Lecture 1: Quantities

Charge is quantised.
The charge of one electron = -e
The charge of one proton = +e
The S.I unit of charge is coulomb
It is approximately equivalent to 6.24 × 1018 electrons
Charge of an electron -1.60217662 × 10-19 coulombs
Charge of a proton + 1.60217662 × 10-19 coulombs
Number of protons = number of electrons
Net charge = 0
If an atom loses electrons positive charge dominates.
Qnet >0
If an atom gains electrons negative charge dominates
Qnet <0
I = dq/dt
LAW OF CONSERVATION CHARGE
Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed it can only transferred from one body to
another. The net quantity of charge is always conserved.
The Equation of continuity is based on principle of mass.
The continuity equation says that if charge is moving out of a differential volume (i.e.
divergence of current density is positive) then the amount of charge within that volume is
going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge density is negative.
∇∙j = -(∂ρ/∂t) 
∇∙j > 0 positive charge is flowing outside the differential volume (unit A/m2)
-(∂ρ/∂t) the negative sign shows the rate of decrease of the charge Q.( unit C/m3)

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Current means the movement in particular direction. The movement of electrons from one
end of the material to the other end constitutes an electric current. I = Q (ampere)
Where, I is the current, Q is the charge T is the time
The current through a circuit element is the time derivative of the electric charge i.e.
i = dq/dt (c/s) or (Ampere) Where, dq is small change in charge. dt is small change in time.
Electric current is the movement of transfer of electric charge through an area is called
current or the time rate of flow of charge in particular direction.
Electric current can be carried by ions (ex: plasma) and can’t be carried by atoms.
S.I unit of electric current A or ampere.
Types of current
1) Direct current
2) Ac current
3) Exponential current (damped A.C)
Ampere is a unit of electric current equal to a flow of one coulomb per second per unit area
(1c/(m2.1s)
Conventional current vs electron current
The electron moves from negative charge to positive charge outside the battery so it is called
as electron current or natural current. Electron current is entering the positive terminal and
leaving the negative terminal.
The conventional current have the direction opposite of natural current of electric current.
The conventional current leaves the positive terminal and entering the negative terminal.
SCALAR has only magnitude
Vector has magnitude and direction and should satisfies all laws of vector.
Current has magnitude and direction but fails to obey vector law hence current is a scalar
quantity.
VOLTAGE
All opposite charges possess a certain amount of potential energy because of the separation between
them. The difference is potential energy of the charges is called the potential difference. The potential
difference in electrical terminology is known as voltage, and is denoted either by ‘V’ or ‘v’. Voltage is
expressed in terms of energy (W) per unit charge (Q) i.e.
V = W/ Q Or ν = dw/ dq
(J/c) or (volt)
Where, dw is the small change in energy dq is the small change in charge.
One Volt, is the potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to pass one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other
Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as Voltage and is denoted either by V
or v. It is expressed in terms of energy per unit charge. The work or energy per unit charge
utlised in the process of separation of charges is known as Voltage or Potential difference.
The unit of voltage or potential difference is volts.
The phenomenon of transfer of charge from one point to another is termed Current. The rate
at which the work is done is called Power. Charge per unit voltage is Capacitance
ENERGY
Energy is capacity for doing work. Energy may exist in many forms such as mechanical, chemical;
electrical is called ‘Joule’. Energy is denoted by ‘W’. The energy delivered to a circuit element over
the time interval (to, t) is given by
Electric power
The rate of change of energy is called as power. The amount of electrical energy transferred
per unit time by an electric circuit/ element is known as electric power .
When the current enter positive terminal the power is absorbed. + ve sign
When the current leave positive terminal the power is delivered. – ve sign
It is denoted by ‘P’ or ‘p’, unit of power is ‘Watts’.

P = v × I watts
So, the instantaneous power p(t) delivered to a circuit element is the product of the instantaneous
value of voltage v(t) and current i(t) of the element
P = v(t) × i(t)
Relation between power, voltage and conductance
P= v2G
P= (v2 /R)

Short circuit
Short circuit is a abnormal connection between two nodes of an electrical circuit that allows
a current to travel along an uninterrupted path with no or very low resistance.
Ideally R = 0, V= 0, I= infinite
Practically R = 0, V= 0, I= finite
Open circuit
Ideally R = infinite, I = 0, V= Infinite
Practically R = infinite, I = 0, V= Finite
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
ELEMENTS
In terms of the atomic theory concept, an electric current in an element is the time rate of
flow of free electrons in the element.
The material may be classified as
• Conductors, where availability of free electrons is very large, as in the case metals.
• Insulators, where the availability of free electrons is rare, as in case of glass, mica, plastics
etc.
• Other materials, such as germanium and silicon called semiconductors, may play a
significant role in electronics. Thermally generated electrons are available as free electrons at
room temperature, and act as conductors, but at 0 Kelvin they act as insulator.
Circuit
An interconnection of electrical elements such that closed path is available for the flow of
current/ charge.
Network
An interconnection of network elements which may or may not have closed path available is
called network.
Every circuit is a network, but all networks are not circuits.
Node
When two or more elements are connected together then the common point is called as node.
Degree
Number of elements connected to a node is called as degree of node. (del)
Two types of node 1) simple node 2) principal node
Simple node
When two elements are connected together then the common point is called as simple
node. Current division doesn’t happen. Del =2
Principal node
When more than two elements are connected together then the common point is called as
principal node. Current division happen. Del greater than 2
Simple node
Whenever 2 points in a network connected by a wire or line then it is considered as simple
node
Branch
Represents an element that connects two nodes together.

5) Loop
A closed path in a network i.e. the path starts & ends at same point.
6) MESH
A loop in which we can’t form any smaller loops.
Number of mesh in a network
m = b-n+1
7) planar network and non-planar network

A junction where two or more that two network elements meet is known as a node.

Types of circuit element

1) Linear and non-linear
Voltage varies linearly with current. In any linear network, the elements like
inductor, resistor and capacitor always remains constant irrespective of change in
temperature, voltage and time. Thermistor is an example of non linear element.
2) Active and passive
Electrical energy generated or consumed. Active elements are capable of delivering
power to some external devices. Eg voltage/ current source, transistor generators. op-amp
Is an active element bcause it can be used for the amplification or generation of signals.
Passive elements stores energy or dissipates in the form of heat is called passive elements.
Resistor, capacitor and inductor are examples for passive elements.
3) Bilateral or unilateral
Property of element with change direction of voltage supply
4) Distributed or lumbed
Geometry
5) Time variant and time invariant
Time invariant  Independent of time

Resistance
Resistance is directly proportional to its length, inversely proportional to the area of cross
section of the conductor, depends on the nature of the material and on the temperature of the
conductor.
hm’s law states that the potential difference (voltage) across a conductor is proportional to
the current through it. The constant of proportionality is called the Resistance(R).
V1*R1= V2 *R2( directly proportional )
I1 I2
= ( inversely proportional)
R1 R2

Inductance
1) Stores energy in electromagnetic form
2) Current stiff element  current can’t suddenly change in inductor. Inductor doesn’t
allow sudden change of current
3) Practical inductor  some energy converted heat and energy LI2 STORE ENEGY IN
THE MAGNETIC FIELD
4) Inductance of an inductor, L = µN2A/l
From the above equation, Inductance of an inductor is inversely proportional to its
length.
 5) V = L didt
dE = Vidt = L didtidt = Lidt
E = ∫I0dE=∫I0Lidt=12LI2.
6) L = 3 mH, i = 5(1 – e-5000t)
V = L didt=3×10−3ddt[5(1−e−5000t)]=75e−5000t
I = i(∞) = 5(1 – e-∞) = 5 A
E = 12 LI2 = 0.5 × 3 × 10-3 × 52 = 37.5 mJ.
7) It stores energy in a magnetic field and hence obeys 1) biot sarvat law and amperes
law
Amperes law: closed loop integral of magnetic field (H) is equal to the current threading
through the loop
Inductance

8) Stores energy in electromagnetic form

9) Current stiff element  current can’t suddenly change in inductor. Inductor doesn’t allow sudden change of
current
10) Practical inductor  some energy converted heat and energy LI 2 STORE ENEGY IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Unit: The unit of inductance is Henry. Weber is the unit of magnetic flux. Tesla is the unit of
flux density. Farad is the unit of capacitance.

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
1) Capacitance stores some energy in the electrostatic form
2) 2 parallel late separated by a distance d, one plate store positive charge and another
plate store a negative charge
3) Stores in electrostatic form
1 1
4) Energy c ∫ vdv  2 cv2  Energy stored in a capacitor, E = 2 cv2  
dv
5) If voltage is constant (dc) dt = 0, I = 0 steady state condition, charge in capacitor is
constant , charge cant change instantaneously
6) No sudden change in voltage
7) Dipole is nothing but an insulator which has dipole induced in it
8) To rotate dipole in 180 we need a energy we call it as dielectric loss
9)  C = Ɛ Ad
Where d is the distance between the plates, A is the cross-sectional area of the plates
and Ɛ is absolute permittivity of the medium between the plates.
Hence, the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the absolute permittivity of the
medium between the plates.
10)  At t=0+, the capacitor starts charging to a particular voltage and acts as a
voltage source.
Capacitance

11) stores some energy

12) 2 parallel late separated by a distance d, one plate store positive charge and another plate store a negative
charge
 13) Stores in electrostatic form
1 2
14) Energy c ∫ vdv  cv
2
dv
15) If voltage is constant (dc) = 0, I = 0 steady state condition, charge in capacitor is constant , charge cant
dt
change instantaneously
16) No sudden change in voltage
17) Dipole is nothing but an insulator which has dipole induced in it
18) To rotate dipole in 180 we need a energy we call it as dielectric loss
19)

The basic network element which supplies energy to the networks is Source
 Energy sources (voltage or current sources) are active elements, capable of delivering power
to some external device.  If the voltage source is to be neglected, it can be replaced simply
by means of a wire i.e, it should be short circuited.
Currents source
1) An ideal current source has zero internal conductance
2) For the ideal current sources, the current is completely independent of voltage and it
has infinte internal resistance.
3) A practical current source could be represented with a resistor in parallel with an ideal
current source.
4)  As the ideal current source has infinite resistance, it can be neglected by open
circuiting the terminals.
Voltage source
1) An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance
2)  A practical voltage source can be represented with a resistance in series with the
source. Hence, there would be some voltage drop at the resistor and the terminal
voltage is always lower than the source emf
3) A practical voltage source could be represented with a resistor in series with an ideal
voltage source.
4) Even on changing the values of linear resistors, the voltage remains constant in case of
ideal voltage source.
5) Voltage source is an active element and is unilateral.
6)  A voltage source with resistance in series can be replaced with a current source with
the resistance in parallel.

Dependent sources can either be current sources or voltage sources.

The dependent sources are of four kinds, depending on whether the control variable is
voltage or current and the controlled source is a voltage source or current source. They are
VCVS, VCCS, CCVS and CCCS.
In CCVS, voltage is directly proportional to the control current. The constant of
proportionality is called Transresistance(r).
V = RI
The interconnection of two or more circuit elements is called a Network. If the network
contains at least one closed path, it is called a Circuit.
If the resistance, inductance or capacitance offered by an element does not change linearly
with the change in applied voltage or circuit current, the element is termed as a non-linear
element. Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor are the examples of linear elements. Thermistor is
an example of Non-Linear element.
A non-linear circuit element is one in which the current does not change linearly with the
change in applied voltage. Examples of non-linear elements are VDR, thermistor and LDR.
Hence resistor is the odd one.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Basic Laws and analysis of circuit
Ohms law
The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit,
provide the temperature remains constant
I=(V/R)
V=IR
Uses
1) Applicable for both lumped and distributed elements
Limitations
2) Ohms law is valid only at a constant temperature
3) Not applicable to the non – linear devices such as diode, Zener diodes, voltage
regulators etc.
4) It does not hold good for non -metallic conductors such as silicon carbide.
Kirchoff’s law
KCL states that the total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the total current
flowing away from that junction point.
KVL states that for any closed path the sum of voltage drop across the circuit element is
equal the sum of voltage raise in the circuit.
1) Applicable for both linear and non-linear elements.
2) Applicable for both AC and DC. Symmetrical . Reciprocal
5) Average value of ac current is zero
6) For finding average value find the area and at last divide by x axis value i.e t
The basic laws for analysing an electric circuit are Kirchoff’s law.
A junction where two or more than two network elements meet are known as node.

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

Sum of incoming currents is equal to the
sum of outgoing current. Algebraic sum of voltages around any
Algebraic sum of all currents for any node is closed path in a network is equal to zero.
zero.
1) Law of conservation of charge Law of conservation of energy
2)Applied at node Applied around closed loop or mesh
3)We can’t write KCL equation at a node We can’t write any KVL equation in a
where voltage source is connected because closed loop which contains a current source
 the current through the voltage source is since voltage across the current source is
unknown pure arbitrary

a) Impedance in serial
b) Impedance in parallel
c) Star- delta transformation
d) voltage current division rule
d) Source transformation

Nodal analysis Mesh current analysis

To find voltage To find current
Node voltage  branch voltage kcl Loop current  branch current  kvl
KCL + ohms law KVL + ohms law
If innumerable branches are present in
parallel configuration in a network, node
method approves to be extensively
beneficial for network analysis.
Steps Steps
1) Identify total number of nodes 1) Identify total number of meshes
2) Assign one of the nodes to ground 2) Assign mesh currents
node. i.e. voltage of that node is 3) Develop KVL equation.
always zero (reference node). Assign KVL + ohms law = mesh analysis
voltage at each node. 4) Solve the equation
3) Kcl + ohm’s law = nodal analysis.
Develop the KCL equation for each
non-reference node.
4) Solve the KCL equation
Find the principal node. Current division Direction of current is clockwise
takes place only in principal node and not in
simple node. We may neglect simple node
and one of the principle node is considered
as a reference node. Reference node is also
called datum node
Number of equations required for an For any circuit number of mesh required
electrical network is m= b-n+1 (M=b-(n-1))
E= N-1 b – branch
n- node
Applicable to both planar and non-planar Apply only to planar networks
networks
Case 1: When current source present in the circuit
When the voltage source is connected Type 1 and type 2
between the reference node and non- Type 1: Current source present only in one
reference node. mesh and not shared by any other mesh.
Case 2: Easy
When the voltage source is connected Type 2: super mesh when a current source is
between the two non- reference node. present between two meshes we remove the
Super node analysis. branch having the current source and the
 remaining loop is known as super mesh

Calculation of potential in an element and battery inside - to +  + ve potential

 + to -  - ve potential
a) Power sources in electric circuit
Power absorbed by an element is positive.
Power delivered by an element is negative

Open circuit
 Passive element connected in series with o.c can be neglected.
Short circuit
 Passive element connected parallel with s.c can be neglected.
Voltage source
 To find equivalent resistance short circuit all voltage source
Current source
 To find equivalent resistance opent circuit all current source
Equivalent resistance:
For dc circuit Resistance alone is considered, for ac circuits all elements are considered
Condition for bridge to be balance
 Multiply diagonal elements of bridge if it is balanced neglect the center element
 If none of the resistance is in series or parallel, the resistace should have formed a
balanced bridge.
 In infinite series of resistance, equare req on opposite side
 In infinite series of resistance is asymmetry, take symmetry part find rab and add to
the remaining resistance to find req
Calculation of output and input impedance
For o/p impedance calculation short circuit all independent voltage source and open circuit
all independent current source then apply V/I ohms law
For i/p impedance
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Theorems
We can remove only independent voltage and current source and not dependent voltage and
current source (superposition, Thevenine, Norton treated differently)
While calculating thevenine equivalent we generally
Open circuit  independent current source,
Short circuit  independent voltage source
Superposition
1. The voltage (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of
the voltages across (or current through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.
2. It can be applied only to linear and bilateral elements.
3. As it is applicable for only linear elements only current and voltage can be finding it
cannot be used to find nonlinear parameter like power.
 4. Based on the principles of homogeneity and superposition.
5. Turned off:
It means all the independent sources are replaced by their internal resistances. We replace
every voltage source by 0V and current source by 0A.
Applicable only to Linear, active, bilinear elements
1) Short circuit all other independent voltage source
2) Open circuit all other independent current source
3) Do not touch and leave dependent sources as they are.
4) It cannot be applied to the non-linear circuit. Cannot be applied to power or energy
source as they are non-linear
Thevenin theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a network containing sources and resistors (linear bilateral)
an be represented as a voltage source in series with resistance across a pair of terminal a and
b.
Thevenin’s voltage is open circuit voltage across A and B.
Remove any element connected at A and B before computing Vth.
Thevenin’s resistance is resistance offered by a network looking into terminal a and b.
Case 1: network containing only independent source
1) Compute Voc across desired terminals by open circuiting any element connected in
those terminals.
2) Short circuit all other independent voltage source
3) Open circuit all other independent current source

Case 2: network containing only ependent source

1) Compute Voc across desired terminals by open circuiting any element connected in
those terminals.
2) Short circuit all other independent voltage source
3) Open circuit all other independent current source

4) Do not touch dependent source

5) Applicable to any circuit, does not dependent on types of sources or types of element
6) Can’t be applied to nonlinear and unilateral
Req=Rth +R. R is the resistance we remove to calculate Rth and Vth
Two port network
Symmetrical
When look brom both side the network looks alike. When look from symmetry both the
images look like a mirror image.
Reciprocal
When both the terminals are interchange the ratio of response to excitation remains the same
Types of 2 port network
Impedance parameter or z parameter or o.c. parameter
1) Superposition theorem
2) Open circuit
 3) i/p, o/p voltage components depends on the sum of two components one due to i1 and
other due to i2
Admittance parameter or y parameter or s.c parameter
1) Superposition theorem
2) Short circuit
3) i/p, o/p current components depends on the sum of two components one due to v1 and
other due to v2
h parameter or hybrid parameter
1) v1 and i2 are dependent variables
2) hybrid parameters are used to find out amplification of parameters Av and Ai
g parameter or inverse hybrid parameter (g)
1) i1 and v2 are dependent parameters
Transmission parameters or ABCD parameters
1) useful in analysis of circuits in cascade like transmission lines and cables. Also knows
as transmission parameters

sinusoidal analysis
condition for comparing two signals are they should have
1) same frequency
2) same form of expression i.e. all should be sine or all should be cosine
3) same sign in amplituted either + ve or – ve
phasor
a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid is called a phasor.
Rectangular form of complex number :
 1) low in parallel circuit branch

INSTANTANEOUS POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

The electric power at any instant of time is known as instantaneous power. Measured in
Watts. The instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by any element is equal to the product of the
instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and instantaneous current i(t) through it.
P(t) = v(t)*i(t)
V(t) = Vmcos(wt + θv)
I(t) = Im cos(wt + θi)
P(t) = Vmcos(wt + θv) * Im cos(wt + θi) ( 2 COS ACOS B = COS (A-B) + COS (A+B)
COS ACOS B = (½) COS (A-B) + (½)COS (A+B)
P(t) = (½)Vm Im cos( θv - θi) + (½)Vm Im cos(2wt+θv - θi)
(time independent ) (twice the frequency of V(t) and I(t) )
AVERAGE POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
Average power is the average of instantaneous power over one period.
Average power is independent of time.

RMS Value
The effectiveness of a voltage or current source in delivering power to a resistive load.
Calculation of power dissipation is an important aspect of this course. The calculation is easy
when the current is constant, but the periodic current is time varying. So we focus on the
effective current (rms current) of the periodic current. It is constant and yields same power
dissipation.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as a periodic current.
Apparent power and power factor

Complex power
Power triangle
Rms and average value of standard waveform