  6 ˆj )
 12  18
 6
 
 a b
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 Properties:
(i)     (commutativity)
a b  b  a
      
(ii) a  (b  c )  a b  a  c  (distributivity)

(iii) For two vectors a and b , and a scalar k,
     
k (a b )  (ka ) b  a  (kb )
 
(iv) If a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj and b  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj ,
 
then a b  a1b1  a2b2

e.g.4 Simplify (5iˆ  3 ˆj)  (7iˆ  2 ˆj)

Solution
 (5)(7)  (3)(2)
 29

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Angle between two vectors

 
Let   angle between the vectors a and b
 
a b
then cos   
ab

e.g.5 Find the angle between


two vectors
 ˆ ˆ
a  4i  3 j and b  i  3 ˆj .
ˆ

a b
Soluton : cos   
ab
(4iˆ  3 ˆj )  (iˆ  3 ˆj ) (4)(1)  (3)(3)

( 4  3 )( 1  3
2 2 2 2

25  10

13
5 10
  34.70
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    
a b a b  0

Solution :
 
a b  (3)(4)  (4)(3)
 12  12
0

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Projections
 P
a

 n Q
O
Length
 
Projection projection of a onto n
 
 an 
OQ  a cos    a  nˆ
n

nˆ is the unit vector in the direction of n i.e. nˆ  1
  
a  n̂ is the length of the projection of a onto n
  
a  n̂ is the scalar component of a in the direction of n

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Solution
First we need a unit vector in the direction of n

n 2iˆ
nˆ  
n 2
 
ˆ 2iˆ   59o
a  n  (3i  5 j ) 
ˆ
(Do your own calculation)
2
3
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Vectors in three dimensions


A vector r  aiˆ  bˆj  ckˆ can be represented
schematically as:

( a , b, c )

r
y

x
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 All the properties and concepts pertaining to 2-
dimensional vectors can be easily extended to 3-
dimensional vectors because any 2-D vector can be
regarded as the projection of a 3-D vector:
 
r  aiˆ  bˆj  zkˆ projection r  aiˆ  bˆj

 
We could also consider r  aiˆ  bˆj as r  aiˆ  bˆj  0kˆ .

The position vector of P(x,y,z) is OP = xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ

 x
 
or OP =  y 
 z
 

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e.g. Points A, B and C have coordinates (-2,3,1), (4,-6,3) and

(6,3, -8) respectively.
(a) Find the position vectors of A, B, C.
(b) Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶.
(c) Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 .

Solution

(a) OA  a  2iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ

OB  b  4iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ

OC  c  6iˆ  3 ˆj  8kˆ

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Solution
(b) AB  OB  OA
 
b a
 (4  (2))iˆ  (6  3) ˆj  (3  1)kˆ
 6iˆ  9 ˆj  2kˆ

BC  OC  OB
 
 c b
 (6  4)iˆ  (3  ( 6)) ˆj  ( 8  3) kˆ
 2iˆ  9 ˆj  11kˆ

(c) AB  6 2  (9) 2  2 2 BC  2 2  9 2  (11) 2

 11  14 .35

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 
a  b  6(0)  0(9)  7(2)
 0  0  14  14
 
a b
cos   
ab
 14

( 6 2  0 2  7 2 )( 0 2  9 2  (2) 2
 14  14
  0.165   cos1 ( )  99.48
85 85 85

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 4
e.g. Find the scalar component of the vector −1 in the direction
5
−1
of the vector 1 .
1 
n 1
nˆ   ( iˆ  ˆj  kˆ )
n ( 1)  1  1
2 2 2

1
 ( iˆ  ˆj  kˆ )
3
 1
a  nˆ  ( 4iˆ  ˆj  5kˆ )( ( iˆ  ˆj  kˆ ))
3
( 4 )  ( 1)  5

3
© VTC 2012 0
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e.g. Ƹ 𝑘෠ and 𝑖Ƹ − 4𝑗+

Show that the vectors 7𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗+ Ƹ 𝑘෠ are
perpendicular.

 
a  b  7(1)  2( 4)  1(1)
 7  8 1
0
cos  0
  cos1 0
 90

 the vectors are perpendicu lar

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e.g. Find the component of vector 7𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗+ ෠ the direction
Ƹ 𝑘in
෠
of the vector 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑘.

Solution
First we need a unit vector in the direction of n

n iˆ  ˆj  2 kˆ iˆ  ˆj  2 kˆ
nˆ   
n 12  ( 1)2  2 2 6

iˆ  ˆj  2 kˆ
a  nˆ  (7iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ ) 
6
722 3
 
6 6

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e.g. Find the angle between the vectors 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠

෠
and 5𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ −3𝑘.

Solution
 
a b
cos   
ab
10  1  3
cos 
2 2  12  12 52  12  32
  15

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 The vector product, or cross product
 
Definition : Vector product a  b  a b sin  eˆ

ê  
length of vector a  b is a b sin 

 
a b 
b

 a

  
The vector product of two vectors a and b is a vector of modulus a b sinθ
in the direction of ê where ê is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
 
containing a and b in a sense defined by the right  handed rule.

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     
Note : (i ) i  i  0, j  j  0, k  k  0
   
(ii) a  b  b  a (non  commutativity)
      
(iii) a  (b  c )  (a  b )  (a  c ) (distributivity)
        
(iv) i  j  k , j  k  i , k  i  j ,
        
j  i   k , k  j  i , i  k   j

Here is an easier way to memorize for note (iv):

-ve +ve
i

k j

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Formula for finding the vector product
    
Given a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3kˆ and b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k
Using the notes on previous page to determine
 
a  b  (a2b3  a3b2 )iˆ  (a1b3  a3b1 ) ˆj  (a1b2  a2b1 )kˆ

39

Solution
 
a  b  [(2)(8)  5(4)]iˆ  [3(8)  5(7)] ˆj  [3(4)  (2)(7)]kˆ
 4iˆ  59 ˆj  26kˆ

 
a b  (4) 2  592  262
 64.60

40

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  
a  b  [(2)(2)  (3)(0)]iˆ  [1(2)  (3)(1)] ˆj  [1(0)  (2)(1)]kˆ
 4iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ

  4iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ 4iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ

unit vector of a  b  
16  1  4 21

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Alternative Method:
Using determinants to evaluate a vector product

The method to evaluate the determinant will

be introduced in Matrix.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

 
where a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3 kˆ and b  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj  b3 kˆ

© VTC 2012

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21
Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle is given by the formula area
= ½ b c sin A.

In vector form,
C
1  
b area  AB  AC
2
a
A
c B

43

Find the area of the triangle that has vertices at the

following points: A(0,7,1), B(1,3,2) and C(-2,0,3).


Solution: OA  7 ˆj  kˆ

OB  iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ

OC  2iˆ  3kˆ

AB  iˆ  4 ˆj  kˆ

AC  2iˆ  7 ˆj  2kˆ
 
AB  AC  iˆ  4 ˆj  15kˆ
11
area  2 sq. units
2

44

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  and Volume of a Rectangle
Area

45

e.g. (a) Find the area of the parallelogram with edges

       
and a  2 i j  3k b  i 3 j  2k

(b) Find the volume formed by the three vectors

  
a , b and c  4iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ .

46

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Solution:
(a) iˆ ˆj kˆ
a  b  2 1  3  (2  9)iˆ  (4  3) ˆj  (6  1)kˆ  11iˆ  7 ˆj  5kˆ
1 3 2

area  a  b  112  (7) 2  52  195

(b)
volume  c  ( a  b )  ( 4iˆ  3 j  2 kˆ )  (11iˆ  7 j  5kˆ )  44  21  10  13

47

Calculating Moments exerted by forces

The moment of a force (or the torque induced by a

force) quantifies how hard the force tends to rotate
an object.

48

24
 49

e.g Calculate the moment about O of the force


F  2iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ newtons applied at the point with
position vector 3 ĵ

Vector Moment M 0  r  F
 3 ˆj  ( 2iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ )
 ( 3)(2) kˆ  (3)(1)iˆ
 3iˆ  6kˆ

Magnitude of M 0  r  F

 32  ( 6) 2  45 Nm

50

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Cross Product Application -Fleming's left-hand rule
 They were originated by John Ambrose Fleming, in the late
19th century, as a simple way of working out the direction of
motion in an electric motor
 When current flows in a wire, and an external magnetic field
is applied across that flow, the wire experiences a force
perpendicular both to that field and to the direction of the
current flow.
 A left hand can be held, as shown in the illustration, so as to
represent three perpendicular axes on the thumb, first
finger and middle finger.

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e.g. Find the force on an electrical wire if

- current flow vector is a  6iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
- magnetic field vector is b  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ

Ans: force on the wire  ab

iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
a b  6 4 2
1 2 3

 (12  4)iˆ  (18  2) ˆj  (12  4)kˆ

 16iˆ  16 ˆj  16 kˆ

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e.g.
With using the result in Exercise 1, show that the final
force on a electrical wire is perpendicular to the
magnetic field b  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ

Ans: from result of the previous example,

force on the wire

(16iˆ  16 ˆj  16 kˆ)  (iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ)

 16  32  48
0
They are perpendicular

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e.g. A force F is given by (2i + 3j) N. A body moves
in a direction AB given by (5i – 6j) m. Find the workdone
by the force on the body.

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