Deadlocks - CH 8

Chapter 8: Deadlocks
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Outline
▪ System Model
▪ Deadlock Characterization
▪ Methods for Handling Deadlocks
▪ Deadlock Prevention
▪ Deadlock Avoidance
▪ Deadlock Detection
▪ Recovery from Deadlock
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Chapter Objectives
▪ Illustrate how deadlock can occur when mutex locks are used
▪ Define the four necessary conditions that characterize deadlock
▪ Identify a deadlock situation in a resource allocation graph
▪ Evaluate the four different approaches for preventing deadlocks
▪ Apply the banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance
▪ Apply the deadlock detection algorithm
▪ Evaluate approaches for recovering from deadlock
Deadlock
□ Permanent blocking of a set of processes that either compete for
system resources or communicate with each other
□ A set of blocked processes each holding a resource and waiting
to acquire a resource held by another process in the set
□ No efficient solution
□ Most OSes do not prevent or deal with deadlocks
□ But such features will probably be added soon
Deadlock
Deadlock
Example:
P0 P1
… … P0 P1
Request(Disk) Request(Printer)
… …
Request(Printer) Request(Disk)
… …
Release(Disk) Release(Printer) R0
… …
Release(Printer) Release(Disk) P0 P1
… …
R1
System Model
▪ System consists of resources

▪ Resource types R1, R2, . . ., Rm
• CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices
▪ Each resource type Ri has Wi instances.
▪ Each process utilizes a resource as follows:
• request
 If the request cannot be granted immediately, then the process
must wait until it can acquire the resource.
• use
• release
Deadlock with Semaphores
▪ Data:
• A semaphore S1 initialized to 1
• A semaphore S2 initialized to 1
▪ Two processes P1 and P2
▪ P1:
wait(s1)
wait(s2)
▪ P2:
wait(s2)
wait(s1)
Necessary Conditions for Deadlock
Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously (Coffman conditions):
1. Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource
2. Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to

acquire additional resources held by other processes
3. No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the

process holding it, after that process has completed its task
▪ The first three conditions are necessary but not sufficient for a deadlock
to exist
Necessary Conditions for Deadlock
Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously (Coffman conditions ):
4. Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, …, Pn} of waiting processes such
that
• P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1,
• P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P2,
• …, Pn–1 is waiting for a resource that is held by Pn,
• and Pn is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.

▪ The first three conditions are necessary but not sufficient for a deadlock
to exist
▪ For deadlock to actually take place, the fourth condition is required
Resource-Allocation Graph
A directed graph consists of: A set of vertices V and a set of edges E.
▪ V is partitioned into two types:

• P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the
system
• R = {R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the
system
▪ E is also portioned into two types:

• request edge – directed edge Pi  Rj
• assignment edge – directed edge Rj  Pi
Resource Allocation Graph Example
▪ One instance of R1
▪ Two instances of R2
▪ One instance of R3
▪ Three instance of R4
▪ T1 holds one instance of R2 and is waiting for an
instance of R1
▪ T2 holds one instance of R1, one instance of R2,
and is waiting for an instance of R3
▪ T3 is holds one instance of R3
Deadlock?
Resource Allocation Graph
Deadlock?
Resource Allocation Graph
R0
P0 P1
R1
Deadlock?
Basic Facts
▪ If graph contains no cycles  no deadlock

▪ If graph contains a cycle 
• if only one instance per resource type, then deadlock
• if several instances per resource type, possibility of deadlock
Methods for Handling Deadlocks
▪ Ostrich
• Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never
occur in the system
• Used by most operating systems, including UNIX, Windows
▪ Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock state:

• Deadlock prevention
A set of methods for ensuring that at least one of the necessary conditions
cannot hold
• Deadlock avoidance
 Tries to avoid deadlock by delaying the requests which may result in a
deadlock.
 Requires additional information concerning which resources a process will
request and use during its life time.
▪ Allow the system to enter a deadlock state and then detect and recover
 Attempt to detect the presence of deadlock and take action to recover.
Deadlock Prevention
Invalidate one of the four necessary conditions for deadlock:
▪ Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources (e.g., read-only

files); must hold for non-sharable resources
• In general, the first of the four listed conditions cannot be disallowed
• If access to a resource requires mutual exclusion, then mutual
exclusion must be supported by the OS.
▪ Hold and Wait

• must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it
does not hold any other resources
Deadlock Prevention
□ Hold and Wait (Cont.)

□ 1. Require a process request all of its required resources at one
time (e.g., at the beginning)
□ 2. Allow process to request resources only when the process has none
■ i.e., before a process can request any additional resources, it must release
all the resources that it is currently allocated
□ Disadvantages
■ Low resource utilization
■ Starvation possible: a process that needs several popular resources

may have to wait indefinitely
Deadlock Prevention
□ No Preemption
□ If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource
that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently
being held are implicitly released
□ Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the
process is waiting
□ Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as
well as the new ones that it is requesting
Deadlock Prevention
□ No Preemption (Cont.)
□ Disadvantage
■ It is often applied to resources whose state can be easily saved and restored
later, such as CPU registers
■ It cannot generally be applied to such resources as printers and tape drives
□ Circular Wait
□ Impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each
process requests resources in an increasing order of enumeration
Deadlock Prevention
3
R0
P0 P1
R1
5
□ Circular Wait (Cont.)

□ Disadvantage: It is up to application developers to write programs that
follow the ordering
Deadlock Avoidance
□ In deadlock prevention, we constrain resource requests which leads to
inefficient use of resources and inefficient execution of processes
□ With deadlock avoidance, a decision is made dynamically whether the current

resource allocation request will potentially lead to a deadlock
□ Deadlock avoidance thus requires knowledge of future process resource

requests
Safe State
□ A state is safe if the system can allocate resources to each process (up to its
maximum) in some order and still avoid a deadlock (i.e., all of the processes can
be run to completion)
□ System is in safe state if there exists a sequence <P1, P2, …, Pn> of ALL the
processes in the systems such that for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still
request can be satisfied by currently available resources plus resources held
by all the Pj, with j < i
Safe, Unsafe, Deadlock State
□ If a system is in safe state  no deadlocks

□ If a system is in unsafe state  possibility of
deadlock
□ Avoidance  ensure that a system will

never enter an unsafe state
□ When a process requests an available
resource, system must decide if immediate
allocation leaves the system in a safe state
Avoidance Algorithms
▪ Single instance of a resource type
• Use a resource-allocation graph
▪ Multiple instances of a resource type

• Use the Banker’s Algorithm
Resource-Allocation Graph Scheme
▪ Claim edge Pi  Rj indicated that process Pj may request resource Rj;
represented by a dashed line
▪ Claim edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resource
▪ Request edge converted to an assignment edge when the resource is allocated
to the process
▪ When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts
to a claim edge
▪ Resources must be claimed a priori in the system
Resource-Allocation Graph
Unsafe State In Resource-Allocation Graph
Banker’s Algorithm
□ The banker’s algorithm is used when we have Multiple instances of a

resource type
□ For Single instance of a resource type, we can use resource-allocation graph
(see Silberschatz)
□ The name was chosen because the algorithm could be used in a

banking system to ensure that the bank never allocated its available cash
in such a way that it could no longer satisfy the needs of all its customers
□ A new process must declare the maximum number of instances of each

resource type that it may need (weakness of this algorithm)
Data Structures for Banker’s Alg.
□ These data structures encode the state of the resource-allocation system
□ Let n be the number of processes, and m be the number of resources
types
□ Resource: Vector of length m indicates total amount of each resource
in the system.
□ Available: Vector of length m indicates the number of available resources
of each type.
□ If available[j] = k, there are k instances of resource type Rj available
Data Structures for Banker’s Alg.
□ Max: n  m matrix defines the maximum demand of each process. If
Max [i, j] = k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of
resource type Rj
□ Allocation: n  m matrix. If Allocation[i, j] = k then Pi is currently allocated

k instances of Rj
□ Need: n  m matrix. If Need[i, j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances

of Rj to complete its task
□ Need [i, j] = Max[i, j] – Allocation[i, j]
Banker’s Algorithm: an Example
Is the system safe?

R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
Resource = 5 7 2 3 Avail = 1 1 0 1
R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
P0 1 0 2 3 P0 1 0 0 2 P0 0 0 2 1
P1 2 3 1 0 P1 1 2 0 0 P1 1 1 1 0
P2 0 2 1 1 P2 0 1 1 0 P2 0 1 0 1
P3 4 3 1 1 P3 2 3 1 0 P3 2 0 0 1
P4 2 2 2 1 P4 0 0 0 0 P4 2 2 2 1
Max Allocation Need
P2 P1 P3 P0 P4
(1,1,0,1) (1,2,1,1) (2,4,1,1) (4,7,2,1) (5,7,2,3) (5,7,2,3)
P4 asks for an instance of R0, is it allocated?

R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
Resource = 5 7 2 3 Avail= 0 1 0 1
R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
P0 1 0 2 3 P0 1 0 0 2 P0 0 0 2 1
P1 2 3 1 0 P1 1 2 0 0 P1 1 1 1 0
P2 0 2 1 1 P2 0 1 1 0 P2 0 1 0 1
P3 4 3 1 1 P3 2 3 1 0 P3 2 0 0 1
P4 2 2 2 1 P4 1 0 0 0 P4 1 2 2 1
Max Allocation Need
P2
(0,1,0,1) (0,2,1,1)
P1 asks for an instance of R0, is it allocated?
R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
Resource = 5 7 2 3 Avail= 0 1 0 1
R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3 R0 R1 R2 R3
P0 1 0 2 3 P0 1 0 0 2 P0 0 0 2 1
P1 2 3 1 0 P1 2 2 0 0 P1 0 1 1 0
P2 0 2 1 1 P2 0 1 1 0 P2 0 1 0 1
P3 4 3 1 1 P3 2 3 1 0 P3 2 0 0 1
P4 2 2 2 1 P4 0 0 0 0 P4 2 2 2 1
Max Allocation Need
P2 P1 P3 P0 P4
(0,1,0,1) (0,2,1,1) (2,4,1,1) (4,7,2,1) (5,7,2,3) (5,7,2,3)
Safety Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively
Initialize:
Work =Available
Finish[i] = false for i = 0, 1, …, n -1
2. Find an i such that both:

(a) Finish[i] = false
(b) Needi  Work
If no such i exists, go to step 4
3. Work = Work + Allocationi

Finish[i] = true
go to step 2
4. If Finish [i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe state
Resource-Request Algorithm
1. If Requesti  Needi go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition, since
process has exceeded its maximum claim
2. If Requesti  Available, go to step 3. Otherwise Pi must wait, since
resources are not available
3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as

follows:
Available = Available – Request;
Allocationi = Allocationi + Requesti ;
Needi = Needi – Requesti ;
• If safe the resources are allocated to Pi
• If unsafe Pi must wait, and the oldresource-allocation state is restored
Note: Request = request vector for process Pi. If Requesti [j] = k then process Pi
wants k instances of resource type Rj
Banker’s Algorithm Disadvantages
□ Maximum resource requirement must be stated in advance
□ There must be a fixed number of resources to allocate
□ The algorithm is very conservative
□ It limits access to resources
Deadlock Detection and Recovery
□ If a system does not employ either a deadlock prevention or a deadlock
avoidance algorithm, then a deadlock situation may occur
□ Then, the system must provide

□ An algorithm that examines the state of the system to determine
whether a deadlock has occurred
□ An algorithm to recover from the deadlock

Deadlock Detection
Single Instance of Each Resource Type
▪ Use resource-allocation graph or a variant of it, called a wait-for graph
▪ Maintain wait-for graph
• Nodes are processes
• Pi Pj if Pi is waiting for Pj
▪ Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph. If there is
a cycle, there exists a deadlock
▪ An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an order of n2 operations,
where n is the number of vertices in the graph
Resource-Allocation Graph Corresponding wait-for graph
Deadlock Detection
□ Several instances of each resource type

□ The algorithm is very similar to the banker’s algorithm, with two main
differences
■ The matrices Max and Need are replaced with an n  m matrix Request indicates
the current request of each process. If Request[i][j] = k, then process Pi is requesting
k more instances of resource type Rj
■ If a process has a row in the Allocation matrix of all zeros, then it is marked as
finished.
□ If there are unmarked processes at the end of the algorithm, these

processes are deadlocked
Deadlock Detection: an Example
□ Is there a deadlock in the system?
R0 R1 R2 R 3 R4 R0 R1 R2 R 3 R4
Resource = 2 1 1 2 1 Avail = 0 0 0 0 1
R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R0 R1 R2 R3 R4
P0 1 0 1 1 0 P0 0 1 0 0 1
P1 1 1 0 0 0 P1 0 0 1 0 1
P2 0 0 0 1 0 P2 0 0 0 0 1
P3 0 0 0 0 0 P3 1 0 1 0 1
Allocation Request
P2
(0,0,0,0,1) (0,0,0,1,1) Yes, P0 and P1 are deadlocked
Detection Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively

Initialize:
a) Work = Available
b) For i = 1,2, …, n, if Allocationi < 0, then
Finish[i] = false; otherwise, Finish[i] = true
2. Find an index i such that both:

a) Finish[i] == false
b) Requesti < Work
If no such i exists, go to step 4
Detection Algorithm (Cont.)
3. Work = Work + Allocationi

Finish[i] = true
go to step 2
4. If Finish[i] == false, for some i, 1  i  n, then the system is in
deadlock state. Moreover, if Finish[i] == false, then Pi is deadlocked
Algorithm requires an order of O(m x n2) operations to detect

whether the system is in deadlocked state
Deadlock Recovery
□ Abort all deadlocked processes
□ One of the most common solution adopted in operating systems
□ Expensive solution
□ Back up each deadlocked process to some previously defined checkpoint,

and restart all process
□ Original deadlock may occur again
□ System requires rollback and restart mechanisms

Detection-Algorithm Usage
▪ When, and how often, to invoke depends on:
• How often a deadlock is likely to occur?
• How many processes will need to be rolled back?
 one for each disjoint cycle

▪ If detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be many cycles in
the resource graph and so we would not be able to tell which of the
many deadlocked processes “caused” the deadlock.
Deadlock Recovery
□ Successively abort deadlocked processes until deadlock no
longer exists
□ Incurs considerable overhead, since after each process is aborted, a
deadlock-detection algorithm must be invoked
□ Successively preempt resources until deadlock no longer exists

Deadlock Recovery
□ The last two methods requires some selection criteria to choose
the victim process
□ Choose the process with the
□ least amount of processor time consumed so far
□ least amount of output produced so far
□ most estimated time remaining
□ least total resources allocated so far
□ lowest priority
Recovery from Deadlock: Resource Preemption
▪ Selecting a victim – minimize cost
▪ Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process for that state
▪ Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim, include

number of rollback in cost factor
End of Chapter 8
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

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Chapter 8: Deadlocks

▪ System consists of resources

1. Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource

2. Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to

3. No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the

• P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1,

• P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P2,

• …, Pn–1 is waiting for a resource that is held by Pn,

• and Pn is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.

▪ For deadlock to actually take place, the fourth condition is required

▪ V is partitioned into two types:

▪ E is also portioned into two types:

▪ If graph contains no cycles  no deadlock

▪ Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock state:

▪ Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources (e.g., read-only

▪ Hold and Wait

□ Hold and Wait (Cont.)

■ Starvation possible: a process that needs several popular resources

□ Circular Wait (Cont.)

□ With deadlock avoidance, a decision is made dynamically whether the current

□ Deadlock avoidance thus requires knowledge of future process resource

□ If a system is in safe state  no deadlocks

□ Avoidance  ensure that a system will

▪ Multiple instances of a resource type

□ The banker’s algorithm is used when we have Multiple instances of a

□ The name was chosen because the algorithm could be used in a

□ A new process must declare the maximum number of instances of each

□ Allocation: n  m matrix. If Allocation[i, j] = k then Pi is currently allocated

□ Need: n  m matrix. If Need[i, j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances

Is the system safe?

P4 asks for an instance of R0, is it allocated?

2. Find an i such that both:

3. Work = Work + Allocationi

3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as

□ Then, the system must provide

□ An algorithm to recover from the deadlock

Resource-Allocation Graph Corresponding wait-for graph

□ Several instances of each resource type

□ If there are unmarked processes at the end of the algorithm, these

1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively

2. Find an index i such that both:

If no such i exists, go to step 4

3. Work = Work + Allocationi

Algorithm requires an order of O(m x n2) operations to detect

□ Back up each deadlocked process to some previously defined checkpoint,

□ System requires rollback and restart mechanisms

▪ When, and how often, to invoke depends on:

• How often a deadlock is likely to occur?

• How many processes will need to be rolled back?

 one for each disjoint cycle

□ Successively preempt resources until deadlock no longer exists

▪ Selecting a victim – minimize cost

▪ Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim, include

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