BLD 112 Lecture Note

BLD 112: Building Construction I 2023
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENVIROMENTAL STUDIES
JIGAWA STATE POLTECHNIC, DUTSE
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I
(BLD 112)
Prepared By:
UMAR B. NUHU
1ST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION
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CONTENTS
1. BUILDING COMPONENTS
(1.1) Building components
(1.2) Major building components
(a) Foundation (b) Floor (c) Wall (d) Door (e) Windows (f) Roof (g) Stairs
2. PRELIMINARY SITE ACTIVITIES
(2.1) Site activities that precede Actual building construction
(2.2) Provision of facilities of on site
(2.3) Site layout and organization
(2.4) Setting out of building
3. EXCAVATION
(3.1) Method of Excavation
(3.2) Tools used in manual Excavation
(3.3) Equipment used in mechanical Excavation
4. EARTHWORK SUPPORT
(4.1) Method of Earthwork support
5. FOUNDATION
(5.1) Importance of foundation to building
(5.2) Types of foundation soil
(5.3) Simple calculation of the area of concrete foundation
(5.4) Types of foundation and their application
6. METHODS OF REINFORCEMENT IN SUBSTRUCTURES
(6.1) Methods of reinforcement in Substructures
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7. CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATION
(7.1) Method of construction of foundation
8. DAMP PROOFING
(8.1) Rising damp and seepage of ground water in building
(8.2) Damp proof course (DPC) and damp proof membrane (DPM)
(8.3) Function of damp proof courses
(8.4) Materials used for damp proof course
(8.5) Tanking in basement work
(8.6) Hardcore layer
(8.7) Blinding
(8.8) Termite Treatment
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BUILDING COMPONENTS
Building Components
A Building can be defined as a structure broadly consisting of walls, floors and roofs, erected
to provide covered space for different uses such as residence, education, business,
manufacturing, storage, hospitalization, entertainment, worship etc.
Building protects the occupants, equipment or goods housed within, from various
externalthreats such as rain, wind, sun etc. Normally all buildings are constructed according
to drawings and specifications prepared by architects. Each city has prescribed building
byelaws to which buildings must conform.
For a building to act as enclosure, it must have external walls and be covered by a roof. The
roof will normally rest on the walls and be support by them. The walls in turn, will a need a
firm base or foundation to be built upon, which will transfer their weight and that of the roof
to the ground beneath.
To make the building usable, the internal space enclosed by the external walls and roof may
need to be sub-divided into rooms by the introduction of horizontal dividers between storey’s,
the floors, and vertical dividers between rooms and the internal walls. Stairs or lift can
provide access between storeys, while doors provide access to the building and to each room
within the building.
Daylight and ventilation can be introduced into the building by the provision of windows in
the external walls or roof. All these part of the building are referred to as building
component or elements.
Major Building Components
The major building components are as listed below.
 Foundation
 Floor
 Wall
 Door
 Stairs
 Window
 Fenestration (Other openings)
 Roof
 Ceiling
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Foundation
Foundation is the lowest part of a structures below the ground level which is in direct contact
with the ground and transmits all the dead, live and other loads to the soil on which the
structure rests.
The function of the foundation is to transmit the load from the building finally to the soil.
This, it must do without excessive settlement and compression of the supporting soil layer.
Functional Requirements of Foundation
 Ability to carry loads with a minimum movement
 Adequate width to safely transmit the loads on it to the supporting soil layer
Functions of Foundations
 Foundation provides suitable support and stability to the building
 Transmits to the ground all the loads that come on the building over a sufficient area
ofsubsoil
 Prevents the failure of the building or uneven settlement.
Foundationsare of many types but the more common ones include;
 Strip foundation
 Pad foundation
 Pile foundation
 Raft foundation etc.
Floor
Floor can be defined as the horizontal structure which carries imposed and live loads in a
building and divides a building into storeys; it plays an important role in a building.
The most common material used for the construction of floors that will meet the requirement
of building regulations and local bye-laws are concrete and wood.
Functional Requirements of Floor
Adequate strength and stability to support the loads that comes on it.
 Resistance to sound penetration
 Resistance to moisture penetration
 Thermal resistance
 Fire resistance
 Durability
 beautification
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Wall
This is usually the vertical continuous part of a building which encloses or protects the
building or divides the building into rooms and compartments. Materials used in wall
construction include concrete blocks, bricks, concrete, mortar, stones, metals etc.
Functional Requirements of Walls
Openings for daylight and ventilation
 Fire resistance to provide security and stability in the event of fire
 Adequate strength to resist being crushed by the loads from floors and roofs they
support
 Durability to withstand the condition under which it will function
 Adequate stability to resist other forces such as wind pressure and roof loads.
Walls can be broadly divided into two categories viz:
i) Load bearing walls: Supports its own weight as well as the super-impsed loads transferred
to it through floors/roofs.
ii) Non-load bearing walls: carry its own weight and not designed to carry any super-impsed
load from the structure.
Door
A door is a movable barrier placed across an opening in a building that provides access into
the building or between spaces within the building.
Functional Requirements of Door
 Weather resistance
 Durability
 Fire resistance, and
 It must be easy to slide open and close
Windows
Windows provide natural light and ventilation to the interior of a building while excluding
rain and insects.
Windows are usually made of timber and steel, but other materials such as plastics (PVC) and
aluminum are also popular. Each material has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Functional Requirements of Window
 The minimum area of window in a habitable room should be 10 percent of the floor
area
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 The minimum opening area of the window in a habitable room should be 5 percent of
the floor area.
 Adequate security against intruders
 Adequate resistance to external weather elements
 Provide privacy.
Roof
Roof is the uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space
below and protect it from rain, snow, sun, dust, wind etc. It prevents a lot of sound
(minimizing incoming sound) and also it helps the occupants to cover their privacy.
. Functional Requirements of Roof
 Strength
 Stability
 Weather Resistance
 Durability
 Fire Safety
 Thermal Resistance
 Sound Insulation
Stair: A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps connecting one
floor to another. The stair may be made from material like timber, stone, bricks, steel,
reinforced concrete etc.
PRELIMINARY SITE ACTIVITIES
When engineers or builders take possession of a building site, they are usually provided with
a site lay-out plan and the drainages necessary for the erection of the building. Having taken
over the site, the task of preparing for and setting out the building can be started. Taking over
the site includes having providing access road to the site to allow the movement of men,
machines and materials to the site.
The following activities precede actual building construction on site
 Provision of temporary access road
 Site clearance
 Site layout and organization
 Temporary provision of site services
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Provision of temporary access road

This should be provided to the site for the purpose of providing access to vehicular traffic that
will be bringing men and materials to the site. The access should be constructed so that
vehicles can enter the site in all weather. The access road can become part of the permanent
site services in the final design.
Site clearance
The preliminary works on a construction project site usually begin after the site facilities have
been set up. Clearing the site is essential, first, the vegetation such as bushes and shrubs
should be removed and the roots of trees and bushes dug out and cleared away.
Site clearance also may involve the demolition of existing buildings; demolition is a skilled
occupation and should be tackled by experts in that area.
The top soil should also be removed up to a depth of at least 150mm to remove any plant life
and decaying vegetable. Top soil is however valuable as a top dressing for gardens and may
be disposed of in this manner.
The site needs to be cleared of rocks and boulders in the area where the building will be set
out.
If they are too large, then the boulders or rocks must be broken into smaller pieces and taken
away.
Site clearance is done by a combination of manual and mechanical means. The method
adopted will be determined by the overall economics which may be influenced by the scale of
development and consideration for any adjacent buildings.
Provision of temporary site services
These include the provision of such services as water supply and, electricity. Water is
required on construction site for drinking and for the works. Where the site is close to the
public water mains, the water can be connected directly from the public water mains to the
site. The stand pipe should be located close to where the mixing of concrete and mortar will
take place. Where the site is far from the public water mains, water can be supplied to the site
with use of water tankers. The water can be stored in reservoir provided on the site for such a
purpose especially for the works.
Electricity can be supplied from the mains or a petrol generator.
A telephone line should be provided which is secured so that it can only be used for official
or authorized calls.
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Site Layout and Organization
Construction site layout involves identifying, sizing, and placing temporary facilities
(TFs) within the boundaries of construction site. These temporary facilities include
warehouses, fabrication shops, maintenance shops, batch plant, offices and toilets, cranes,
scaffolding, and residence facilities. Required temporary facilities and their areas are
depending in many factors including project type, scale, design, location, and organization of
construction work.
A site layout (block plan) shows a detailed layout of the whole site and the relationship of the
proposed works with the boundary of the property, nearby roads and neighbouring buildings.
There are two general objectiveswhich planners should seek to meet through careful
organization of the site for construction. First, the site must be designed
1. To maximize efficiency of operations in order to promote worker productivity, to

shorten project time and to reduce cost.
2. Second, the final plan must create a project with a good work environment in order
to attract and retain the best personnel and thus contribute to better work quality and
productivity.
Site Layout Planning Elements
A well planned site including all temporary facilities and utilities lead to: 1) increasing
productivity and safety, 2) reducing area(s) needed for temporary construction, and 3)
maximizing utilization.
The following points or factors should be considered in good site layout.
1. Safety
- Fire prevention: Fire is a major cause of damage on construction sites, so fire extinguishers
are basic requirements on a construction project.
- Medical services: On construction project a first aid kit is a must. In remote projects a well-
equipped medical room with a doctor and nurse is important.
- Construction safety clothing: Basic safety supplies like safety shoes, hard hats, gloves,
and goggles must be used by workers.
2. Site Accessibility
Easy accessibility will keep the morale of the equipment and vehicle drivers high, minimize
the chances of accidents, and save time in manoeuvring to arrive at site and to vacate the site.
In case of large projects, proper planning is required to layout the roads leading from the
nearest highway. Internal roads are necessary for easy flow of work. Also, Parking Lots
are provided for the owner, office, and craft personnel, but this facility must be planned
where space does exist.
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3. Information Signs
- Site map: It should locate details of the project, and displayed in the office of the site
superintendent or project manager and posted at the entrance gate.
- Traffic regulatory signs: For large projects, traffic regulatory signs help in guiding the
traffic on the site and avoid accidents to a considerable extent.
- Display of labour relations policy and safety rules: This will help in eliminating disputes
between labour and management.
- Emergency routes and underground services: It is important to display the emergency

escape routes on every floor as the building progresses. Locations of underground services
should be marked to prevent its damage.
4. Security
- Fencing: The boundary should be fenced off from a security point of view.
- Entrance: It is necessary to have a proper guard entrance to the site provided by a booth.
Also, it is necessary to keep track of all visitors to the project.
- Lighting: It is necessary to have a standby generator to maintain site lighting.
5. Accommodation
On large construction projects, it is necessary to provide camp accommodation for all type of
staff involved in the project.
6. Offices
The offices should be close together, inside the site or close to the site, and in a safe area.
Also, provide the offices with proper office equipment. The offices at the site may include
job office, general contractor office, and sub-contractors and consultants Offices.
7. Water Supply and Sanitation
It is necessary to have water and toilet facilities in convenient locations to accommodate the
work force.
8. Storage and site cleaning
It is necessary to plan and reserve storage areas for materials so that multiple movement of
material is avoided.
- Lay down areas: Areas reserved for storage of large materials and equipment and it can be
short-term or long-term.
- Warehouses: They are sheltered storage facilities where materials are stored until they have
disbursed to the job.
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- Material staging areas: They used when materials are stored near the work on a short-term
basis. They are generally as close to work as possible.
- Site cleaning: It is necessary at a work place and especially where the extent of debris
produced is high. Regular disposal of debris is necessary.
10. Craft Change-Houses: Craft change-houses provide sheltered space for craft personnel
to change and store clothes, wash, and rest during waiting periods.
11. Batch plant and Fabrication Shops
Batch plants are provided on projects where it is more economical to produce concrete on site
than to buy a ready mix. Aggregate storage piles, cement silos and admixture tanks will
accompany an on-site batch plant.
Shops are used where materials and equipment are fabricated on site. This includes
electrical, mechanical, carpentry, and paint shops. Also, testing shops used to house the
necessary testing equipment and personnel for the project.
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Typical site layout plan in a construction site.
SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

Setting out a building is the process of transferring architectural proposals from drawings into
the ground and with high degree of accuracy. It establishes the location points for site
boundaries, foundations, columns, center-lines of walls and other necessary structural parts.
Also, it establishes the building’s correctangles and levels. The whole structure will be
located and erected according to the initial setting out.
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Accurate setting out is therefore a fundamental part of the construction works, and errors can
be very expensive and time consuming to correct. It should only be undertaken by competent
persons, and all work should be thoroughly checked, preferably by different personnel.
It is necessary to have a good knowledge of geometry in order to ensure accurate work.

The first tasked in setting out a building is to establish a base line from which the whole of
the building can be set out. The position of this line must be marks on site so that it can be re-
established at any time.
Setting out is usually undertaken once the site has been cleared of any debris, unwanted
vegetation or obstructions. Works necessary to create required levels may also have been
completed before the layout process begins.
Baseline
Typically the first layout task is establishing a baseline to which all the setting out can be
related. The baseline is a straight reference line in respect to which the building’s corners are
located on the ground. It often coincides with the ‘building line’, which is the boundary of the
area, or the outer boundary of a road or curb, often demarcated by the local authority. After
the base line has been established, then the building can be set out, each corner being marked
with a Peg. A check should then be made of the setting out lines for right angles and correct
lengths. The method of establishing of the right angle is what the setting out sets out to
establish in addition to the correct length.
Temporary Bench Mark (TBM)
A temporary bench mark is a fixed point with a known elevation, usually ground floor level.
Establishing it should be undertaken at an early stage. It is the fixed point which kicks-off the
setting out and to which all levels are related. On the site, it could relate to any permanent
fixture, such as a manhole cover or firmly-driven post. Typically, it is signified by a peg or
steel angle that is conveniently located (e.g. near the site office).
Setting out Equipment

Measuring tape: Before setting out any work, the tape would be carefully checked for
accuracy.
Metallic lines tapes tend to stretch after they have been in use for sometimes. The tape is to
mark the measurement on the profiles. It should be ensured that each measurement is taken
from the extended ring at the end of the tape.
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Profiles: Timber profiles erected for this purpose consist of pegs driven into the ground and
boards nailed across them.
Wood Pegs: Used to mark out and indicates points on site.
Ranging rods: Surveying instrument used to mark areas andto establish a straight line on the
fieldbetween corner posts.Also called Ranging pole.
Nails: For fixing the woods in the profiles board.
Hammer: For fixing nails
Ropes:Helps to make straight lines from one point to another.
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Methods of Setting out a Building

There are three methods of setting out on small building sites, and these are;
 3 4 5 method
 Builder’s square method
 Using the Theodolite
The 3 4 5 Method:
The 3 4 5 method is an application of the Pythagoras Theorem i.e. Forming right Angle and
most times, 2 or 3 people are involve in this. 3meters is measured from the Parallel Line
created, then 4 Meter Away from the First point forming a Right Angle, you use your
Measuring tape to Confirm the distance between the 3m point noted at the parallel line and
the 4m noted at the other line is 5m. Note that your Parallel line remain the same, you only
shift the other line to form the right Angle.
You repeat the same process for the Second Point too.
The 3 4 5 method is an accurate method use in Getting the Exact Square of a Plan instead of
Using the Engineering Square which may not be accurate for a Longer Span.
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Procedures for setting out a building using 3 4 5 method:

1. Mark out the building line from the road by measuring the required distance or by
stretching a line along the existing buildings to the proposed site. The building line is then
represented by the line shown as the ranging line.
2. Mark out the overall length of the building by driving in pegs at A and B along the ranging
line.
3. Produce two steel tapes measured and mark out four equal distances on the ranging line
starting from the corner peg at B (4m).
4. Pull a tape measure from point B to C and ask an assistance to hold it ready with a hammer
and peg.
5. Pull the second tape from the fourth mark at D on the ranging to point E on the first tape.
6. The distance 5m on tape DE should coincide with point 3m to tape BEC to prove that the
angle B is 90ͦ(from Pythagoras theorem).
7. Repeat the same procedure to obtain the right angle from BAF, and mark out the overall
width of the building.
8. Establish corner pegs and erect profiles.
9. Mark the position or partition walls on the profile with either nails or saw cuts. Ranging
lines are stretched through these nails and the corner peg to establish the ground to indicate
the line of excavation for the foundation trenches.
Setting out of a building using the 3 4 5 method

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Setting out a building using the builder’s square method:

1. Find out the distance from the site boundary to the building line on the working drawings.
Use the tape to measure the same distance from the site boundary to the location of the
building line on the ground and select a corner on the ground to be corner A.
2. Place a peg in the ground at corner A and hammer a nail into the top of the peg.
3. Repeat these steps to place a peg in the ground for corner B
4. Tie the string between pegs A and B and measure the distance between them. Check that
the distance on the ground is the same measurement as the distance on the drawing.
5. Repeat these steps for corners C and D
6. Measure the diagonals A-D and B-C (the two diagonals should be equal)
7. Use the builder’s square to check that the corners are at right angles.
Setting out using the builder’s square

Often the easiest way of laying out an irregular building shape is to first lay out a large
rectangle which will enclose the entire building or the greater part of it. Once this is done,
deductions and alterations can be made to obtain the precise layout required.
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EXCAVATION
Excavation Definition:
Excavation generally means work involving the removal of soil or rock from a building site
or area within a site to form an open space, hole or cavity using hand tools or machinery. It
includes: footing excavation, basement excavation, rock excavation,earthwork, trenching,
tunneling and underground.
Excavation has a number of important applications including exploration, mining and

construction. Among these, construction is one of the most common applications for
excavation. Excavation is used in construction to create building foundations, reservoirs and
roads. The processes used will depend upon the structure that will result from the
construction process. Excavation is done after the setting out.
Methods of Excavation
Excavation can be done using two methods:
 Manual method and
 Mechanical method
The choice of the excavation method depends on the size of work. In small construction, it is
more economical to use the manual method, while large works will be economical to be
executed using the mechanical method of excavation.
Tools used in Manual Method of Excavation
The manual method of excavation involves the use of the following tools:
 pick-axes: used to dig up the soil
 shovels: to remove the dug up soil
 spades: to level the bottom of the excavation and to load into the wheelbarrow,
 Wheel-barrows: to convey the excavated soil away from the excavation area.
Mechanical Excavation
Mechanical excavation makes use of heavy machinery that primarily involves hydraulic
power such as excavators, backhoes and dump trucks to remove rocks and soil.
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This method of excavation is most commonly used for large construction projects where
there are no underground utilities to worry about damaging. Because of the amount of space
that the equipment usually takes, this is also usually done in larger areas as well.
Equipment Used in Mechanical Excavation

The mechanical method of excavation involves the use of mechanical plants which are
capable of doing more than one task. Examples of these are as follows:
Excavator: An excavator has a bucket, boom and a cab mounted on a rotating platform that
sits on tracks like a tank, or it has wheels.
Backhoe: A backhoe has both a rear-mounted digging bucket on a two-part hinged arm and a
front shovel-bucket. It is often the only machinery used on small to medium projects.
Backhoe is also known as Digger.
Bulldozer: A bulldozer is a tractor unit with a blade attached to its front. The blade is used to
push, shear, cut, and roll material ahead of the tractor. It is an ideal surface earthmover that
performs best at about 3mph. Each model of bulldozer has an operating range for blade size
and adjustment. A dozer has tracks with a front blade and sometimes a ripper on the
back.This is used to push the soil layer by layer to one side and pile it up nearby. A bulldozer
does not dig out or lift out the soil.
Mechanical Auger: This digs pile holes. It is a large piece of equipment which has a large
drill mounted on a platform. The auger drills a hole in the ground and lifts out a column of
soil.
Dump Truck: Used for the movement of soil over short distances. The body of the dump
truck tips forward and deposits the soil in the required position.
Tipper Truck: This is a road vehicle used to remove large amounts of excavated materials to
locations away from the site. The body of the tipper truck tips up and empties the soil at the
back of the vehicle.
Other mechanicalexcavation equipmentinclude Loaders, Shovels, Dragline,e.t.c.
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Trench Excavation
This type of excavation is where the length of the excavated area exceeds the depth. It is a
narrow underground trench that is between 4 inches and several feet wide. Trench excavation
is typically used to bury utility lines, including water, sewer and gas services. It also includes
trenching for power, phone and cable.
EARTHWORK SUPPORT
Methods of Earthwork Support
It is important to access how long an excavation can safely remain open without support for
the sides. If the weather is very dry then the lack of moisture may cause the soil to shrink,
crack and fall in. Generally the looser the soil the more it needs to be supported.
If the soil is very wet then the sides of the excavation may become unstable. In both cases it
is better to provide temporary supports to the sides of the excavation. Excavation on a
confined site may also need support in case heavy loads are placed or driven too close to the
edges of the excavation. Earthworks supports retain the size of excavation collapsed during
the time the excavation will remain open. The process of providing temporary support to the
sides of an excavation is referred to as timbering. It is sometime planking and strutting.
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Timbering is to:
 Protect the operatives while working in excavation
 Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trend.
 Prevent drainage to adjacent structures that could be caused by excavation
 Enable work to proceed within the excavation without interruption.
Components of Timbering
Timbering is made up of the following parts:
Polings: These are vertical planks supporting the soil. In sand or gravel, they should be
placed close enough to form a continuous timber wall. Depending on the soil type and
working conditions, they may be placed about 900 mm apart. The purpose of the polings is to
keep the soil on the sides of the excavation from falling in.
Wailings: They are horizontal timber strips supporting the polings.
Struts: These are the timbers that span across the trench between the wailings. The struts
hold the opposite walls of the excavation in place.
Wedges: These are the pieces of timber used to maintain the pressure of the polings against
the soil. If the soil expands or shrinks while the work is carried out, the wedges may need to
be adjusted again.
Factors to be considered in providing supports to Excavation

 The nature of the soil – Generally non-cohesive soils require more support than
cohesive soil.
 The depth of the excavation – Shallow excavations need less support than deep
excavation.
 The width of the excavation – The wide excavation needs to be supported in a
different waythan narrow excavation.
 The type of work to be carried out- Operation within the excavation will require
workingspace, and the amount required will depend on the operation involved.
 The moisture content of the soil- Soils require different amount of support as
changes in their moisture content occur.
 The length of time the excavation will be left open- Cohesive soils, in particular
may dry outand to crumble if the excavation is left open for long periods of dry
weather.
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 The method of excavation – Hand excavation will require more support than
machineexcavation.
 The removal of the support system- Different support systems can be removed
either beforeor after the excavation.
 Moving materials into excavation – The working space will need to consider the
materialsbeing moved into and out of the excavation as well as the operation being
carried out withinthe excavation.
 The proximity use of the land adjacent to the excavation for stacking materials –
Over loadingof the ground by stacking materials close to the excavation can cause
stress on soils at the sideof the excavation. Similarly, large vehicle should be
prevented from driving too close to theexcavation.
 Vibration of soils from construction operation or vehicle using adjacent road-
Excessivevibration can cause soils to move, making the sides of excavation
potentially less stable.
(a) Timbering in hard soils (b) Timbering in firm soil
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(c) Timbering in dry loose soils (d) Timbering in loose wet soils
FOUNDATION
The Foundation is the main supporting component of any building structure. It is the lowest
part of the building which is in contact with soil and transfers all structural loads to soil
safely. Without a foundation, you may not see skyscrapers building in the world.
The foundation links the main superstructure to the earth.When it comes to building a
structure, it is very crucial to construct a firm base which holds the superstructure in all
climatic conditions without collapsing or decaying.
It is very important to know which type of foundation is essential to use in a particular

superstructure, which materials are more suitable, which designs should be used. If any
inappropriate material is used for foundation of structure then high risk is involved which
might lead to the collapsing of the structure. Different types of foundation base are utilized in
different types of structures, each one of them has a unique design and specific configuration
which makes a particular structure more durable and firm.
There are different Types of Foundations used in construction depending upon the nature of
the work.
Importance of Foundation to Building

The foundation
 Provides anchorage for the building.
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 Carries the load of the building and safely transmits it to soils of better bearing
capacity.
 Provides a wide surface area to spread the load evenly across soil that can support the
load.
Types of Foundation Soil
The choice of foundation depends among other factors on the type of soil in which the
foundation is to be constructed.
Rock – this is a very hard foundation soil. This kind of soil has a high load bearing capacity.
It can support strip foundation for a load bearing wall and a pad foundation for isolated loads
as those transmitted by columns and similar components.
Gravel and sand – suitable for pad, and strip foundation
Clay – stiffsoil suitable for pad and strip foundation. The depth of the foundation should be
taken to a depth where it will not be affected by swelling and shrinkage which sometimes
occur in clay soil.
Sandy clay – Firm soil suitable for strip and pad foundation. The foundation should be made
wide enough taking into consideration the load bearing capacity of the soil.
Clay and silt – Soft soil suitable for raft foundation because of the low load bearing capacity
of the soil.
Soils are classified into two categories which are:
Cohesive soils in which the particles stick together and examples include Clay and
Silt.
Non – Cohesive soil in which the particles do not stick together but are loose especially when
they are dry. Examples include rock, gravel and sand.
Factors that Influence the Choice of Foundation.
The choice and design of foundation for building depends mainly on three factors
 The total load of the building
 The nature and bearing capacity of the soil
 The amount of settlement produced by the loading.
Types of Foundation
Foundations are mainly two types.
1. Shallow Foundation
2. Deep Foundation.
1. Shallow Foundation
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It is a type of foundation which transfers the structural load to the earth surface which is very
close to the earth. The depth of the ground in shallow foundation varies from 1.5m to 3m.
Shallow foundation itself can be various types.
Shallow foundations transfer load of the building to a sub-soil at a level close to the surface.
They are nearly always the cheapest to construct and generally used where sufficient depth of
a strong soil exists near the surface of the ground. Shallow foundations are classified as
follows:
1. Isolated footing
2. Wall footing (strip footing)
1. Isolated Spread Footing
It is one of the simplest and worldwide popular foundations. An isolated footing is mostly
used to support a single column. This type of foundation is suitable when columns are not
closely spaced.
Types of Isolated Spread Footing
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 Stepped footing
 Simple spread footing.
 Sloped footing.
Stepped Footing
This type of footings is provided with steps in foundation sides, which is also known as
polestar. The step or polestar is starting from the bottom up to column size. Stepped footings
are generally used when there is a heavy load coming from the upper superstructure.
Simple Spread Footing
In simple spread footing, only a foundation base is constructed and further followed by a
column. This type of footings is suitable when there is no excessive heavy load coming from
the upper part of the structure as in the case of stepped footings.
Sloped Footing
In this type of footing, there is a foundation base and further followed by a column but the
slope is given to connect the base to column size and which also resembles the shape of
trapezoidal. It is also known as trapezoidal slope footing.
Page | 26
Construction of Pad foundation
The construction of the pad foundation entails the excavation of the foundation pit to the
desired depth. The bottom of the excavation is overlaid with a weak concrete referred to as
blinding. The reinforcement which is placed in both directions is usually tied in a basket form
and then placed inside the pit with the spacers to give the necessary concrete cover to the
reinforcement. The column starter bars are cast together with the foundation. The concrete of
the desired quality is then poured into the pit to form the foundation.
Advantages of isolated footing
 It is economical compared to others.

 No skilled labor is required.
 It is time-saving because of simple shape.
Suitability
 Where columns are not closely spaced.

 Loads on footings are less.
 The Safe bearing capacity of the soil is generally high at low depth.
2. Wall footings
Wall footings are strip footings that are used to support structural or non-structural walls to
transmit and distribute the loads to the soil. All footing runs along the direction of the wall.
The thickness and size of the footing are specified based on the type of soil at the site. The
width of footing is generally kept between 2-3 times the widths of the wall.
In this foundation, the wall footing can be constructed from plain concrete, reinforced
concrete stone, brick. The wall footing is best suited for small buildings.
Suitability:
 It can be more effective for load-bearing structures and boundary wall construction.
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Construction of Strip Foundation

Reinforced concrete strip foundations are used to support and transmit the loads from heavy
walls. The minimum thickness of a strip foundation is 150 mm. This may be of course,
greater where the projection of the edge of the foundation from the base of the wall is greater
than 150 mm.
The construction entails first of carrying out the excavation of the foundation trench up to a
depth of at least 1m. This depth is to ensure that the foundation is constructed at a depth
where it will not be affected by the seasonal soil movement that will cause its failure. After
the excavation is concluded the concrete is then placed and compacted in the trench usually
in one single layer. If the nature of the soil will be such that a wide strip foundation will be
used, the reinforcement is placed at the. This is as shown in figure below
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3. Combined Footings
Combined footings are provided when the column is closely spaced. So that their footing
overlaps with each other and when the soil bearing capacity of a soil is lower this type of
footing are used. In such when columns are closely spaced and if we provide separate isolated
footings that would overlap, in such cases, it is better to provide a combined footing than an
isolated footing.
Following are the situation when we can use combined footing,
 When center to center distance between columns is small and soil has a low bearing
capacity. Individual column footing may overlap each other.
 In case when the column is located near to property line and sewer line, the column
center of gravity will not coincide with footing. Then, it is necessary to provide
combined this footing with that of the adjacent internal column.
 Dimensions of one side of footing are restricted to due to any reason, so that column
footings may be combined.
Suitability:
 For Columns that are closely spaced.

 Column located near to property line or sewer line.
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4. Cantilever or Strap Footings.
Strap footing consists two or more columns footing connected by concrete beam. Such type
of footing distributes the load of heavy or eccentrically loaded column footing to adjacent
footing. Strap footing is also known as cantilever footing. When two columns having
independent footing base, connected by a beam is called as strap foundation.
This is an important foundation. When a square or rectangular footing is located near to the
property line and if it is concentrically located under the column would extend into the
adjoining property, which may not be permissible. For such a situation a trapezoidal
combined footing may be an alternative.
The strap beam provided to connect two spread footing columns does not remain in contact
with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.
The main function of the strap beam is to transfer a load of the heavily loaded outer column
to the inner one. While transferring this load strap footing has to experience shear force and
bending moment. This should be taken into consideration while designing cantilever or strap
footings.
Suitability
The column is located near the property line and its dimension restricted.
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5. Raft or Mat Foundation
Mat or raft foundation is a continuous slap resting on the soil that extends over an entire
footprint of the building, thus supporting the building the building and transferring its weight
to the ground. Mat or raft footing is basically a thick concrete slab reinforced with steel that
covers the entire contact area of the structure like a thick floor.
A Raft foundation is also used for low-bearing capacity soil, as it distributes the weight of the
building over the entire area of the building, and not over the smaller zone or at the individual
point. Ultimately reduces the stress per area on the soil.
The stress concept is very simple for civil engineers. We know that stress is a ratio of weight
by area. For example, if a building has is 10m x 10m weighs 100 tons and has a raft
foundation, then the stress on the soil is weight/area = 100/100 = 1 ton per square meter.
Suitability
It is recommended for compressed soil such as very soft clay, and compressible fill material
where strip, pad or pile foundations would not provide a stable foundation without excessive
excavation.
Page | 31
Construction of Raft foundation

Because the raft foundation covers the whole area under the building, the excavation has to
be carried out to the desired depth over the whole area the building has to cover. A weak
concrete is placed over the whole area which acts as blinding. The reinforcement is placed
with the spacers to give the desired concrete cover. The reinforcement is placed in both
direction and in both faces. The concrete is then poured and compacted to form the
foundation. It might also be necessary to cast the column starter bars, if necessary.
Page | 32
Figure: Reinforcement details for ground beams in a raft foundation
Deep Foundation
A foundation in which the depth of foundation is more than the width of the foundation is
known as a deep foundation.The depth of the ground in deep foundation is above 3m. This is
because; to construct high rise buildings it is necessary to go deep into the ground to provide
necessary support to the superstructure and protects it from collapsing.
1. Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is type of foundation in which columns of small cylindrical diameter are
driven or cast into the ground. It is made up of concrete, timber or steel. This type of
foundation is basically used for bridge type of construction. Pile foundation is done in the
areas where the upper layer of soil is compressible or weak.
Page | 33
Pile foundation is basically used when the soil below the foundation does not have sufficient
bearing capacity to carry the weight of the structure into deep soil.
The major function of the pile foundation is to transmit loads to the lower level of the ground
by the combination of friction pile and end-bearing pile at the pile point or base.
Suitability
We use a pile foundation when:
1. The compressible or weak upper soil layer
2. Presence of horizontal forces
3. Expansive soils in the foundation
4. Subjected to uplifting forces
5. Soil erosion
Construction of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are constructed either by being driven into the ground by pile drivers or the
ground is bored, the reinforcement is placed and concrete pored and vibrated to form the pile
foundation. In the first case it is called driven pile. The second type is referred to as
replacement pile.
Piles foundation
Page | 34
2. Pier Foundation
It is also known as post foundation. Pier foundation is basically a collection of large

cylindrical diameter to up hold the structure and transfer large super imposed load to the firm
strata below. It is placed few feet’s below the ground. This is very convenient method as the
materials are easily available and the method is easy and requires fewer amounts of materials
and labors. It is preferred in locations where the top strata consist of decomposed rock
overlying strata of sound rock.
They are similar to pile foundations but are installed using a different method.
Suitability
Under Water Construction of bridge, Retaining wall or Waterlogged is construction.
Pier foundation
METHODS OF REINFORCEMENT IN SUBSTRUCTURES

Reinforcement is provided in concrete structures to enhance its tensile strength. Therefore in
all structural elements, the reinforcement is provided in the region of the element that will be
subjected to tension. Reinforcement details must be provided in the following substructures
during foundation:
Page | 35
Pad foundations: The reinforcement in isolated pad foundation is provided at the bottom of
the foundation slab. This is because the point loads coming from the column subject the
bottom part of the foundation to tension.
Raft foundation: In raft foundation both the top and bottom faces of the slab are subjected to
both tension and compression depending on the position of the columns and other structural
components that are carried by the raft.
Ground beams: Ground beams are provided to support the foundation wall in place of a
strip foundationin poor soil conditions. They are reinforced to enhance their resistance to
the loads that might be coming on them from the wall. There are situations where the ground
beams form the component parts of some types of raft foundation.
Page | 36
DAMP PROOFING
The process of preventing the passage of moisture to the interior of a building through the
walls, floors, etc. is referred to as damp proofing. Damp proofing is achieved by the use of
damp proof course (DPC) and damp proof membrane (DPM).
Rising Damp and Seepage of Ground Water in Building
Rising damp is generally associated with walls situated above the ground where moisture
from the ground rises through the capillaries in the wall fabric; this is known as capillary
action.
The foundation of the building and the foundation walls are usually in direct contact with the
sub-soil. The ground water level rises and drops depending on the season. This ground water
rises through the fabric of the walling materials and passes through to the superstructure. This
rising of damp has the adverse effect of damaging fittings and finishes applied to the
building. For this reason, precaution should be taken to prevent this dampness from rising.
Damp Proof Course (DPC)
DPCsimply means an impervious material used to prevent the vertical rise of moisture
through the wall into the interior of the building.Damp Proof Course (D.P.C.) is provided in
all the building to prevent the rise of water from the ground which causes dampness.
Damp Proof Membrane (DPM)
DPM is defined as an impervious material like polyethylene sheet laid horizontally at the
floor level under a concrete slab to prevent moisture penetration into the interior of the
building. Damp proof membrane (DPM) should be impermeable to water either in liquid or
vapor from the ground. It should be rough enough to withstand possible damage during the
laying of screeds, concrete or floor finishes.
The primary function of any damp-proof course (DPC) or damp membrane (DPM) is to
provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of moisture.
Functions of Damp Proof Courses
 Prevents capillary action of water to the super structure of the building.
 Prevents the furniture and insulator of the building from moisture.
 Provides a good barrier to the passage of water from the ground into the structure
(rising damp).
 Should be capable of adequate resisting any attack by sulphates or any other
deleterious
 matter present in the subsoil.
Page | 37
 Typical details of the procedure used in laying DPC and DPM are as shown;
(a) DPM laid below the floor slab (b) DPM laid above the floor slab
Materials Used for Damp Proof Course

 Hard soil
- Bitumen
- Asphalt
 Fairly firm soil
- Metal Sheets: Sheets of lead, copper, aluminum is used as DPC. They are laid similar
to bituminous felts
- Polythene sheet
 Loose soil
- Metal sheet
- Concrete cement
Properties of Damp Proof Course
 Flexibility
 Impervious
 Rigidity
 Durability
Damp proof course maybe horizontal or vertical placed either below the ground level or just
above the ground level is in order prevent water raising up the wall of the building.
Every wall in a building should have a (D. P. C) which is:
 At least 150mm and above ground level
Page | 38
 Above the surface of any over-site concrete

 Below the surface member of the timber floor
Precaution to Be Taken When Laying DPC
 Always keep mortar bed even and ensure that there are no
 Unroll bitumen material carefully; especially in cool weather as coldness tends to
make them brittle and liable to crack badly.
 Bed slates and bricks carefully to ensure that there are no air puddles beneath them.
Procedure for Placing DPC
The DPC is placed horizontally below the ground level to prevent water up the wall. The
DPC below ground level is provided where the floor in a building is below the ground level
and will consist of both horizontal and vertical DPC. The lower DPC is placed below the
floor level and an upper DPC is placed about 150mm above the ground level. The vertical
DPC is connected to the two to form a complete barrier to the moisture rising up to the
structure.
As an impermeable membrane, the DPC prevents termites from penetrating through into the
building. This is because it is a hard surface through which termite cannot penetrate.
DPC will not allow any under-ground tree to penetrate through the ground to the floor.
BASEMENT TANKING
Tanking in Basement Work
Basement Tanking is the application of a membrane or coating to the inside or the outside of
the structure. This stops water entering the habitable space of the property thus making the
basement watertight. Within the waterproofing industry this is defined as ‘Type A’
waterproofing.
A basement can be waterproofed by any of the following basic methods:

 Monolithic structures
 Drained cavities
 Membranes (of which asphalt tanking is a detailed example)
Asphalt Tanking
Asphalt is a natural or manufactured mixture of bitumen with a substantial proportion of inert
mineral matter. When heated, asphalt becomes plastic and can be moulded by hand pressure
into any shape. Bitumen has both waterproofing and adhesive properties.
Page | 39
The basic principle of asphalt tanking is to provide a continuous waterproofing membrane to

the base and walls of the basement. Continuity between the vertical and horizontal
membranes is of utmost importance, and since asphalt sets rapidly once removed from the
heat source used to melt the blocks it is applied in layers over small areas. Joints in
successive coats should be staggered by at least 150 mm in horizontal work and at least 75
mm in vertical work.
 Externally applied mastic asphalt tanking
 Internally applied mastic asphalt tanking
(a)Externally applied mastic asphalt tanking (b) Internally applied mastic asphalt tanking
Figure: Basement tanking in mastic asphalt
HARDCORE
A Hardcore is a layer of a building immediately after filling which is made up of material
such as broken stones, rocks and various laterites used to satisfy and level the uppermost
surface of a building area before the ground floor slab is cast upon it.
Functions of Hardcore
o Provides support to the floor slab
o Reduces the amount of moisture penetration into the building
Page | 40
o Used in determining different floor levels in a building with various floor

levels (e.g. Dining area may be higher than sitting area (living room).
o Used for filling in void before construction
o Used in determining the different levels in a building, in reduced level
excavation.
o Provides an even level before slab is cast.
 Helps to increase the strength level of a building.
Materials Used for Hardcore
The following materials could be used as hardcore
 Broken bricks
 Demolition wastes
 Broken stones
 Compacted lateritic soil
Required Depth For Hardcore
Specification for hardcore are usually 300mm or 30cm or 0.3m thick.
Blinding
Blinding is a thin layer usually around 50 mm (2 inches) thick, it is usually a weak concrete
i.e. Lower Grade of Concrete or sand that is laid above a layer of hardcore to provide a clean,
level and dry working surface. Concrete Blinding is the most Common Form of Blinding.
In construction, 'blinding' typically refers to a base layer of weak concrete or sand that is laid
above a layer of hardcore to provide a clean, level and dry working surface.
If a damp-proof membrane (DPM) is to be placed above it, the blinding will help prevent it
from becoming damaged by the hardcore.
If a damp-proof membrane is not being laid directly above the blinding, the blinding instead
provides a sturdy surface on which reinforcement for a concrete floor or raft foundation can
be positioned, it prevents the concrete from seeping down into the hardcore.
Purposes of Blinding
1. Blinding help in Preventing of damp proof membrane DPM being Damaged by the
Hardcore. Placing the DPM directly on the Hardcore instead of placing it on the
Blinding will Damage the DPM.
Page | 41
2. To safeguard concrete from seeping through the large voids present in the hardcore
layer.
Termite Treatment
Prevention of building from the attack of termite and dampness is one of the very essential
measures which are adopted in all construction works.The termites which are seen in the
building generally lives under the ground and breeds before the commencement of rainy
season. Apart from this, they are also found to be present in the timber, rubber, etc.
Termites present a danger to buildings because they eat the cellulose in the timber in
buildings where they cannot be seen. To remove the danger, the termite nests must be dug out
and the content destroyed. Anti-termite treatment therefore aims to eradicate termites and the
consequent hazard they pose to the building and its components.
The ground around a termite nest is usually treated with toxic chemicals. The chemicals
should be mixed in open air to avoid its health risk to the workers.
Page | 42

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BLD 112: Building Construction I 2023

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENVIROMENTAL STUDIES

JIGAWA STATE POLTECHNIC, DUTSE

1ST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION

(1.2) Major building components

2. PRELIMINARY SITE ACTIVITIES

(2.1) Site activities that precede Actual building construction

(2.2) Provision of facilities of on site

(2.3) Site layout and organization

(2.4) Setting out of building

(3.1) Method of Excavation

(3.2) Tools used in manual Excavation

(3.3) Equipment used in mechanical Excavation

(4.1) Method of Earthwork support

(5.1) Importance of foundation to building

(5.2) Types of foundation soil

(5.3) Simple calculation of the area of concrete foundation

(5.4) Types of foundation and their application

6. METHODS OF REINFORCEMENT IN SUBSTRUCTURES

(6.1) Methods of reinforcement in Substructures

(7.1) Method of construction of foundation

(8.1) Rising damp and seepage of ground water in building

(8.3) Function of damp proof courses

(8.4) Materials used for damp proof course

(8.5) Tanking in basement work

(8.6) Hardcore layer

(8.8) Termite Treatment

Provision of temporary access road

Site Layout and Organization

1. To maximize efficiency of operations in order to promote worker productivity, to

Site Layout Planning Elements

The following points or factors should be considered in good site layout.

- Emergency routes and underground services: It is important to display the emergency

- Lighting: It is necessary to have a standby generator to maintain site lighting.

7. Water Supply and Sanitation

8. Storage and site cleaning

11. Batch plant and Fabrication Shops

Typical site layout plan in a construction site.

SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

It is necessary to have a good knowledge of geometry in order to ensure accurate work.

Setting out Equipment

Nails: For fixing the woods in the profiles board.

Hammer: For fixing nails

Ropes:Helps to make straight lines from one point to another.

Methods of Setting out a Building

Procedures for setting out a building using 3 4 5 method:

Setting out of a building using the 3 4 5 method

Setting out a building using the builder’s square method:

Setting out using the builder’s square

Excavation has a number of important applications including exploration, mining and

Equipment Used in Mechanical Excavation

Factors to be considered in providing supports to Excavation

(a) Timbering in hard soils (b) Timbering in firm soil

It is very important to know which type of foundation is essential to use in a particular

Importance of Foundation to Building

Types of Isolated Spread Footing

Simple Spread Footing

Construction of Pad foundation