NUCLEUS synthesis of mRNA and proteins

it contains DNA genetic material that has to be tocsmitte

To the process of cell division
sometimes is also the unless there's the vacuole
bigger one
who is bigger

Nuclear pores

Nucleo82A p
wherethere's no
A Nuclear envelope
y outer memb
inner memb
g peg nuclear SPA

Nuclear genome DNA Histones which to

NUCLEOLUS

jipusmic
81 reticulum
the nuclear envelope
which cont

6996 Nuclear
47 mitochondrial origin
13 chloroplast
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA RNA
RNA DNA
strand 2 Strands
ribose deoxyribose
base ORACILE TIMINE
trasciviptional ont
g
g 43
eton L Tone on
I i Iam gg
promote
xan cabling partof the
gene
Introne non coding part
BASIC DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Take place in MMMM Dna
NUCLEUS
transcription RNA polymerase
muriate Ribosomes
Translation tRNA
cytoplasm
TITITITITIII polypeptide

I prokaryotes both Take place in the cytoplasm

Premature mRNA
they a serieses of modification D MATURATION
undergoes

EX
cap É hthfe Eth
p AAA
J adding of a cap at the 5 D guanosine triphosphate
2 plating To 3 the poly AAA Tail 150 200 adenine are added to the37
3 Intrones are removed SPLICING

cast Exa EX 2 PIAAA

Now it can be transferred in the cytoplasm
5 TYPES OF HISTONS
TWO OF COND I 42A 2B 3 s forming
STONE L Itza it 2B Hz Ag the NUCLEOSOME
ropes nice
ht around the nodes
 080 toss the d
many farms
30mm fiber
3ohm fiber

chromosomes

Only a small portion of DNA present in NUCLEOSOME idk EXONES 1,5

contain PSEUDOGENES
Zz DNA
REPETITIVE DNA vepetet many Times is The
junk DNA
which consist of TRANSPOSABLE
genes

REPETITIVE DNA represents structural components of the chromosomes

n the central region THE CentroMone and in the TELOMER we have the
centromere
repetitive DNA and have a struct
function because it doesn'tcontain
Teige genes

In Some species 80 90 of
genomes are represented byTresposable
elements Able to 1 from
Loos
move to another 1 of the chromo
or a 4 It was discovered by Barbara Mo in corn where she noticed
hat mutation were unstable caused by the presence of transp elements

TRASPOSITION
2 kind of Transposomes
EUKARYOTE
DM some c retrothensposome

I I g
Turnsposase it copies the

Here we willhave t copies

1 I p

copy and paste mechanism copied in a molecule of

of DNA Rna by the RNApolyme
lows RNA is retrotranscribed
p
Myer p
1
din d DNA molecule
by the ReverseTasaiptise
cut and paste
CLASSIFICATION

2 disses
includes the retratansposome LTR long Terminal repeatThe most
abundant andNON LTR retrotransposome Among LTR we have 2 families
GYPSY and COPIA are the most abundant one We have the 2genes GAG
and Pol and within
thegene Poc we have
h subgenre that encode
for PR proteis vetotuausa
RNAsse all the enzymes
involved in the mechanism
of RETROTRANSCRIPTION
GYPSY COPIA are very similar To the structure of Retrovirus where we
can find
the ENV
gene
involved in the formation of the ENVELOPE of the
VIRAL CAPSES It was speculated that retrovirus evolved from vethotransposome
NON LTR similar but with the UTR region Untranslated Term region

F DNA Transposon Their structure is simpler than the one of vethotansposo

It contain just I
gene that encode for the enzyme that is
Transposase

he species that have t genome have t of Transp elements

he species that have a bigger genome such maize

organ
cane barley
due to the presence of retrotransposome in
particular
Evolution probably favored species with smaller D Angiosperm the
genome
most evolved one have the smaller one compared To the Gymnosperm
 he size of the genome depends by PLOIDY
species
classified on me n of sets of homologue chromosomes
taploid gametes sperms

RAPLOID 3 sets of chromosomes These

species are said POLYPLOID
etraecois s t with no of sets of hom chron 72

For human is letal

represents big advantage
a most of plants of interest Bread wheatpotatoes
Tobacco because of DNA more copies of
roteins and in
having move copys means
having t copies of organic substances
truly
general
Species that have I nutritional values or bigger in bite

CELL CYCLE

we assistTothe synthesis
of spindle apparatus and Mme from the beg of e diviso
82 Phragnoplast cytoschletal
To the beginning of the next
struturel
y
M A Mytosis
Gf represents the interfuse
y
S G a GAP it universe the size of organelles

SYNTHESIS
of DNA Dreplication Duplication ofDNA
In Tot Me lenght of cell cycle is 19h with a mat 24h
Longest stage vs the S while Mytosis last 2h
threadlike fliforne
MITOSIS
Derided in four stages
PROPHASE appevence of nucleus change dammatially with condensation of
cromatine which forms chromosomes D They constist in 2 sister
cromatids Together by the centromere
kept
The nuclear envelope starts to dissolve and nucleolos starts
To dissolve D at the end of this stage chromo are free in the
cytoplasm

METAPHASE we have the formation of the spindle apparatus with 2 kind

pole of fibers I assaulted I the kinetochore others tree

KINETOCHORE

17441 these stretch from

pole of the cell to the opposite on
7,25 at 1

Pole 2
the end of it chromosomes we
arranged at the equator
plane
ANAPHASE spindle fibers pull sister cromatids at the opposite poles
It If The otherspindle fibers distance the two
the cell
pole
of

It

TELOPHASE formation of 2 nuclear envelope of 2 nucleolus

Asexual reproduction a vegetative reproduction we obtain 2

of

I
D vesicligingtrboles portion ER

0 cell plate

CYTOKINESIS with 2 cells and the PHRAGMOPLAST which consist in vesicles

reticulum the fusion of them formed
microtubles
portion of endoplasmic
The CELL PLATE future cell walls of the 2 daughter cells
MEIOSIS gave origin to the gametes a sexual reproduction

Male female b eggs the fuse D 2160th develop in adult organism

sperm

gametes Haploid I set of chromosome

We have Fertilization b union of female male gametes from where we obtain

De diploid ZYGOTE

2 STAGE D DIPLOID HAPLOID

Meiosis which obtain formed
process by we spores in Sporangium

Fema have the SPORANGIA ovary anther where the

Merosis Take place
Ovary Female sporangium
Anther Male t

We assist To the formation of

MEGASPORE female one formed m
Ovary
Microt male formed in Anther
They develop m GAMETOPHYTE male female
adultplants Male Gametophyte pollen grain
Female GAMETOPHYTE embrional sacs

In This Tho we assist to the formation of the

2 gamed sperm eggs

After Thew fertilization we obtain the zygote

SPOROPHYTE STAGE diploid

N
stye
GAMETHOPATE involves the gametes
he cells after the rep will obtain unique genetics recombination

Melos's we have Two consecutive division after which we obtain a

Haploids cells
same stages repetend so we be III et
REDUCTION DIVISION Ist meiotic division the Two daughter will have The
half of no of chromosomes

PROPHASE I the chromatine condensate in chromosomes

paternal
they par up forming the synapsis also said

My
maternal BIVALENT OVTETRAD
Homologous chromosome can break cross forming
CHIASMA The Two wonsister oromatids where we assist
qgg.gl To the crossing OVER exchange of genetic mater It
t which we obtain the RECOMBINANT CROMADDS Nowgenet
first for hypos combination

METAPHASE I formation of the SPINDLE APPARATUS

Some spindle fibers attached

Ty the KINEOCORE
Plane some are free
ÉÉ4ÉEQ

ANAPHASE I separation of recombinant chromosomes of the Two homologs

chromosome and this event occurs randomly called
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT paternal maternal chromosomes are

If fo mixed randomly

2nd
between

from Mitosis
the Two cells

M it creates vansbility
no of homologues chromosome is halved
the free spindle fibers will separate the cell
TELOPHASE Ii chromosomes stats I unwind less condensated havethe
we
formation of nuclear envelope and nucleolus
 CYTOKINESIS pbragmoplast is formed at Deeg plane and
it will fomed the future cell ash

Too daughter 4 cells with halved chromosome

SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

ROPHASE II chromosomes are the cromatids

METAPHASE II as before
ANAPHASE II Sep of the II recombinant oyster eromatids

TELOPHASE II Y
At the end we have four haploid cells genetically between each
other loves and 255