1.

Digital Multi-meter:
The instrument which uses electronic circuit to sense and measure any quantity or
parameter is called as electronic instrument.

 Connect an unknown resistor across its input probes. Keep rotary switch in the
position-1 (refer block diagram above). The proportional current flows through the
resistor, from constant current source. According to Ohm’s law voltage is produced
across it. This voltage is directly proportional to its resistance. This voltage is
buffered and fed to A-D converter, to get digital display in Ohms.
 Connect an unknown AC voltage across the input probes. Keep rotary switch in
position-2. The voltage is attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then
rectified to convert it into proportional DC voltage. It is then fed to A-D converter to
get the digital display in Volts.
 Current is indirectly measured by converting it into proportional voltage. Connect an
unknown AC current across input probes. Keep the switch in position-3. The current
is converted into voltage proportionally with the help of I-V converter and then
rectified. Now the voltage in terms of AC current is fed to A-D converter to get digital
display in Amperes.
 The DC current is also measured indirectly. Connect an unknown DC current across
input probes. Keep the switch in position-4. The current is converted into voltage
proportionally with the help of I-V converter. Now the voltage in terms of DC current
is fed to A-D converter to get the digital display in Amperes.
 Connect an unknown DC voltage across input probes. Keep the switch in position-5.
The voltage is attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then directly fed to A-
D converter to get the digital display in Volts.
Advantages of Digital Multi-meter:
 It offers automatic output display
 It ensures accuracy
 It has auto polarity functions.
 Disadvantages of Digital Multi-meter:

 It does not do well with measurement fluctuations.

 It is more expensive than the analog type.
 It can be difficult to find one for your specific needs.

2. Function Generator:
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different
types of waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are
sine-waves, triangular waves, square waves, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies
of such waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred

kHz.

 The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources.

Current supply source 1 supplies a constant current to the integrator whose
output voltage rises linearly with time.
 An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of the
output voltage and thus controls the frequency.
 The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined
maximum level, of the integrator output voltage.
 This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and switches to
the supply source 2. The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to
the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time.
 When the output attains a predetermined level, the voltage comparator again
changes state and switches on to the current supply source.
 The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on
the current supplied by the constant current supply sources.
 The comparator output provides a square wave of the same frequency as
output.
  The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its
amplitude changes and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1%
distortion.

Advantages of Function Generator:

 Different waveform upto MHz frequency can be generated

 It can be used to generate square, sine, triangular and sawtooth waveforms
 Calibration is internal
Disadvantages of Function Generator:

 They are usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable
frequency signals

3. Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO):

The digital oscilloscope digitises and stores the input signal. This can be done
by the use of CRT (Cathode ray tube) and digital memory.

The digitisation can be done by taking the sample input signals at

periodic waveforms.

The maximum frequency of the signal which is measured by the digital

oscilloscope depends on the two factors. These factors are the

1. Sampling rate
2. Nature of converter.

 The input signal is sampled and stored in the shift register. From the
shift register, the signal is slowly read out and stored in the digital
form.
 Waveform Reconstruction
  For visualising the final wave, the oscilloscopes use the technique of
inter-polarization. The inter-polarization is the process of creating the
new data points with the help of known variable data points. Linear
interpolation and sinusoidal interpolation are the two processes of
connecting the points together.

Advantages of Digital Storage Oscilloscope:

 The cost of the digital storage oscilloscope is less.

 We have store the 15 wave form in internal memory.
 The stored wave form can be used for display for any large period by
providing power only to the memory.
 It stores the signal in digital form so prevents degradation.
 Easy to Use
 Peak detection
 Also slow traces like the temperature change in a day would be recorded.

DISADVANTAGES OF STORAGE CATHODE RAY TUBE:

 It can store the image only for a definite time. After that time period the image will
be lost.
 The trace produced is not as sharp as is produced by conventional C.R.Tubes.
 The writing speed is less compared to conventional C.R. Tubes.

4. Power Scope:
Block diagram of Power Scope is shown in figure.
  Normal oscilloscope has two input terminals, main and ground. The
ground terminal is always at zero potential.
 Power scope is used to observe waveforms of signals in any branch of
circuit. Even though none of the terminal of that branch is connected to
ground.
 Power scope is also used for high voltage circuits to observe high
amplitude waveforms.
 The block diagram shows that the power scope is similar to normal
oscilloscope except input circuit.
 The input circuit consists of attenuator and isolator. The attenuator
attenuates signal and reduces it amplitude so that it can be observed
on CRT screen. Normally attenuation factor is 20.
 The isolator isolates both the input terminals from external high
potential and external circuit from CRO ground.
 The vertical input range is from 50mV/div to 500V/div. The trace is
switched in two channels at the rate of 100 KHz. AC mode bandwidth
is 2 Hz to 15 MHz
 It have wide range of measurement capability, compact design, light
weight and high safety

5. Power Supply:
 The step-down transformer reduces the mains supply voltage
 Rectifier circuit converts bi-directional current to unidirectional current
 Filter circuit reduces ripples and makes it smooth DC
 Voltage regulator keeps the load voltage constant against the changes due to
supply voltage or load current
 Two types of regulators may be used,
1. Linear : Series, Shunt
2. Switching: Buck, Boost
 Regulator also rejects ripples and converts smooth DC to pure DC
 The output voltage can be adjusted by using Constant Voltage (CV) knob to
any value within the given range.
 The maximum current value can be adjusted by using Constant Current (CC)
knob.
 There are some protection circuits employed,
1. Current Limit Protection
2. Short Circuit Protection
3. High Voltage Protection
 The DC power supply is used for testing of circuit.

 The specifications of DC power supply are,

1. Output Voltage Range
2. Maximum Current Range
3. Line and Load Regulation
4. Ripple Rejection.
6. Auto Transformer:

• It consists of only single winding which is common to both primary and secondary winding

• It has two end terminals ( PR) acts as primary and one end terminal ( either P or R ) and inter
mediate terminal Q acts as a secondary winding

• The position of the intermediate terminal Q determines whether auto – transformer works
as step down transformer or step up transformer

• The theory and operation of the auto-transformer is similar to that of conventional two
winding transformer

• The auto transformer is cheaper than the ordinary transformer because of single winding
uses less copper than the two winding

• Since the voltage / turn is equal in both winding, the voltage develops across each winding
depends on number of turns

• Used for starting of synchronous motor and induction motor

• It is used as a furnace transformer

• It is used as laboratory equipment

• Light dimmer

7. Analog DC Voltmeter & Ammeter:

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Galvanometer

• The PMMC instrument have following parts,

• Permanent Magnet

• Soft Iron Cylinder for damping of movement

• Moving coil

• Pointer

• Scale

• Mirror

• Counter weight

• The current to be measured is passed through moving coil. This produces electromagnetic
field.

• This electromagnetic field and permanent magnetic field interacts and torque is developed
on pointer proportional to current flowing through the moving coil.

• The pointer displaces but its movement is damped using soft iron cylinder.

• The pointer indicates value of current printed on scale

Conversion of Galvanometer into DC Ammeter:

• The galvanometer is used as an ammeter by connecting the low resistance wire in parallel
with the galvanometer.

Multi-range Ammeter:

Conversion of Galvanometer into DC voltmeter:

 • The galvanometer is used as a voltmeter by connecting the high resistance in series with the
circuit.

Multi-range Voltmeter:

Advantages:
 Better visual indication
 Less effect of noise
 Simple in construction
 Low cost
Disadvantages:
 Less accuracy
 No interface with other equipment
 Large in size
 Low precession
 Mounting limitations