Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms

UNIT 13

RING HOMOMORPHISMS

Structure Page Nos.

13.1 Introduction 81
Objectives
13.2 Homomorphisms between Rings 82
13.3 Properties of Ring Homomorphisms 88
13.4 The Isomorphism Theorems 95
13.5 Summary 103
13.6 Solutions / Answers 104

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 8, you studied about functions between groups that preserve the binary
operation. You also saw how useful they were for studying the algebraic
structure of a group, and classifying groups accordingly. In this unit, we will
discuss functions between rings which preserve both the binary operations.
Such functions, as you would expect, are called ring homomorphisms.

In Sec.13.2, you will study the formal definition of a ring homomorphism. Of

course, you will consider several examples, and non-examples of this concept
too. In this section, you will also see how homomorphisms allow us to
investigate the algebraic nature of a ring.

In Sec.13.3, you will study several properties of ring homomorphisms. Most of

these properties will be analogous to those of group homomorphisms, that you
have studied, and applied, in Unit 8.

If a homomorphism is a bijection, it is called an isomorphism. The role of

isomorphisms in ring theory, as in group theory, is to identify algebraically
identical systems. That is why they are important. We will introduce them to
you in Sec.13.4. Then you will study the inter-relationship between ring
homomorphisms, ideals and quotient rings in the form of the Fundamental
Theorem of Homomorphism for rings. You will also study its applications for
proving, and using, two other isomorphism theorems.

As in group theory, homomorphisms are crucially important for ring theory.

Therefore, it is important that you study this unit carefully, and solve every
exercise as you come to it. This will help you to achieve the following learning
objectives.
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Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define, and give examples of, different kinds of ring homomorphisms;
• obtain the kernel and image of any ring homomorphism;
• define, and give examples of, ring isomorphisms;
• prove, and apply, some basic properties of a ring homomorphism;
• state, prove and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism for
rings.

13.2 HOMOMORPHISMS BETWEEN RINGS

In Unit 8, you studied maps between groups that preserve the group
operations of the domains concerned. These functions are called group
homomorphisms, as you know. Analogous to the notion of a group
homomorphism, we have the concept of a ring homomorphism. So it is natural
to expect a ring homomorphism to be a map between rings that preserves the
ring structure of its domain. In this case there are two binary operations
involved. So, you may expect the following definition of a ring homomorphism.

Definition: Let ( R1 , +, ⋅) and ( R2 , +, ⋅) be two rings. A map f : R1 → R2 is

called a ring homomorphism if
f (a + b) = f (a ) + f (b), and
f (a ⋅ b) = f (a ) ⋅ f (b),
for all a , b in R1.

Note that the + and · occurring on the left hand sides of the equations in the
definition above are defined on R1 , while the + and · occurring on the right
hand sides are defined on R 2 .
Also note the following comment about the definition above.

Remark 1: Notice that f : R1 → R 2 is a ring homomorphism if

i) the image of a sum is the sum of the images, and
ii) the image of a product is the product of the images.
Because of (i) above, the ring homomorphism f is, in particular, a group
homomorphism from (R1 , + ) to (R 2 , + ).
Also, you know that (R1 , ⋅) and (R 2 , ⋅) are semigroups. What (ii) above says
is that f is a semigroup homomorphism from (R1 , ⋅) to (R 2 , ⋅).

As in the case of groups, we have different types of homomorphisms.

Definitions: Let f : R1 → R 2 be a ring homomorphism.

i) If f is 1 - 1, it is called a ring monomorphism.

ii) If f is surjective, it is called a ring epimorphism.
iii) If f is bijective, it is called a ring isomorphism.
iv) If R1 = R 2 , then f is called a ring endomorphism of R1.

Consider a remark about the definitions above.

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Remark 2: The word ‘ring’ in each definition, is just to emphasise that we are
working in the context of rings. If this context is clear, we drop the word ‘ring’.
Thus, in future we will use the term ‘homomorphism’ for ‘ring
homomorphism’, if the context is clear. You may remember that we also did
this in the case of group homomorphisms.

Let us consider some examples, and non-examples, of the functions we have

just defined.

Example 1: Consider f : Z → Z : f ( x ) = x , g : Z → Z : g ( x ) = 2 x , and let

h = −f . Check whether f , g and h are ring homomorphisms or not.

Solution: First, you should verify that f , g and h are well-defined.

Next, for n, m ∈ Z, f (n + m) = n + m = f (n ) + f (m), and

f (nm) = nm = f (n )f (m).
Thus, f is a ring homomorphism.

Now let us consider g.

For n , m ∈ Z, g (n + m) = 2(n + m) = 2n + 2m = g (n ) + g (m).
However, g (nm) = 2nm ≠ (2n )(2m).
For instance, g(2 ⋅ 3) = g (6) = 12. But g(2)g(3) = 4 ⋅ 6 = 24.
So g(2 ⋅ 3) ≠ g(2)g(3).
Hence, g is not a ring homomorphism.

Finally, you should verify that (−f ) is also not a ring homomorphism, since it
does not preserve multiplication.
***

Some important points show up in the example above. We note them in the
following remark.

Remark 3: Consider the three points below, about f , g and h of Example 1.

i) If f is a group homomorphism, so is − f . However, this is not true for
ring homomorphisms.
ii) f is, in fact, bijective, and is the identity homomorphism. We usually
denote f by I.
iii) Though g is a group homomorphism from (Z, + ) to (Z, + ), it is not a
ring homomorphism.

Now consider another example.

Example 2: Consider f : M n ( R ) → M n ( R ) : f( A ) = 0, the zero matrix in

M n (R). Check whether f is a ring isomorphism or not.

Solution: For A, B ∈ M n ( R ), f (A + B) = 0 = 0 + 0 = f ( A ) + f ( B), and

f (AB) = 0 = 0 ⋅ 0 = f (A) ⋅ f (B).
Thus, f is a ring homomorphism.
However, f is not surjective, since for example, there is no A ∈ M n ( R ) for
which f (A) = I, the identity matrix in M n ( R ).
Therefore, f is not an isomorphism.
***
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Let us now generalise some of the points made in the examples above.

Example 3: Let R be a ring. Show that I: R → R : I(r ) = r and

0 : R → R : 0(r ) = 0 are endomorphisms. ( I is called the identity
homomorphism, as noted for Z in Remark 3. 0 is called the trivial
homomorphism.)

Solution: You should verify that both I and 0 preserve both the operations of
R.
***

Before going further, let us consider the kernel and image of a ring
homomorphism. In Unit 8, you have studied these objects for a group
homomorphism. Do you expect the kernel, or image, of a ring homomorphism
to be defined any differently? Actually, they are defined in the same way.

Definition: Let R1 and R 2 be two rings, and let f : R1 → R 2 be a ring

homomorphism. Then we define
i) the image of f to be the set Im f = {f ( x ) x ∈ R1}.
Note that Im f ⊆ R 2
and Ker f ⊆ R1. ii) the kernel of f to be the set Ker f = {x ∈ R1 f ( x ) = 0}.

You know that if f is an epimorphism, Im f = R 2 .

Now let us look at some examples of the image and kernel of a ring
homomorphism.

Example 4: Let R be a ring. Obtain the kernels and images of the identity
homomorphism and the trivial homomorphism, defined in Example 3.

Solution: Ker I = {x ∈ R I( x ) = 0} = {x ∈ R x = 0}
= {0}.
Im I = {I( x ) x ∈ R} = {x x ∈ R}
= R.
Ker 0 = {x ∈ R 0( x ) = 0} = R.
Im 0 = {0( x ) x ∈ R} = {0}.
***

Example 5: Let s ∈ N. Show that the map f : Z → Z s : f (m) = m is a ring

epimorphism. Obtain Ker f also.

Solution: For any m, n ∈ Z,

f (m + n ) = m + n = m + n = f (m) + f (n ), and
f (mn ) = mn = m n = f (m) f (n ).
Therefore, f is a ring homomorphism.
Further, Im f = {f ( m) m ∈ Z}
= {m m ∈ Z}
= Zs ,
showing that f is an epimorphism.
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Now, Ker f = {m ∈ Z f (m) = 0}

= {m ∈ Z m = 0}
= {m ∈ Z m ≡ 0 (mod s)}
= s Z.
***

Example 6: Consider the maps f : Z 6 → Z 3 : f (n (mod 6)) = n (mod 3) and

g : Z 3 → Z 6 : g(n (mod 3)) = n (mod 6). Check whether or not f and g are ring
homomorphisms. If they are, find their kernels and images.

Solution: First, for n , m ∈ Z,

n (mod 6) = m(mod 6)
⇒ 6 ( n − m)
⇒ 3 ( n − m)
⇒ n (mod 3) = m(mod 3)
⇒ f (n ) = f (m).
So, f is well-defined.

Second, for n , m ∈ Z,
f (n (mod 6) + m(mod 6)) = f ((n + m) (mod 6)) = (n + m) (mod 3)
= n (mod 3) + m(mod 3)
= f (n (mod 6)) + f (m (mod 6))
You should, similarly, show that
f (n (mod 6) ⋅ m(mod 6)) = f (n (mod 6)) ⋅ f (m(mod 6)).
Thus, f is a ring homomorphism.

Ker f = {n (mod 6) n ≡ 0(mod 3)} = {n (mod 6) n ∈ 3Z}

= {0, 3}, bar denoting ‘ mod 6 ’.
= 3Z 6 .

Im f = {n (mod 3) n ∈ Z 6 } = Z 3 .

Now, let’s see if g is well-defined. Note that 1 = 4 in Z3 , but g ( 1 ) ≠ g ( 4 ) in

Z 6 . Hence, g is not well-defined. Thus, there is no question of g being a
homomorphism.
***

By observing the examples above, you may have observed what we are now
going to note.

Remark 4: The kernel and image of a ring homomorphism f , from R1 to R 2 ,

are the same as the kernel and image of f , as a group homomorphism from
(R1 , +) to (R 2 , +).

Before we look at some more examples, why don’t you solve some exercises?
This will help you check how well you have understood what has been
discussed so far.
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Note that using E1 we

E1) If S is a subring of a ring R , then S is a ring with respect to the + and ·
know that f : Z → Q (or of R. Show that the inclusion map i : S → R : i( x ) = x is a
R, or C, or Z + iZ ), homomorphism. What are Ker i and Im i ?
given by f ( n ) = n , is a ring
homomorphism. E2) i) Show that φ : Z[ x ] → Z : φ(f ( x )) = f (1) is a homomorphism. Find
Ker φ and Im φ also. (φ is called the evaluation map at x = 1.)

ii) For any z ∈ C, show that the evaluation map

φ z : C[ x ] → C : φ z (f ( x )) = f (z) is a homomorphism. Also find
Ker φ z and Im φ z .

E3) Consider φ : H → R : φ(a + ib + jc + kd ) = a. Check whether or not φ is a

homomorphism.

E4) Consider ψ : M 2 (C) → C : ψ (A ) = det(A ). Check whether or not ψ is a

homomorphism.

E5) Consider f : Z 3 → Z 6 : f (n (mod 3)) = 4n (mod 6). Check whether or not

f is a ring homomorphism.

Now let us look at some more examples.

Example 7: Consider the ring C[0,1] of all real-valued continuous functions

φ, in Example 7, defined on the closed interval [0,1]. Define φ : C[0,1] → R : φ(f ) = f (1 2). Show
is called the
evaluation map at that φ is an epimorphism. Is φ a monomorphism?
1
the point x = . Solution: Let f and g ∈ C[0,1]. Then + and · are defined by
2
(f + g) ( x ) = f ( x ) + g( x ), and
(f ⋅ g ) ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ),
for all x ∈ [0,1].
Now, φ(f + g ) = (f + g )(1 2) = f (1 2) + g (1 2) = φ(f ) + φ(g ), and
φ(fg) = (fg)(1 2) = f (1 2) g (1 2) = φ(f ) φ(g ).
Thus, φ is a ring homomorphism.

Now, φ is onto because for any r ∈ R, consider the constant function

g : [0, 1] → R : g( x ) = r.
From Calculus, you know that g is continuous on [0, 1]. Also g (1 2) = r.
Thus, φ(g) = r.
Hence, φ is an epimorphism.

However, φ is not 1 - 1. For example, if f : [0, 1] → R : f ( x ) = x − 1 , and g is

2
the zero function, then φ(f ) = φ(g), but f ≠ g.
***

⎧⎪⎡a 0⎤ ⎫⎪
Example 8: Consider the ring R = ⎨⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ R ⎬ under matrix addition
⎪⎩⎣0 b⎦ ⎪⎭
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
⎡n 0 ⎤
and multiplication. Show that the map f : Z → R : f (n ) = ⎢ ⎥ is a
⎣0 n ⎦
homomorphism. Also find Ker f . Is f an epimorphism?

⎡n 0 ⎤ ⎡m 0 ⎤
Solution: Note that f is well-defined since, if n = m, then ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 0 n ⎦ ⎣ 0 m⎦
Next, for n , m ∈ Z,
⎡n + m 0 ⎤ ⎡n 0 ⎤ ⎡m 0 ⎤
f ( n + m) = ⎢ = + = f (n ) + f (m), and
⎣ 0 n + m ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 m ⎥⎦
f (nm) = f (n ) f (m). (Verify this!)
Thus, f is a homomorphism.

Ker f = {n ∈ Z f (n ) = 0} = {0}.
⎡1 0 ⎤
Finally, consider A = ⎢ ⎥. This is not in Im f , since its (1, 1) th and
⎣0 2 ⎦
(2, 2) th elements are different. However, A is in R.
Hence, f is not an epimorphism.
***

Example 9: Consider the ring (℘(X), Δ, ∩), where X is a non-empty set

having a non-empty proper subset Y.
Define f :℘(X) → ℘(Y) : f (A) = A ∩ Y. Show that f is a homomorphism.
Does Y c ∈ Ker f ? What is ℘(Y) \ Im f ?

Solution: If A and B are in ℘(X ) s.t. A = B, then A ∩ Y = B ∩ Y. Thus, f

is well-defined.

Now, recall from Block 1 of Calculus, that ‘intersection’ distributes over ‘union’
and over ‘complementation’. We will use these properties now.

For A, B ∈℘(X ),
f (A Δ B) = f ((A \ B) ∪ (B \ A))
= ((A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)) ∩ Y
= ((A \ B) ∩ Y) ∪ ((B \ A) ∩ Y)
= ((A ∩ Y) \ (B ∩ Y)) ∪ ((B ∩ Y) \ (A ∩ Y))
= (f(A) \ f (B)) ∪ (f (B) \ f (A))
= f (A) Δ f (B), and
f (A ∩ B) = (A ∩ B) ∩ Y
= (A ∩ B) ∩ (Y ∩ Y), since Y ∩ Y = Y.
= (A ∩ Y) ∩ (B ∩ Y), since ∩ is associative and commutative.
= f (A) ∩ f (B).
So, f is a ring homomorphism from ℘(X) to ℘(Y).

Next, recall that the zero element of ℘(Y) is «. Therefore,

Ker f = {A ∈℘(X) A ∩ Y = «} = {A ∈℘( X) A ⊆ Y c } = ℘(Y c ).
∴ Y c ∈ Ker f .

Finally, to see what ℘(Y) \ Im f is, note that

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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
Im f = {A ∩ Y A ∈℘(X )} ⊆ ℘(Y).
Now, let B ∈℘(Y). Then B ∈℘(X ) and f (B) = B ∩ Y = B. Thus, B ∈ Im f .
So ℘(Y) ⊆ Im f .
Therefore, Im f = ℘(Y ).
Hence, ℘( Y ) \ Im f = «.
***

Now, you should solve the following exercises to get some more examples
(and non-examples!) of homomorphisms.

E6) Let A and B be two rings. Show that the projection map
p : A × B → A : p( x, y) = x is a homomorphism. What are Ker p and
Im p ? Is p an isomorphism?
(Similarly, p′ : A × B → B : p′( x , y) = y is a homomorphism.)

E7) Is f : Z[ 2 ] → Z[ 2 ] : f (a + 2b) = a − 2b a ring endomorphism?

Is g : Q[ 3 ] → Q[ 7 ] : g (a + b 3 ) = a + b 7 a ring homomorphism?
Give reasons for your answers.

E8) Check whether or not f : 3Z → 5Z : f (3n ) = 5n is a homomorphism.

⎡ a b⎤
E9) Check whether or not φ : C → R : φ(a + ib) = ⎢ ⎥ is an
⎣− b a ⎦
⎧⎪⎡ a b⎤ ⎫⎪
isomorphism, where R = ⎨⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ R ⎬ is a subring of M 2 (R ).
⎪⎩⎣− b a ⎦ ⎪⎭

E10) Show that the map φ : C[0,1] → R × R : φ(f ) = (f (0), f (1)) is a

homomorphism. Also check if φ is an isomorphism or not.

Having discussed many examples, let us look at some elementary properties

of ring homomorphisms.

13.3 PROPERTIES OF RING HOMOMORPHISMS

Let us start this section by revisiting each of the examples of homomorphisms
you have studied in the previous section. In all these cases, what is the image
of the additive identity of the domain ring? Isn’t it the additive identity of the co-
domain? Isn’t this to be expected since every ring homomorphism is also a
group homomorphism? In fact, every ring homomorphism will satisfy all the
properties listed in the following theorem for this reason.

Theorem 1: Let f : R1 → R 2 be a ring homomorphism. Then

i) f (0) = 0,

ii) f (− x ) = −f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ R1 , and

iii) f ( x − y ) = f ( x ) − f ( y ) ∀ x , y ∈ R1 .
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
Proof: Since f is a group homomorphism from ( R1 , + ) to ( R 2 , + ), you can
apply Theorem 1, Unit 8, to get the result.

Now let us consider some properties beyond just the group homomorphism
aspect of a ring homomorphism.

Theorem 2: Let R1 be a ring with identity, and let f : R1 → R2 be a ring

epimorphism, where R2 ≠ {0}. Then

i) R2 is with identity, f (1); and

ii) if u ∈ U ( R1 ), then f ( u ) ∈ U ( R 2 ) and [f (u )]−1 = f (u −1 ).

Proof: Here note that R1 is with identity and f is surjective.

i) Let r ∈ R 2 . Since f is surjective, ∃ s ∈ R 1 s.t. f (s) = r.
Then r ⋅ f (1) = f (s)f (1) = f (s ⋅ 1) = f (s) = r.
Similarly, f (1)r = r.
Hence, f (1) is the identity of R2.

ii) Let u ∈ U ( R1 ). Then ∃ u −1 ∈ R1 s.t. uu −1 = 1 = u −1u.

So f (uu −1 ) = f (1), that is, f (u )f (u −1 ) = f (1) = f (u −1 )f (u ).
Thus, f ( u ) ∈ U( R 2 ) and [f (u )]−1 = f (u −1 ).

Because of Theorem 2, we know that for any onto homomorphism f : R → Z,

where R is a ring with unity, f (1) = 1. Similarly, if f : R → Q is a ring
epimorphism, where R has unity, then f (1) = 1.

Note that Theorem 2 need not be true if f is not surjective. For instance, take
the trivial homomorphism of Example 2. Then f(I) = 0 ≠ I.

Now, let us look at direct and inverse images of subrings under

homomorphisms.

Theorem 3: Let f : R1 → R2 be a ring homomorphism. Then

i) if S is a subring of R1 , f (S) is a subring of R2 ; and

ii) if T is a subring of R2 , f −1(T ) is a subring of R1.

Proof: We will prove (ii) and leave the proof of (i) to you (see E11).
Firstly, since T ≠ «, f −1(T ) ≠ «.
Next, let a , b ∈ f −1(T ). Then f (a ), f (b) ∈ T.
⇒ f (a ) − f (b) ∈ T and f (a ) f (b) ∈ T, since T is a subring of R2 .
⇒ f (a − b) ∈ T (by Theorem 1), and f (ab) ∈ T.
⇒ a − b ∈ f −1(T ) and ab ∈ f −1(T).
⇒ f −1 (T) is a subring of R1 , by the subring test.

To complete the proof of Theorem 3, you need to solve E11.

E11) Prove (i) of Theorem 3.

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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
E12) In the setting of Theorem 3, let ( and ) be the set of subrings of R1
and the set of subrings of R 2 , respectively. Then show that there is a
correspondence φ : ( → ). Is φ a bijection? Why, or why not?

Now, it is natural to expect an analogue of Theorem 3 for ideals. In fact, (ii)

follows through for ideals too. But, regarding (i), consider the following remark.

Remark 5: The image of an ideal under a ring homomorphism need not be an

ideal. For instance, consider the inclusion i : Z → R : i( x ) = x. You know that
Z is an ideal of Z. But is i(Z) (i.e., Z) an ideal of R ? No, as you have seen
in Unit 12.

So, regarding ideals, we have the following result, for any two rings R1 and
R2 , commutative or not.

Theorem 4: Let f : R1 → R 2 be a ring homomorphism.

i) If f is surjective and I is an ideal of R1 , then f(I) is an ideal of R 2 .

ii) If I is an ideal of R 2 , then f −1 (I) is an ideal of R1 , and Ker f ⊆ f −1 (I).

Proof: Here we will prove (i) and leave (ii) to you (see E13).
Firstly, since I is a subring of R 1 , f ( I) is a subring of R2 , by Theorem 3.

Secondly, take any f ( x ) ∈ f (I) and r ∈ R 2 .

Since f is surjective, ∃ s ∈ R1 such that f (s) = r. Then
r ⋅ f ( x ) = f (s) f ( x ) = f (sx ) ∈ f (I), since sx ∈ I.
Similarly, f ( x ) ⋅ r ∈ f (I).
Thus, f (I) is an ideal of R 2 .

The proof of Theorem 4 will be complete, once you solve E13 below.

E13) Prove (ii) of Theorem 4.

E14) Let f : R → S be a surjection. Then for any non-empty subset J of S,

f (f −1 (J )) = J. In particular, if f is an onto ring homomorphism and J is
an ideal of S, then f (f −1 (J )) = J.

Now, consider a ring epimorphism f : R → S and an ideal I in R. In E14, you

have proved that if J is an ideal of S, then J = f (f −1(J )). Also, in this setting,
by Theorem 4 you know that f (I) is an ideal of S and f −1(f (I)) is an ideal of
R. So, is I = f −1(f (I)) ?
For instance, consider f : Z → Z 5 : f (m) = m (see Example 5). Here f is a
surjection. Take I = 2Z. Then 5 ∉ I. But 5 ∈ f −1(f (I)), since f (5) = 0 ∈ f (I). So
I ≠ f −1(f (I)).
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
−1
But looking at the two ideals, I and f (f (I)), in R , it seems that there should
be some relationship between them. What could it be? You will find the
answer in the following theorem.

Theorem 5: Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism, and let I be an ideal of

R. Then f −1(f (I)) = I + Ker f .

Proof: You know that Ker f = f −1({0}) ⊆ f −1(f (I)), since 0 ∈ f (I).
Also, if x ∈ I, then f ( x ) ∈ f (I). So x ∈ f −1(f (I)). Hence, I ⊆ f −1(f (I)).
Thus, I + Ker f ⊆ f −1(f (I)). …(1)

Now, to show f −1(f (I)) ⊆ I + Ker f , let x ∈ f −1(f (I)). Then

f ( x ) ∈ f ( I)
⇒ f ( x ) = f ( y), for some y ∈ I.
⇒ f ( x − y) = 0, by Theorem 1.
⇒ x − y ∈ Ker f
⇒ x ∈ y + Ker f ⊆ I + Ker f .
∴ f −1 (f (I)) ⊆ I + Ker f . …(2)

From (1) and (2), we conclude that f −1(f (I)) = I + Ker f .

An immediate corollary to Theorem 5 is the following.

Corollary 1: If f : R → S is a ring homomorphism, and I is an ideal of R

containing Ker f , then f −1(f (I)) = I.

Proof: Since Ker f ⊆ I, I + Ker f = I.

∴ f −1(f (I)) = I.

Regarding Theorem 5, consider the following important comment.

Remark 6: Note that Theorem 5 is true whether f is surjective or not. In this

theorem, and in Corollary 1, we treat f (I) as a subring only, by Theorem 3. If
we want f (I) to be an ideal, then we will have to add the condition that f is a
surjection.

Now, in E12 you have seen that if f : R → S is a homomorphism, there is a

correspondence between the subrings of R and the subrings of S. But this is
not a 1 - to - 1 correspondence. Let us use Theorems 4 and 5 to see what the
situation is regarding the ideals of R and S. Consider the following theorem.

Theorem 6: Let f : R → S be an onto ring homomorphism. Then I a f (I)

defines a one-to-one correspondence between the set of ideals of R
containing Ker f and the set of ideals of S.

Proof: Let ( be the set of ideals of R containing Ker f , and ) be the set
of ideals of S.
Define φ : ( → ) : φ(I) = f (I).

We want to show that φ is a bijection.

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−1 −1
φ is onto: If J ∈ ), then f (J ) ∈ ( and Ker f ⊆ f (J ), by Theorem 4.
Now, φ(f −1(J )) = f (f −1(J )) = J, using E14.
Hence, φ is surjective.

φ is one-one: If I1 and I 2 are in ( , then

φ(I1 ) = φ(I 2 ) ⇒ f (I1 ) = f (I 2 )
⇒ f −1(f (I1 )) = f −1(f (I 2 ))
⇒ I1 = I 2 , by Corollary 1.

Thus, φ is bijective.

Let us consider an example of the utility of Theorem 6.

Example 10: Find the kernel of the homomorphism f : Z → Z12 : f ( z) = z. Also

find all the ideals of Z12 .

Solution: Ker f = {n ∈ Z n ≡ 0 (mod 12)} = 12Z.

Now, you know that any ideal of Z is of the form nZ, n ∈ N. Thus, the ideals
of Z containing Ker f are of the form nZ such that n 12, i.e., for which
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. These are Z, 2Z, 3Z, 4Z, 6Z, 12Z.
Thus, by Theorem 6, the ideals of Z12 are Z12 , 2Z12 , 3 Z12 , 4 Z12 , 6 Z12 and
{0}.
***

Now, you should solve some related exercises.

E15) Verify Theorem 5 for f : Z → Z 5 : f (n ) = n (mod 5), and I = 2Z.

Also verify it for the trivial homomorphism in Example 3.

E16) What does Theorem 6 say in the context of Example 7?

E17) i) Show that f : Z → Z × Z : f (n ) = (n, n ) is not an epimorphism.

ii) Find an ideal in Z × Z which is not of the form f (I), where I is an

ideal of Z.

E18) Check if g : Z → Z × Z : g(n ) = (n , 0) is a ring homomorphism or not.

Further, is g onto? Is g(I) an ideal of Z × Z, for every ideal I of Z ?
Does this counter Theorem 4? Why, or why not?

E19) Is every ideal of Z n a principal ideal, for any n ∈ N ? Use Theorem 6 to

decide this.

And now let us look closely at the sets Ker f and Im f , where f is a ring
homomorphism. In Unit 8, we proved that if f : G1 → G2 is a group
homomorphism, then Ker f is a normal subgroup of G1 and Im f is a
92
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
subgroup of G2 . We have an analogous result for ring homomorphisms, which
you may have already realised from the examples you have studied so far.

Theorem 7: Let f : R1 → R2 be a ring homomorphism. Then

i) Ker f is an ideal of R1 , and

ii) Im f is a subring of R2 .

Proof: i) Since { 0 } is an ideal of R2 , by Theorem 4(ii) you know that

f −1 ({0}) is an ideal of R1.
As f −1 ({0}) = Ker f , Ker f is an ideal of R1.

ii) Since R1 is a subring of R1 , f ( R1 ) is a subring of R2 , by Theorem 3(i).

Thus, Im f is a subring of R2 .

Theorem 7 is very useful for showing that certain sets are ideals. For example,
from Theorem 7 and Example 9, you can immediately find a non-trivial proper
ideal of ℘(X), for any X having at least two elements.
Similarly, from Example 7, you can see that {f ∈ C[0, 1] f (1 / 2) = 0} is a non-
trivial ideal of C[0, 1].
As we go along, you will see more examples of this use of Theorem 7. For
now, let us examine the kernel of a homomorphism some more. In fact, let us
prove a result which is actually a corollary of Theorem 4 of Unit 8.

Theorem 8: Let f : R1 → R 2 be a homomorphism. Then f is injective iff

Ker f = {0}.

Proof: Note that f : R1 → R 2 is injective iff f : ( R1 , + ) → ( R 2 , + ) is an injective

group homomorphism, that is, iff Ker f = {0}, by Theorem 4 of Unit 8.
Hence, the result is proved.

As an example of the application of Theorem 8, you can immediately tell that

f (in Example 9) is not injective.

Solve the following exercises now.

E20) Which of the homomorphisms in Examples 1-8 are 1-1?

E21) Which of the homomorphisms in E1-E7 are 1-1?

E22) Check whether or not the following are ring homomorphisms. For those
that are, find Ker φ and Im φ. Hence decide if φ is an isomorphism or
not.
⎡ x 0⎤
i) φ : R → M 2 (R) : φ( x ) = ⎢ ⎥,
⎣ − x 0⎦
ii) φ : Z 3 → Z 3 : φ( n ) = n 3 .

Now let us look at another aspect of homomorphisms. You know, from Unit 8,
that given a subgroup H of (R , +), you can define a group homomorphism
93
Block 3 Introduction to Rings
f : (R , +) → (S, +) with Ker f = H. You have also seen that given a ring
homomorphism f : R → S, you obtain an ideal of R corresponding to f ,
namely, Ker f . So, the question is, given an ideal I of a ring R , can you
define a ring homomorphism f so that Ker f = I ?
The following theorem answers this question. Before studying it, though,
please refresh your mind about the definition of a quotient ring from Unit 12.
Also remember that quotient rings are defined for any ring.

Theorem 9: If I is an ideal of a ring R , then there exists a ring S and a

surjective ring homomorphism f : R → S whose kernel is I.

Proof: Let S = R I, which is well-defined as I is an ideal of R. We define

f : R → R I : f (a ) = a + I.
Let us see if f is a well-defined homomorphism.

If a = b in R , then a + I = b + I, i.e., f (a ) = f (b) in R I.

Hence, f is well-defined.

Next, for a , b ∈ R ,
f (a + b) = (a + b) + I = (a + I) + (b + I) = f (a ) + f (b), and
f (ab) = ab + I = (a + I) (b + I) = f (a ) f (b).
Thus, f is a homomorphism.

Further, Ker f = {a ∈ R f (a ) = I} (Remember, I is the zero element of R I.)

= {a ∈ R a + I = I}
= {a ∈ R a ∈ I}
= I.

Im f = {r + I r ∈ R} = R I.
Thus, f is surjective.

Hence, the theorem is proved.

The homomorphism defined in the proof above is called the canonical (or
natural) homomorphism from R onto R I. You have already studied its
analogue for groups in Unit 8. As in the case of groups, you will find the
theorem above used a lot in the next section.

Try a couple of related exercises now.

E23) Will the statement in Theorem 9 still be true if we replace ‘ideal’ by

‘subring’ in it? That is, if S is a subring of a ring R , can we always
define a ring homomorphism whose domain is R and kernel is S ? Why,
or why not?

E24) Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. Use Theorems 4 and 9 to prove

that any ideal of R I is of the form J I, where J is an ideal of R
containing I. (You have already proved this in Unit 12, of course.)

94
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
Now let us look at the behaviour of the composition of homomorphisms. In
Theorem 2, Unit 8, you studied that the composition of group homomorphisms
is a group homomorphism. So, you may not find the following analogous result
surprising.

Theorem 10: Let R1 , R 2 and R 3 be rings, and let f : R1 → R 2 and

g : R 2 → R 3 be ring homomorphisms. Then their composition
g o f : R1 → R3 : (g o f ) ( x ) = g(f ( x )) is a ring homomorphism.

The proof of this result is on the same lines as the proof of the corresponding
result in Unit 8. We leave it to you to prove (see E25).

Now, it is time to solve the following exercises. Doing so, will help you become
familiar with some properties of the composition of ring homomorphisms.

E25) Prove Theorem 10.

E26) In the situation of Theorem 10, prove that

i) if g o f is 1 - 1 , then so is f .

ii) if g o f is onto, then so is g.

iii) if g o f is 1 - 1, g need not be 1 - 1.

iv) if g o f is onto, f need not be onto.

E27) Use Theorem 10 to show that h : Z × Z → Z r , defined by h ((n, m)) = m,

is a homomorphism, where r ∈ N.

Now let us focus on ring isomorphisms.

13.4 THE ISOMORPHISM THEOREMS

In Sec.8.4, Unit 8, we discussed group isomorphisms and various results
involving them. In this section we will do the same thing for rings.

In Sec.13.2, you have already seen that a ring isomorphism is a bijective ring
homomorphism. Also, as for groups, if f : R1 → R 2 is an isomorphism, we say
− R 2.
that R 1 is isomorphic to R 2 , and denote this by R 1 ~
Further, as for groups, an isomorphism of a ring R onto itself is called an
automorphism of R.

For example, every ring R has at least one automorphism, namely I, as you
have studied in Examples 3 and 4.

Over here consider the following remark, akin to what you have seen for
groups.

Remark 7: Two rings are isomorphic if and only if they are algebraically
identical. That is, isomorphic rings must have exactly the same algebraic
properties. Thus, if R is a ring with identity, then it cannot be isomorphic to a
ring without identity. Similarly, if the only ideals of R are {0} and itself, then
any ring isomorphic to R must have this property too. 95
Block 3 Introduction to Rings
Let us look at a few examples that you have already worked out. Take, the
⎧⎪⎡ a b⎤ ⎫⎪
− ⎨⎢
case of E9. There you have shown that C ~ ⎥ a , b ∈ R ⎬, a subring of
⎪⎩⎣− b a ⎦ ⎪⎭
M 2 (R). From Unit 12, you know that C has only two ideals, {0} and itself.
Thus, the same holds for the subring of M 2 ( R) to which C is isomorphic.

Next, consider E22(i). You have seen that φ is a homomorphism, Ker φ = {0}
⎧⎪⎡ x 0⎤ ⎫⎪
and Im φ = ⎨⎢ ⎥ x ∈ R ⎬ = S, say.
⎪⎩⎣− x 0⎦ ⎪⎭
Hence, R ~− S.
Therefore, S is commutative, since R is commutative.
Since R has only two ideals, {0} and itself, the same is true for S.
Since U(R) = R ∗ , the same is true for S, i.e., U(S) = S \ {0}, and so on.
Here, note that none of the properties just discussed above for S are true for
M 2 (R). But they are true for the subring S of M 2 (R).

Let us look at a few other examples.

⎧⎪ ⎡ a b⎤ ⎫⎪
Example 11: Let S be the subring ⎨ ⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ Z ⎬ of M 2 (Z). Check
⎪⎩ ⎣10b a ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎡ a b⎤
whether or not f : Z[ 10 ] → S : f (a + b 10 ) = ⎢ ⎥ is an isomorphism.
⎣10b a ⎦

Solution: You should check that f is well-defined.

Next, show that f [(a + b 10 ) + (c + d 10 )] = f (a + b 10 ) + f (c + d 10 ), and
f [(a + b 10 )(c + d 10 )] = f (a + b 10 ) f (c + d 10 ).

⎧⎪ ⎡ a b⎤ ⎫⎪
Ker f = ⎨a + b 10 ⎢ ⎥ = 0, a , b ∈ Z ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣10b a ⎦ ⎪⎭
= {0}.

Im f = S, which you should verify.

Thus, f is an isomorphism.
***

Example 12: Let R and S be rings. Prove that R × S contains a subring

isomorphic to R and a subring isomorphic to S.

Solution: Define f : R → R × S : f (r ) = (r, 0) and g : S → R × S : g (s) = (0, s).

Now, you should verify that both f and g are well-defined.
Further, ∀ r1 , r2 ∈ R ,
f(r1 + r2 ) = (r1 + r2 , 0) = (r1 , 0) + (r2 , 0) = f(r1 ) + f(r2 ) , and
f (r1r2 ) = (r1r2 , 0) = (r1 , 0)(r2 , 0) = f (r1 )f (r2 ).
Thus, f is a ring homomorphism.

Similarly, you should show that g is a ring homomorphism.

96
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
Next, Ker f = {r ∈ R ( r , 0) = (0, 0)} = {0}, so that f is 1 - 1.
Also, Im f = {( r , 0) r ∈ R} = R × {0} is a subring of R × S, such that
− Im f = R × {0}.
R~

− Im g = {0} × S, a subring of R × S.
Similarly, you should show that S ~
Thus, R × S contains a subring isomorphic to R and a subring isomorphic to
S.
***

Example 13: Show that C −

~/ R. Recall, from Unit 8,
~/ denotes ‘is not
that −
Solution: We shall prove this by contradiction, as in Unit 8. isomorphic to’.
So suppose that C ~− R. Then C and R must have the same algebraic
properties. Thus, U(C) and U(R) must have the same properties, i.e., C∗
and R ∗ must have the same properties.
Now, C∗ has an element, i, of order 4. That is, (i) 4 = 1. But R ∗ has no
element of order 4. Hence, we reach a contradiction.
−/ R.
Thus, C ~
***

− S, and R is a ring with identity, then

Example 14: Show that if R ~
U (R ) = U(S) , where U(R ) denotes the group of units of R and | A| denotes
the cardinality of a set A.

Solution: Let f : R → S be an isomorphism.

− S, S is also a ring with identity.
Firstly, since R is a ring with identity, and R ~

You also know, from Theorem 2, that if u ∈ U(R ), then f (u ) ∈ U(S).

So, f ( U(R )) ⊆ U(S).
We shall show that U(S) ⊆ f ( U(R )).
So, let s ∈ U(S). Then s = f ( t ) for some t ∈ R , since f is surjective.
Similarly, ∃ r ∈ R s.t. s −1 = f (r ).
Now, f (rt ) = f (r )f ( t ) = s −1s = 1 = f (1), from Theorem 2.
Thus, rt = 1, since f is injective.
Hence, r ∈ U(R ), so that U(S) ⊆ f ( U(R )).
Thus, U(S) = f ( U(R )).
Also, since f is 1 - 1 over R , it is 1 - 1 when restricted to U(R ).
Thus, f , restricted to U(R ), is a bijection from U(R ) to U(S).
Hence, U ( R ) = U (S) .

***

Try solving the following exercises now. They will help you in becoming more
familiar with isomorphisms.

E28) Which of the following functions are ring isomorphisms? Give reasons
for your answers.

i) f : Z → R : f (n ) = n ,
97
Block 3 Introduction to Rings
ii) f :Z → Z : f (n ) = 5n,
10Z
iii) f : C → C : f (z) = z , the complex conjugate of z,
iv) f : C → R × R : f (z) = ( z , Arg z).

− R 2 iff R 2 ~
R1 ~ − R1.
E29) Let φ : R1 → R2 be a ring isomorphism. Then you know that
φ −1 : R 2 → R 1 is a well-defined function, since φ is bijective. Show that
φ−1 is also an isomorphism.

E30) Show that the composition of isomorphisms is an isomorphism.

E31) Which of the following are true? Give reasons for your answers.
i) − Z,
Q~
ii) −/ R,
Q~
iii) − M n (Z m ), for some n , m ∈ N,
Z~
iv) − Z × Z × Z,
Z3 ~
v) If R and S are rings such that (R , +) ~
− (S, +) as groups, then R
and S are isomorphic rings.

− Z 2 × Z 2 , where X = {1, 2}.

E32) Prove that ℘( X ) ~
(Hint: Define f :℘( X ) → Z 2 × Z 2 for each of the 4 elements of ℘(X) in
a manner that f is an isomorphism.)

And now, let us go back to Sec.8.4, Unit 8, for a moment. Over there, we
proved the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism for groups. According to
this theorem, the homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to a
quotient group of G. Now we will prove a similar result for rings. This is known
as the first isomorphism theorem, or the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism for rings (FTH, in brief).

Theorem 11 (The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism): Let

f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then R − Im f .
~
Ker f
In particular, if f is surjective, then R − S.
~
Ker f

Proof: First, note that R Ker f is a well-defined quotient ring, since Ker f is
an ideal of R. For convenience, let us write Ker f = I. Let us define
ψ : R I → S by ψ( x + I) = f ( x ).

As in the case of the FTH in Unit 8, we need to check that ψ is well-defined.

Now, x + I = y + I ⇒ x − y ∈ I = Ker f ⇒ f ( x − y) = 0 ⇒ f ( x ) = f ( y)
⇒ ψ( x + I) = ψ( y + I).
Thus, ψ is well-defined.

Now let us see whether ψ is an isomorphism or not.

98
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
ψ is a homomorphism: Let x, y ∈ R. Then
ψ(( x + I) + ( y + I)) = ψ( x + y + I) = f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y)
= ψ( x + I) + ψ( y + I), and
ψ(( x + I) ( y + I)) = ψ ( xy + I) = f ( xy) = f ( x ) f ( y)
= ψ( x + I) ψ( y + I).
Thus, ψ is a ring homomorphism.

Im ψ = Im f : Since ψ( x + I) = f ( x ) ∈ Im f ∀ x ∈ R , Im ψ ⊆ Im f .
Also any element of Im f is of the form f ( x ) = ψ ( x + I) for some x ∈ R.
Thus, Im f ⊆ Im ψ.
So, Im ψ = Im f .

ψ is 1 - 1 : Let x , y ∈ R such that ψ ( x + I) = ψ ( y + I).

Then f ( x ) = f ( y), so that f ( x − y) = 0, i.e., x − y ∈ Ker f = I,
i.e., x + I = y + I.
Thus, ψ is 1 - 1.
So, we have shown that R − Im f .
~
Ker f
Thus, if f is onto, then Im f = S, and R − S.
~
Ker f

Note that this result says that f is the composition ψ o η, where η is the
canonical homomorphism η : R → (R Ker f ) : η(a ) = a + Ker f . This is
diagrammatically shown in Fig.1.
f
R Im f ⊂→ S

η ψ

R Ker f

Fig.1: Given f, ∃ an isomorphism ψ s.t. ψ o η = f.

Let us, now, look at some examples of the application of the Fundamental
Theorem.

Example 15: Show that the rings Z mZ and Z m are isomorphic, where
m ∈ N.

Solution: Consider p : Z → Z m : p(n ) = n.

You should check that p is an epimorphism, and
Ker p = {n n = 0 in Z m } = mZ.
Therefore, by Theorem 11, Z − Zm .
~
mZ
(Note that you have often used the fact that Z mZ and Z m are isomorphic
groups.)
***

Example 16: Prove that if R1 and R 2 are rings, then

(R1 × R 2 ) − R1 and
~
R2
99
Block 3 Introduction to Rings
(R1 × R 2 ) − R2.
~
R1

Solution: Define p : R1 × R 2 → R1 : p(a , b) = a. Then, from E6, you know that

the projection map p is an epimorphism, and its kernel is
Ker p = {(0, b) b ∈ R 2 } = {0} × R 2 .

Thus, by Theorem 11,

(R1 × R 2 ) − R1.
~
{0} × R 2
Now define f : {0} × R 2 → R 2 : f (0, b) = b. Then you should prove that f is a
ring isomorphism.
− R2 .
Thus, Ker p ~
Hence, R2 can be treated as an ideal of R 1 × R 2 , and can replace Ker p.

Therefore,
(R1 × R 2 ) − R1.
~
R2

You should prove that

(R1 × R 2 ) − R2 on the same lines.
~
R1
***

⎧⎪⎡a b⎤ ⎫⎪
Example 17: Consider the ring R = ⎨⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ R ⎬.
⎪⎩⎣0 a ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎧⎪⎡0 c ⎤ ⎫⎪
Let I = ⎨⎢ ⎥ c ∈ R ⎬.
⎪⎩⎣0 0⎦ ⎪⎭

i) Prove that I is an ideal of R.

ii) − R.
Show that (R I) ~

Solution: i) Since 0 ∈ I, I ≠ «.
⎡0 a ⎤ ⎡0 b ⎤ ⎡0 a − b ⎤
Next, for A = ⎢ ⎥ , B=⎢ ⎥ in I, A − B = ⎢ ∈ I.
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡0 a ⎤ ⎡c d ⎤
Also, for A = ⎢ ⎥ in I and C = ⎢ ⎥ in R ,
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 c ⎦
⎡0 ac⎤ ⎡0 ac⎤
AC = ⎢ ⎥ ∈ I, CA = ⎢ ⎥ ∈ I.
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦
Thus, I is an ideal of R.

⎛ ⎡a b ⎤ ⎞
ii) Define π : R → R : π⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟ = a. Then π is well-defined (verify this!).
⎝ ⎣0 a ⎦ ⎠
Further, prove that π is a ring homomorphism and π is surjective.
⎧⎪⎡a b⎤ ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧⎡0 b⎤ ⎫⎪
Now, Ker π = ⎨⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ R, a = 0⎬ = ⎨ ⎢ ⎥ b ∈ R ⎬ = I.
⎪⎩⎣0 a ⎦ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩⎣0 0⎦ ⎪⎭
Therefore, by the FTH, ( R I) ~ − R.
***

Try solving some exercises now.

100
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms

E33) What does the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism say in the case
of the homomorphisms in each of the Examples 1 to 9?

E34) Prove that R[ x ] − R.

~
<x>

⎧⎪⎡a b ⎤ ⎫⎪
E35) Let R = ⎨⎢ ⎥ a , b ∈ Z ⎬. Show that R is a commutative subring of
⎪⎩⎣b a ⎦ ⎪⎭
M 2 (Z), with unity.
⎛ ⎡a b⎤ ⎞
Further, define φ : R → Z : φ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟ = a − b. Show that φ is a ring
⎝ ⎣b a ⎦ ⎠
homomorphism. What does Theorem 11 say in this case?

E36) Let R be a ring with unity. For r ∈ U(R ), define f r : R → R : f r (s) = r −1sr.
Check if f r is a homomorphism or not. If it is, what does FTH say in this
case? If f r is not a homomorphism, find an endomorphism of R.

E37) Let S be a subring of a ring R , and I be an ideal of R. In Unit 12, you

have proved that S ∩ I is an ideal of S. Use the FTH to prove that
S (S ∩ I) is a subring of R I. Is it also an ideal of R I ? Why?

Now, what E36 tells us is that if R is a ring with unity, then f r ∈ Aut R for
each r ∈ U(R ). Are all these distinct? For example, are f −1 and f1 distinct
automorphisms of Z ? The answer to this lies in a very surprising result that
we will now discuss. We will use Theorem 11 to prove that any ring
homomorphism from a ring R onto Z is uniquely determined by its kernel.
That is, we can’t have two different ring homomorphisms from R onto Z with
the same kernel. (Note that this is not true for group homomorphisms. In
fact, you know that I, the identity map on Z, and − I are distinct group
homomorphisms from Z onto itseIf with the same kernel, {0} .) To prove this
statement we need the following result.

Theorem 12: The only non-trivial ring homomorphism from Z to itself is the
identity map.

Proof: Let f : Z → Z be a non-trivial ring homomorphism. Let n be a positive

integer. Then n = 1 + 1 + L + 1 (n times).
Therefore, f (n ) = f (1) + f (1) + L + f (1) (n times) = n f (1).

On the other hand, if n is a negative integer, then (− n ) is a positive integer.

Therefore, f (−n ) = (− n ) f (1),
i.e., − f (n ) = − nf (1), by Theorem 1.
Thus, f (n ) = n f (1) in this case too.
Also f (0) = 0 = 0f (1), again, by Theorem 1.
Thus, f (n ) = nf (1) ∀ n ∈ Z. …(3)
You also know that f (1) = 1, since f is a non-trivial ring homomorphism.
Therefore, from (3), you can see that
f (n ) = n ∀ n ∈ Z, i.e., f = I.
101
Block 3 Introduction to Rings
This theorem has an important corollary.

Corollary 2: Let R be a ring isomorphic to Z. If f and g are two

isomorphisms from R onto Z, then f = g.

Proof: The composition f o g −1 is an isomorphism from Z onto itself.

Therefore, by Theorem 12, f o g −1 = 0 or f o g −1 = I.
If f o g −1 = 0, then (f o g −1 )(1) = 0 ⇒ f (g −1 (1)) = 0 ⇒ f (1) = 0, a contradiction,
since f is non-trivial.
Thus, f o g −1 = I.
Hence, f = g.

We are now in a position to prove the really surprising result we had

mentioned earlier.

Theorem 13: Let R be a ring and f and g be homorphisms from R onto Z

such that Ker f = Ker g. Then f = g.

Proof: By Theorem 11, we have isomorphisms

ψf : R → Z and ψ g : R → Z.
Ker f Ker g
Since Ker f = Ker g, ψ f and ψ g are isomorphisms of the same ring onto Z.
Thus, by Corollary 2, ψ f = ψ g .

Also, the canonical maps ηf : R → R and ηg : R → R are the

Ker f Ker g
same since Ker f = Ker g.
∴ f = ψ f o ηf , using Theorem 11
= ψ g o ηg
= g.

We will now give you a chance to prove some important applications of

Theorem 11! They are analogous to Theorem 12 and Theorem 14 of Unit 8.

E38) (Second Isomorphism Theorem): Let S be a subring and I be an

ideal of a ring R. Show that
(S + I) −S
~ .
I (S ∩ I)

E39) (Third Isomorphism Theorem): Let I and J be ideals of a ring R

such that J ⊆ I. Show that
(R J) −R .
~
(I J ) I

E40) Prove that

Z15
i) − Z5 ,
~
5 Z15
ii)
Zm − Z n , where m, n ∈ N and n m.
~
nZ m

E41) How many non-trivial ring automorphisms of Q are there, and why?

102
Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
We shall halt our discussion of ring homomorphisms and isomorphisms here,
and briefly recall what we have done in this unit. Of course, we have not
finished with these functions. We will be using them again and again in the
units of the next block.

13.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the following points.

1. The definition of a ring homomorphism, its kernel and its image, along
with several examples.

2. The direct, and inverse, image of a subring under a homomorphism is a

subring.

3. If f : R → S is a ring homomorphism, then

i) Ker f is an ideal of R ,
ii) Im f is a subring of S,
iii) f −1(I) is an ideal of R for every ideal I of S,
iv) if f is surjective, then f (I) is an ideal of S.

4. Let f : R → S be an onto ring homomorphism. Then I a f (I) defines a

one-to-one correspondence between the set of ideals of R containing
Ker f and the set of ideals of S.

5. A homomorphism is injective iff its kernel is {0}.

6. If I is an ideal of a ring R , then there exists a ring S and a surjective

ring homomorphism f : R → S whose kernel is I.

7. The composition of homomorphisms is a homomorphism.

8. The definition, and examples, of a ring isomorphism.

9. The proof, and applications, of the Fundamental Theorem of

Homomorphism for rings, which says that if f : R → S is a ring
homomorphism, then R − Im f .
~
Ker f

10. Second Isomorphism Theorem: Let S be a subring and I be an ideal

of a ring R. Then
(S + I) −S
~ .
I (S ∩ I)

11. Third Isomorphism Theorem: Let I and J be ideals of a ring R such

that J ⊆ I. Then
(R J) −R .
~
(I J) I
12. The only non-trivial ring homomorphism from Z to Z is the identity
automorphism.

13. Let R be a ring and f and g be homorphisms from R onto Z such

that Ker f = Ker g. Then f = g.
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Block 3 Introduction to Rings

13.6 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

E1) For x , y ∈ S,
i( x + y) = x + y = i( x ) + i( y), and
i( xy) = xy = i( x ) i( y).
∴ i is a homomorphism.
Ker i = {x ∈ S | i( x ) = 0} = {0}.
Im i = { i( x ) | x ∈ S} = S.

E2) i) First, if f ( x ) = g ( x ) in Z[ x ], then f (1) = g (1) in Z. So φ is well-

defined.

m n
Next, let f ( x ) = ∑ a i x i , and g(x ) = ∑ bi x i be in Z[x ]. Then
i =0 i=0
φ(f ( x ) + g( x ))
⎛ m ⎞
= φ⎜ ∑ (a i + b i ) x i ⎟, assuming m ≥ n and
⎝ i =0 ⎠ b = 0 = b =L= b .
n +1 n +2 m

m
= ∑ (a i + bi ), putting x = 1.
i=0

⎛ m ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
= ⎜ ∑ a i ⎟ + ⎜ ∑ bi ⎟, since b j = 0 for j ≥ n.
⎝ i =0 ⎠ ⎝ i =0 ⎠
= φ(f ( x )) + φ(g( x )).
If m ≤ n , you can prove that φ(f ( x ) + g( x )) = φ(f ( x )) + φ(g ( x )),
similarly.
⎛ m+n ⎛ ⎞⎞
Also, φ(f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x )) = φ⎜ ∑ ⎜⎜ ∑ a i b j x i + j ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ k =0 i+ j=k ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
m+n ⎛ ⎞
= ∑ ⎜⎜ ∑ a b ⎟⎟, putting x = 1.
i j
k =0 ⎝ i + j= k ⎠
= f (1) ⋅ g(1)
= φ(f ( x )) ⋅ φ(g( x )).
Thus, φ is a homomorphism.

Ker φ = {f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ] f (1) = 0}.

From Calculus, you know that if f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ], then f (a ) = 0 iff a is
a root of the polynomial f ( x ), where a ∈ Z.
Thus, Ker φ = {f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ] f has 1 as a root}.

Im φ = Z, because for any m ∈ Z, f ( x ) = x − 1 + m ∈ Z[ x ] s.t.

f (1) = m.

ii) As in (i), you should prove that φ z is a homomorphism.

Further, Ker φ z = {f ( x ) ∈ C[ x ] f (z) = 0}.
Thus, Ker φ z is the set of all complex polynomials which have
z as a root.
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
Im φ z = { f (z) ∈ C f ( x ) ∈ C[ x ]} = C, because for any
w ∈ C, x + w − z ∈ C[ x ] s.t. φ z ( x + w − z) = w.

E3) Let α = 1 + i ∈ H and β = 1 + 2i + j ∈ H.

Then αβ = (1 + i)(1 + 2i + j) = −1 + 3i + j + k. (Remember the relations
satisfied by i, j, k!)
So φ(αβ) = −1.
But φ(α)φ(β) = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
Thus, φ(αβ) ≠ φ(α)φ(β) in R.
Thus, φ is not a homomorphism.

⎡1 2⎤ ⎡2 1⎤
E4) Take A = ⎢ ⎥ , B = ⎢0 1⎥ ∈ M 2 (C). Then
⎣3 4⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎛ ⎡3 3⎤ ⎞ ⎛ ⎡3 3⎤ ⎞
ψ(A + B) = ψ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ = det⎜ ⎢
⎟
⎟
⎜ 3 5⎥ ⎟ = 15 − 9 = 6.
⎝ ⎣3 5⎦ ⎠ ⎝⎣ ⎦⎠
Also ψ (A) + ψ (B) = −2 + 2 = 0.
Thus, ψ is not a homomorphism.

E5) You need to first check if f is well-defined.

Now, if n = m in Z 3 , then 3 (n − m). So 6 4(n − m).
i.e., 4n = 4m in Z 6 .
Therefore, f is well-defined.

Next, for n , m in Z 3 ,
f ( n + m ) = f (n + m) = 4(n + m)(mod 6)
= 4n (mod 6) + 4m(mod 6)
= f ( n ) + f ( m ).
Also, f ( n ⋅ m ) = f (nm) = 4nm(mod 6)
= 16nm(mod 6), since 4 = 16 in Z 6 .
= 4n (mod 6) ⋅ 4m(mod 6)
= f ( n ) ⋅ f ( m ).
Thus, f is a ring homomorphism.

E6) You should first show that p is well-defined.

Next, for any (a , b), (c, d) ∈ A × B,

p((a , b) + (c, d)) = p((a + c, b + d)) = a + c = p((a , b)) + p((c, d )), and
p((a , b) (c, d)) = p((ac, bd)) = ac = p((a , b)) p((c, d)).
So, p is a ring homomorphism.

Ker p = {(a , b) ∈ A × B a = 0} = {0} × B.

Im p = {p(a , b) (a , b) ∈A × B} = {a (a , b) ∈A × B} = A.

If B is not the trivial ring, p is not 1 - 1. This is because

∃ b1 , b 2 ∈ B, b1 ≠ b 2 , so that (0, b1 ) ≠ (0, b 2 ).
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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
But p((0, b1 )) = 0 = p((0, b 2 )).

Hence, if B ≠ {0}, p is not an isomorphism.

E7) Firstly, f is well-defined since a − b 2 = a + (− b) 2 ∈ Z[ 2 ] ∀ a , b ∈ Z.

Next, for a , b, c, d ∈ Z,
f ((a + b 2 ) + (c + d 2 )) = f (a + c + 2 (b + d))
= (a + c) − ( b + d ) 2 = (a − b 2 ) + (c − d 2 )
= f (a + b 2 ) + f (c + d 2 ).
Also, f ((a + b 2 )(c + d 2 )) = f (ac + 2bd + 2 (ad + bc))
= ac + 2bd − (ad + bc) 2 = (a − 2b)(c − 2d)
= f (a + b 2 ) ⋅ f (c + d 2 ).
Thus, f is an endomorphism.

You should check that g is well-defined. However,

g[(1 + 3 )(1 − 3 )] = g(−2) = −2, and
g(1 + 3 ) ⋅ g (1 − 3 ) = (1 + 7 )(1 − 7 ) = − 6. Thus, g is not a
homomorphism.

E8) For 3n , 3m ∈ Z, f (3n ⋅ 3m) = f (9nm) = 5(3nm) ≠ 5n ⋅ 5m.

Hence, f is not a homomorphism.

E9) First, you should check whether or not φ is well-defined.

Then prove that it is a homomorphism, 1 - 1 and onto.
Here, note that ∀ a , b, c, d ∈ R,
φ((a + ib)(c + id )) = φ[(ac − bd ) + i(ad + bc)]
⎡ ac − bd ad + bc⎤ ⎡ a b⎤ ⎡ c d ⎤
=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣− (ad + bc) ac − bd ⎦ ⎣− b a ⎦ ⎣− d c ⎦
= φ(a + ib) ⋅ φ(c + id ).

E10) For f , g ∈ C [0, 1],

φ(f + g) = ((f + g) (0), (f + g) (1))
= (f (0) + g(0), f (1) + g(1))
= (f (0), f (1)) + (g(0), g(1))
= φ(f ) + φ (g ), and
φ(fg) = (fg(0), fg(1)) = (f (0) ⋅ g(0), f (1) ⋅ g(1))
= (f (0, f (1)) (g(0), g(1))
= φ(f ) φ(g).
∴φ is a homomorphism.

φ is not injective since, for example, f ≠ 0 but φ(f ) = φ(0), where

f : [0, 1] → R : f ( x ) = x ( x − 1) is in C[0, 1].
Thus, φ is not an isomorphism.

E11) We will use Theorem 1 of Unit 11.

Firstly, S ≠ « ⇒ f (S) ≠ «.
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
Next, let a ′, b′ ∈ f (S). Then ∃ a , b ∈ S such that f (a ) = a ′, f (b) = b′.
Now a ′ − b′ = f (a ) − f (b) = f (a − b) ∈ f (S), since a − b ∈ S, and
a ′ b′ = f (a ) f (b) = f (ab) ∈ f (S), since ab ∈ S.
∴ f (S) is a subring of R2 .

E12) Consider the trivial homomophism f : Z → Z : f ( x ) = 0. Then, 2Z ≠ 3Z in

(. But f (2Z) = {0} = f (3Z) in ). Thus, φ is not 1 - 1, and hence, not a
bijection.

E13) Since I is a subring of R 2 , f −1(I) is a subring of R1 , by Theorem 3.

Now, let a ∈ f −1(I) and r ∈ R1.
We want to show that ar ∈ f −1(I) and ra ∈ f −1(I).
Since a ∈ f −1(I), f (a ) ∈ I.
∴ f (a ) f (r ) ∈ I and f (r )f (a ) ∈ I, i.e., f (ar ) ∈ I and f (ra ) ∈ I. (Note that
R 2 need not be commutative.)
∴ ar ∈ f −1(I) and ra ∈ f −1(I).
Thus, f −1(I) is an ideal of R 1.

Also, if x ∈ Ker f , then f ( x ) = 0 ∈ I.

∴ x ∈ f −1(I).
∴ Ker f ⊆ f −1(I).

E14) Let x ∈ f (f −1(J )). Then x = f ( y), where y ∈ f −1(J ), i.e., f ( y) ∈ J, i.e.,
x ∈ J.
Thus, f (f −1(J )) ⊆ J.

Now, let x ∈ J. Since f is surjective, ∃ y ∈ R such that f ( y) = x.

Then y ∈ f −1( x ) ⊆ f −1(J ). (Note that f −1( x ) is a set, not an element.)
∴ x = f ( y) ∈ f (f −1(J )).
Thus, J ⊆ f (f −1(J )).
Hence, the result is proved.

E15) Here f (I) = 2 Z 5 = Z 5 , since (2, 5) = 1.

So f −1(f (I)) = Z = Z + Ker f , since Ker f ⊆ Z.

For any ideal I of R , in Example 3, f (I) = {0}, where f = 0. So

f −1(f (I)) = R = R + Ker f , since Ker f = R.

E16) You know, from Unit 12, that the only ideals of R are {0} and R. Here
Ker φ = {f ∈ C[0, 1] s.t. f (1 2) = 0}.
So, if I is an ideal of C[0, 1] s.t. Ker φ ⊆ I, then φ(I) = {0} or φ(I) = R,
by Theorem 6.
But, if φ(I) = {0}, then I ⊆ Ker φ, i.e., I = Ker φ.
So if I ≠ Ker φ, then φ(I) = R, by Theorem 6.

E17) i) For example, (0, 1) ∉ Im f . Hence, f is not onto.

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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
ii) For any ideal I of Z, I = nZ for some n ∈ Z. So
f (I) = {(nm, nm) m ∈ Z}, which is not an ideal of Z × Z, as you
have seen in Unit 12. Thus, the ideal Z × {0} of Z × Z is not of the
form f (I), for any ideal I of Z. In fact, no ideal of Z × Z can be of
the form f (I).

E18) You should prove that g (m + n ) = g (m) + g (n ), and g (mn ) = g (m)g(n ).

Hence, g is a homomorphism.
However, g is not surjective – e.g., (1, 2) ∉ Im g.

Now, let I be an ideal of Z. So I = nZ, for some n ∈ N.

Then g (I) = nZ × {0} is an ideal of Z × Z, by Theorem 5, Unit 12.

This does not counter Theorem 4, as Theorem 4 says that if f is

surjective, f (I) should be an ideal of the co-domain. It does not say that
if f is not surjective, then f (I) cannot be an ideal.

E19) As in Example 10, we consider f : Z → Z n : f (m) = m. Since f is an

epimorphism, the ideals of Z n are of the form f (mZ), where m n.
Thus, the ideals of Z n are mZ n , where m n.
Thus, every ideal of Z n is a principal ideal.

E20) The homomorphisms in Example 1, I in Example 3 (and 4), and f in

Example 8 have kernel {0}. Thus, they are 1 - 1.

E21) The homomorphism in E1, certainly.

In E5, Ker f = {n ∈ Z 3 4n 6} = {0}. So f is 1 - 1.

In E7, Ker f = {a + b 2 a − b 2 = 0, a , b ∈ Z}

= {a + b 2 a = 0, b = 0}
= {0}.

⎡ x 0⎤ ⎡ y 0⎤
E22) i) Firstly, if x = y in R, then ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥.
⎣ − x 0⎦ ⎣ − y 0⎦
So φ( x ) = φ( y) in M 2 (R ).
Thus, φ is well-defined.

Next, you should check that for x , y ∈ R,

φ( x + y) = φ( x ) + φ( y) and φ( xy) = φ( x )φ( y).
So φ is a ring homomorphism.

Ker φ = {x φ( x ) = 0} = {0}. So φ is 1 - 1.
⎧⎪⎡ x 0⎤ ⎫⎪
Im φ = ⎨⎢ ⎥ x ∈ R ⎬ ≠ M 2 (R), because, for example,
⎪⎩⎣− x 0⎦ ⎪⎭

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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
⎡1 2⎤
⎢3 4⎥ ∉ Im φ.
⎣ ⎦
So φ is not onto.

Thus, φ is not an isomorphism.

ii) You should check that φ is well-defined and

φ( n1 ⋅ n 2 ) = φ( n1 ) ⋅ φ( n 2 ) ∀ n1 , n 2 ∈ Z 3 .
Now φ( n1 + n 2 ) = φ(n1 + n 2 ) = (n1 + n 2 ) 3 = ( n1 + n 2 ) 3
= n13 + n 32 , since 3 = 0 .
= φ( n1 ) + φ( n 2 ) ∀ n1 , n 2 ∈ Z 3 .
Thus, φ is a ring homomorphism.

Ker φ = {n ∈ Z3 n 3 = 0} = {0}. So φ is 1 - 1.
Im φ = {n 3 n ∈ Z3} = Z3 . So φ is onto.

Thus, φ is an isomorphism.

E23) No. For example, take the subring Z of Q. Since Z is not an ideal of
Q, it can’t be the kernel of any homomorphism from Q to another ring,
because of Theorem 7.

E24) Consider f of Theorem 9. Since f is surjective, f (J ) = J is an ideal of

I
R I, for any ideal J of R containing I, by Theorem 4.

Conversely, let A be an ideal of R I. Then f −1 (A) is an ideal of R

containing Ker f = I.
Hence, f (f −1 (A)) = (f −1 (A) I) is an ideal of R I, by Theorem 6.
Also, from E14, you know that A = f (f −1 (A)).
Thus, A = (f −1 (A) I) = J I , where J = f −1 (A).

E25) For any x , y ∈ R1 ,

g o f ( x + y) = g(f ( x + y)) = g(f ( x ) + f ( y)), since f is a homomorphism.
= g(f ( x )) + g(f ( y)), since g is a homomorphism.
= g o f ( x ) + g o f ( y), and
g o f ( xy) = g(f ( xy)) = g(f ( x ) f ( y)), since f is a homomorphism.
= g(f ( x )) ⋅ g(f ( y)), since g is a homomorphism.
= g o f ( x ) ⋅ g o f ( y).
Thus, g o f is a homomorphism.

E26) i) x ∈ Ker f ⇒ f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ g o f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, since g o f is 1 - 1.

∴ Ker f = {0}.
∴ f is 1 - 1.

ii) Let x ∈ R 3 . Since g o f is onto, ∃ y ∈ R1 such that g o f ( y) = x ,

i.e., g(f ( y)) = x, where f ( y) ∈ R 2 . Thus, g is onto.
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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
iii) For example, consider φ o i : Z → Z, where i : Z ⊂→ Z[ x ] : i(m) = m
and φ is the map in E2(i).
Then φ o i = I : Z → Z, which is 1 - 1.
But φ is not 1 - 1 since Ker φ ≠ {0}.

iv) You can use the example in (iii) above, to show this too.

E27) h is the composition of the projection map p : Z × Z → Z : p(n , m) = m

and the map f : Z → Z r : f (m) = m.
Both p and f are ring homomorphisms, as you know from E6 and
Example 5, respectively.
∴ h is a homomorphism.

1
E28) i) f is not onto, since ∉ Im f , for example. Hence, f is not an
2
isomorphism.

ii) f is not an isomorphism, since Ker f = 10Z ≠ {0}.

iii) From Block 1, Calculus, you know that z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 , and

z1z 2 = z1 ⋅ z 2 . Use this to show that f is a ring homomorphism.

Next, for any a + ib ∈ C, f (a − ib) = a + ib. So Im f = C.

Also, Ker f = {a + ib a − ib = 0} = {0}.

Thus, f is an isomorphism.

iv) Note that | z| ≥ 0. Use this to show that f is not surjective. Hence,
f cannot be an isomorphism.

E29) Let x , y ∈ R2 and φ −1 ( x ) = r, φ −1 ( y) = s. Then x = φ(r ) and y = φ (s).

Therefore, x + y = φ(r ) + φ(s) = φ(r + s), and xy = φ(rs).
∴ φ−1 ( x + y) = r + s = φ −1 ( x ) + φ −1 ( y), and
φ −1 ( xy) = rs = φ −1 ( x ) ⋅ φ −1 ( y).
Thus, φ −1 is a ring homomorphism.
You already know that it is bijective.
Thus, φ −1 is an isomorphism.

E30) Let f : R1 → R 2 and g : R 2 → R3 be ring isomorphisms. From Theorem

10, you know that g o f is a homomorphism. For the rest, proceed as
you did for solving E19, Unit 8.

E31) i) Since U(Q) = Q∗ and U(Z) = {1, − 1}, Q ~

−/ Z (by Example 14).
Thus, this is false.
ii) See Example 20, Unit 8, for why this is true.

iii) Here Z is infinite, but M n (Z m ) is finite. Thus, this is false.

iv) Since Z 3 is finite and Z × Z × Z is infinite, this is false.

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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
v) False. Consider Z and 2Z. You know that Z and 2Z are
isomorphic groups. However, Z is a ring with unity, while 2Z
does not have unity. Hence, they are not isomorphic rings.

E32) Define f :℘(X ) → Z 2 × Z 2 by

f («) = (0, 0), f ({1}) = (1, 0), f ({2}) = (0, 1), f (X) = (1, 1).
Now, f is a well-defined bijection, as you can see.
You should check, case by case, that for A, B ∈℘(X),
f (A Δ B) = f (A) + f (B), and f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ⋅ f (B).
Thus, ℘(X ) ~ − Z2 × Z2.

E33) Example 1: Z − Z.
~
{0}
Example 2: ( M n (R ) M n (R )) ~− {0}.
Example 3 and 4: R − R , and (R R ) ~
~ − {0}, for any ring R.
{0}
Example 5: Z sZ ~ − Z s , ∀ s ∈ N.
Example 6: Z 6 {0, 3} ~− Z 3 , i.e., (Z 6 3Z 6 ) ~
− Z3.
Example 7: Ker φ = {f ∈ C [0,1]| f (1 2) = 0}, and
Im φ = R.
So
C[0, 1] − R.
~
Ker φ
Example 8: Z ~−{nI n ∈ Z}, using the fact of Example 1, i.e., Z {0} ~
− Z,
and Theorem 10.
⎡1 0 ⎤
Here I = ⎢⎥.
⎣0 1 ⎦
Example 9:
℘(X) −℘(Y).
~
℘(Y c )

E34) Define f : R[ x ] → R : f (a 0 + a1x + L + a n x n ) = a 0 .

Then f is the evalution map φ0 . As in E2, you should prove that f is a
homomorphism, Ker f = < x > and Im f = R.

Hence, by FTH, R[ x ] − R.
~
<x>

E35) You should show that R ≠ «, and that A − B ∈ R and

AB ∈ R ∀ A, B ∈ R.
⎡1 0 ⎤
Further, prove that AB = BA ∀ A, B ∈ R. Note that ⎢ ⎥ ∈ R.
⎣0 1 ⎦

Next, prove that φ is a ring homomorphism.

⎧⎪⎡1 1⎤ ⎫⎪
After this, show that Ker φ = ⎨⎢ ⎥ r r ∈ Z ⎬.
⎪⎩⎣1 1⎦ ⎪⎭
⎛ ⎡n 0⎤ ⎞
Note that Im φ = Z, because for any n ∈ Z, n = φ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟.
⎝ ⎣0 n ⎦ ⎠

So FTH tells us that R Ker φ ~

− Z.
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Block 3 Introduction to Rings
E36) Since r ∈ U (R ), f r is well-defined.
Now, for x , y ∈ R ,
f r ( x + y) = r −1 ( x + y)r = r −1xr + r −1 yr
= f r ( x ) + f r ( y), and
f r ( xy) = r −1xyr = (r −1xr )(r −1 yr)
= f r ( x ) ⋅ f r ( y).

Thus, f r is a homomorphism.

Next, Ker f r = {x ∈ R r −1xr = 0}.

Since r is a unit, ∃ s ∈ R s.t. rs = 1 = sr.
So r −1xr = 0 iff s −1r −1xrs = s −1 0 s = 0, i.e., iff x = 0.
Thus, Ker f r = {0}.
Also, for any s ∈ R , f r (rsr −1 ) = s.
So Im f r = R.
− R.
Thus, f r is an automorphism, and FTH tells us that R {0} ~

E37) Define f : S → R I : f (s) = s + I. Show that f is a homomorphism, and

Ker f = S ∩ I.
Thus, by FTH, (S (S ∩ I)) ~
− Im f , a subring of R I.
Hence, we can treat (S S ∩ I) as a subring of R I.

In E38, Unit 12, you have given an example to show that (S S ∩ I) need
not be an ideal of R I.

E38) Since I is an ideal of R and I ⊆ S + I, it is an ideal of S + I.

Thus, (S + I) I is a well-defined ring.
Define f : S → (S + I) I : f ( x ) = x + I.
As you did in Theorem 12 of Unit 8, you should prove that f is
well-defined.
Then, you should check that f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y), and
f ( xy) = f ( x ) f ( y) ∀ x, y ∈ S.

Further, show that f is surjective and Ker f = S ∩ I.

Thus, S − (S + I) , by Theorem 11.

~
(S ∩ I) I

E39) Define f : R J → R I : f (r + J ) = r + I.
As you did in Theorem 14, Unit 8, you can check that f is well-defined.
Next, prove that f is a ring homomorphism, f is surjective and
Ker f = I J .
Thus, I J is an ideal of R J, and
(R J) −R .
~
(I J) I

E40) i) − Z m ∀ m ∈ N.
By Example 15, (Z mZ) ~
− Z 15Z, 5 Z15 ~
So Z15 ~ − 5 (Z 15Z) = 5Z 15Z.
So, by the third isomorphism theorem, Z15 < 5 > ~
−Z 5Z ~
− Z5 .
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Unit 13 Ring Homomorphisms
ii) Again, as in (i) above,
− (Z mZ)
Z m nZ m ~ − Z nZ ~
~ − Zn .
(nZ mZ)

p
E41) Let f be an automorphism of Q. Then, for any q ∈ Q,

⎛p⎞
f ⎜⎜ q ⎟⎟ = m
n for some m, n ∈ Z, n ≠ 0.
⎝ ⎠
⎛ p⎞ ⎛p⎞
So f (p) = f ⎜⎜ q ⎟⎟ = qf ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = q m , since f is a homomorphism.
q q n
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Also f (p) = f (p ⋅ 1) = pf (1)
= p.
⎛m⎞
So p = q⎜ ⎟.
⎝n⎠
p
∴q = m
n.
⎛p⎞ p p
∴ f ⎜⎜ q ⎟⎟ = q ∀ q ∈ Q.
⎝ ⎠
i.e., f = I, the identity homomorphism.
Thus, the only automorphism of Q is I.
In fact, the only epimorphism from Q to Q is I.

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