Topic 1

Outline the eight characteristics of living things.

➔ Movement = To move and relocate from one location to another.
➔ Respiration = To break down glucose in order to create and release energy.
➔ Sensitivity = To respond and adapt to changes in the environment.
➔ Homeostasis = To maintain optimal living conditions in the body.
➔ Growth = To change increasingly in size over a period of time.
➔ Reproduction = To produce new generations of offspring sexually and asexually.
➔ Excretion = To rid one’s body of natural waste.
➔ Nutrition = To obtain nutrients by creating and consuming food.

State the three aspects of cell theory.

➔ All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
➔ The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in living organisms.
➔ All cells come from pre-existing cells.

List the characteristics of viruses.

➔ Tiny particles (smaller than bacteria).
➔ Can infect every type of organism.
➔ Have no cellular structure however always have a protein coat.
➔ Can only reproduce/multiply when infecting a host (parasitic).
➔ Are not a part of a kingdom.
➔ Have a variety of shapes and sizes.
➔ Contain either DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) or RNA (Ribonucleic Acid).

Describe the functions of cell organelles; compare and contrast plant and animal cells.
Plant Cell Animal Cell

Mitochondria = Powerhouse of the cell; where ATP Mitochondria = Powerhouse of the cell; where ATP
(energy) is produced. (energy) is produced.

Golgi Apparatus = Membrane system that processes Golgi Apparatus = Membrane system that processes
proteins and lipids for export. proteins and lipids for export.

Nucleus = Control center of the cell containing genetic Nucleus = Control center of the cell containing genetic
information. information.

Nucleolus = Where ribosomes are produced. Nucleolus = Where ribosomes are produced.

Vacuole = Maintains pressure against the cell wall. Vacuole = Maintains pressure against the cell wall.
Filled with cell sap, larger than in animal cells. Filled with cell sap, smaller than in plant cells.

Chloroplast = Plastid that undergoes photosynthesis; No chloroplast.

contains green pigment called chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm = The gel-like fluid that fills up the cell. Cytoplasm = The gel-like fluid that fills up the cell.

Ribosome = Small particles of RNA and protein; Ribosome = Small particles made of RNA and protein;
converts the genetic code to amino acids (polypeptide converts the genetic code to amino acids (polypeptide
synthesis). synthesis).

Lysosome = Digests excess substances using enzymes. Lysosome = Digests excess substances using enzymes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum = Produces and stores protein Endoplasmic Reticulum = Produces and stores protein
and fat in the cell. and fat in the cell.
 Cell Membrane = Thin barrier that controls what enters Cell Membrane = Thin barrier that controls what enters
and exits the cell. and exits the cell.

Cell Wall = Protects and supports the cell structure. No cell wall.

Nuclear Membrane = Thin structure that surrounds the Nuclear Membrane = Thin structure that surrounds the
nucleus for protection; separates nuclear contents from nucleus for protection; separates nuclear contents from
cytoplasm contents. cytoplasm contents.

Draw and label eukaryotic cells.

Draw and label prokaryotic cells.

Nucleoid = Where the DNA is located (DNA strand is called
genophore).
Plasmids = Circular DNA molecules.
Cell wall = Protects and supports the structure of a cell to prevent it
from bursting (lysis); made of peptidoglycan.
Slime capsule = A thick polysaccharide layer that prevents the cell
from drying out (desiccation) and being engulfed by phagocytes
(phagocytosis).
Flagella = Long projections containing proteins that enable
movement.
Pili = Hair-like extensions that enable adherence to a surface
(attachment) as well as mediating bacterial conjugation
(reproduction).

Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Both

➔ Unicellular. ➔ Multicellular. ➔ Contains a cell membrane.

➔ No nucleus. ➔ Contains a nucleus. ➔ Contains cytoplasm.
➔ Is smaller. ➔ Is bigger. ➔ Contains DNA.
➔ Most contain a cell wall. ➔ Some contain a cell wall. ➔ Contains Ribosomes.
 Topic 3
Outline the nutrients and functions required by an organism; list examples of foods containing the major nutrients.
Component Found in Body Function

Carbs Bread, pasta, rice (complex). The body’s main provider of energy. Glucose (short term
Sugar, fruit, syrup (simple). energy) in carbs goes into the blood and is then taken into
the body’s cells. It produces a fuel molecule called ATP.

Lipids Cheese, butter, avocadoes. Building blocks of cellular membranes, long term energy
storage, insulation, and make up hormones.

Protein Poultry, beans, legumes, nuts. Allows for proper metabolic reactions; growth, repair,
replace muscle tissues.

Vitamins A: carrots, lettuce, broccoli Healthy teeth, skull, soft tissue (vision)
B1: beef, nuts, oats Provides energy
B3: eggs, dairy, whole grains Converts food into glucose, respiration
B6: fish, bread, eggs Metabolism, creation of red blood cells
B12: fish, eggs, milk, meat Helps create DNA, prevents anemia
C: citrus fruits Makes skin, boosts immunity
D: eggs, cheese, sunlight Calcium and bone growth
E: almonds, spinach Protect cells from damage
K: leafy green vegetables Bone metabolism

Minerals Calcium (Ca): milk, cheese Muscle contraction, bone strength

Magnesium (Mg): fruits, nuts, seeds Immune system, nerve/muscle functions
Iron (Fe): spinach, fish, meat Blood production
Zinc (Zn): whole grains, milk Cell growth/division, immune system
Nitrate (NO3): plant fertilizers Nitrogen supply, plant growth
Sodium (Na): salt water, table salt Needed for function of nervous system

Water Fruits, fresh water Important for temperature regulation; needed in blood.

State the molecules of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins; distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats.
Carbohydrates
Starch Cellulose Glycogen
polymer polymer polymer

Used to provide nutrients. Fibers in digestive system. Energy storage in muscle cells.

Proteins
Amino acids Proteins are polymers that are made up of chains of multiple amino acids bonded together
monomer (peptides). Amino acids are organic compounds of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Lipids
Glycerol Fatty Acids
monomer monomer

Provides long-term energy for cells; make up biological Saturated fat - fatty acid chain is single bonded.
membranes. Unsaturated fat - chain is double bonded.
 Disaccharides
Disaccharides = Sugars within the body that provide the body with a quick energy source,
➔ They’re only made of two sugar molecules so they can be easily digested by enzymes in the digestive
system then absorbed into the bloodstream.

Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Made by breakdown of starch; Made of two monosaccharides: Consists of glucose and galactose,
consists of two linked glucose units. glucose and fructose. naturally found in milk.

Label the digestive system; describe the functions and the parts of the digestive system; state the locations of the
digestive enzymes.
Alimentary canal = The vital organs of the digestive system aka the digestive tract.
Peristalsis = The process of food moving through the alimentary canal/digestive tract.
➔ Ingestion = The first stage of nutrition; food first enters the digestive system by being swallowed.
➔ Digestion = The second stage of nutrition; food is broken down by enzymes.
➔ Absorption = The third stage of nutrition; nutrients are absorbed from digested food.
➔ Assimilation = The fourth stage of nutrition; feces are formed.
➔ Egestion = The fifth stage of nutrition; feces are excreted from the body.

= vital organs = accessory organs

Mouth and Salivary Glands:

Food is chewed and broken down into small pieces; saliva
containing the amylase enzyme (maltose product, starch substrate) is
produced. This breaks down food so digestion can occur.

Pharynx/throat:
Receives food from the mouth from swallowing.

Esophagus:
Food travels down the esophagus and is carried down the stomach
through a series of contractions.

Stomach:
Sac-like organ with muscular walls; contains the pepsin enzyme
(peptide product, protein substrate) which aids the process of food
breakdown. The stomach has a very low pH (acidic) therefore is
lined with a thick layer of mucus on the inside to keep from burning
the rest of the body.

Pancreas:
Breaks down food and releases pancreatic juice into the blood with enzymes trypsin (protein substrate, peptide
product), lipase (lipid substrate, fatty acid and glycerol product) and amylase (starch substrate, maltose product).

Liver:
Processes nutrients absorbed by the small intestine, bile from the liver is secreted into the small intestine and is
important for the digestion of fat.

Small Intestine:
The main function of the small intestine is to absorb nutrients and minerals in food and transport it into the
bloodstream, this is where 90% of food digestion and absorption takes place. This function is achieved with the help
of the hydrochloric acid enzyme (HCl) which includes the substrate of starch (produces maltose) and the substrate of
protease (produces protein). Villi is found here.
Large Intestine:
Formation and storage of feces; absorbs water and Vitamin K.
Intestinal Juices:
Produced from the small and large intestine; uses the following enzymes…
Peptidase (substrate is peptides, produces amino acids)
Lipase (substrate is lipids, produces fatty acids and glycerol)
Maltase (substrate is maltose, produces glucose)
Lactase (substrate is lactose, produces galactose)

Appendix, Rectum:
Excretion.

Explain how the villi are adapted for absorption.

The villi are adapted for absorption as they have a large surface area as well
as a wide network of blood vessels called capillaries. Moreover, the villi
contain micro projections called microvilli which increase the efficiency of
the villi to absorb nutrients.

Describe the function of bile.

Bile produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder contains acids that help in the process of emulsification
(breakdown of lipids); bile also neutralizes stomach acids and pH levels due to its alkaline medium.

Distinguish between mechanical and chemical digestion.

Mechanical Chemical

➔ Break down of food into smaller particles that ➔ Compounds with high molecular weight in the
can then be digested, physical digestion. body are broken down and absorbed.
➔ Driven by teeth. ➔ Driven by enzymes.

Draw and label the structure of the respiratory system.

Explain the mechanism of ventilation.

1. Inhalation = During inhalation the diaphragm
contracts and pulls downward while the muscles
between the ribs contract and pull upward. As a result,
air rushes in and fills up the lungs.
2. Exhalation = During exhalation the
diaphragm relaxes while the pressure within it
increases. Resulting in the lungs contracting and the
air being forced out.

Suggest how the alveoli are adapted for gas exchange.

Alveoli are adapted to undergo gas exchange in the lungs in an easy
and efficient manner. They do this by providing the lungs with a
larger surface area. Their walls are moist, thin (one cell width) and
they contain tiny blood vessels called capillaries.

State the functions of the circulatory system.

➔ Circulates oxygen and discards carbon dioxide in the body.
➔ Transports and delivers nutrients and hormones throughout
the body.
➔ Maintains healthy blood flow.
 ➔ Protects the body against infections and diseases.
➔ Regulates body temperature.

Outline the blood flow journey in the heart.

➔ Deoxygenated blood enters from the Vena Cava.
➔ Flows through the Right Atrium.
➔ Continues to the Right Ventricle.
➔ Flows through the Pulmonary Artery to the lungs.
➔ Becomes oxygenated in the Alveoli via gas
exchange.
➔ Oxygenated blood flows through the Pulmonary
Vein.
➔ Blood flows through the Left Atrium.
➔ Continues through the Left Ventricle.
➔ Blood flows through the Aorta and is widespread
throughout the body.

Compare and contrast capillaries, veins and arteries.

Capillaries ➔ Walls are very thin (one cell width) making gas exchange easier.
➔ The pressure can vary depending on blood flow.
➔ Does not contain valves.
➔ Large surface area allowing materials to be exchanged.

Veins ➔ Walls are very thin and elastic.

➔ Very low pressure because the walls are relatively thin. If the pressure is too high, the
veins will pop.
➔ Contains valves which prevent the backflow of blood.

Arteries ➔ Thick and muscular walls.

➔ Four layers (inner to outer) = Narrow central lumen, endothelium, thick inner layer of
muscle and elastin, thick outer layer of collagen fibers.
➔ Have high pressure, the pressure reaches its highest point when blood is pumped out of
the heart.
➔ Does not contain valves.

Outline the components of blood.

Plasma = Transports carbon dioxide, heat, hormones and nutrients; constitutes 55% of blood.
Platelets = Involved in blood clotting.
White Blood Cells = Produces antibodies (lymphocytes) and ingests pathogens (phagocytes) to prevent disease.
➔ Lymphocytes make up 30% of white blood cells; Phagocytes make up 70% of white blood cells.
Red Blood Cells = Transports oxygen. Hemoglobin is a molecule in red blood cells that give them their pigments
due to its iron components. This molecule assists the red blood cells in releasing oxygen throughout the body.

Topic 4
Compare and contrast active and passive transport; outline examples of where transport occurs.
Active = Movement of particles from a hypertonic to hypotonic state with energy.
Examples:
➔ Endocytosis
➔ Exocytosis
Passive = Movement of particles from a hypotonic to hypertonic state without energy.
Examples:
➔ Osmosis
Diffusion
Diffusion = Transport of substances from a hypotonic to hypertonic state.
 Simple diffusion = The transport of molecules through a cell membrane from a hypotonic to hypertonic
state throughout the phospholipid bilayer.
Facilitated diffusion = The diffusion of molecules from a hypotonic to hypertonic state with the assistance
of the protein channels.
Osmosis = The transport of solvent substances across a semipermeable membrane from a hypotonic to hypertonic
state.
Examples:
➔ Plant transpiration through roots
➔ Flaccid vegetables in water
Solvent = Able to dissolve other substances.
Solute = Dissolved by the solvent.

Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis = A process where cells absorb substances via the phospholipid bilayer of cell membrane.
Exocytosis = A process where cells transport materials from within the cell to the extracellular fluid. It occurs when
a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
Protein channels = Transport solutes from high concentration to low concentration down the concentration gradient
across a biological membrane. Uses carrier proteins such as Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

Lower solvent concentration, higher Equilibrium of solute and solvent Lower solute concentration, higher
solute concentration (plasmolyzed). concentration (flaccid). solvent concentration (turgid).

Topic 2
Draw and label the structure of a leaf; outline the parts of a leaf.

Cuticle = Protects the plant from extreme temperature,

pathogens, UV radiation and harmful chemicals.
Guard Cells = Controls gas exchange and regulates
opening of the stomata.
Stomata = Openings between the guard cells.
Root Hair = Increases surface area for absorption.
Epidermal Cells = Protective barrier against water loss.
Palisade Mesophyll = Maximizes light absorption;
majority of photosynthesis process occurs here.
Spongy Mesophyll = Loosely packed for gas
exchange.

Vascular bundle

Xylem Phloem

➔ Transports water to leaves. ➔ Transports glucose and minerals to roots.

➔ Does not contain sieve plates. ➔ Contains sieve plates.
➔ One-way travel. ➔ Two-way travel.
➔ Made of dead cells. ➔ Made of living cells.
➔ Thick cell wall made of lignin. ➔ Thin cell wall made of cellulose.
➔ Impermeable. ➔ Permeable.
➔ Does not contain cytoplasm. ➔ Contains cytoplasm lining.

Distinguish between chloroplast and chlorophyll.

Chloroplasts are plastids that convert light energy to chemical energy whereas chlorophyll is a green pigment in
chloroplast that absorbs light and helps with biosynthesis of sugars and production of oxygen.
Outline the structure of a chloroplast.

Outer Membrane = Permeable to small, organic molecules.

Inner Membrane = Less permeable than the outer membrane; studded
with transport proteins.
Intermembrane = Space between outer and inner membranes; regulates
the passage of substances in and out of the chloroplast.
Thylakoid = Provides a platform for photosynthetic light reactions; a
thylakoid stack is called a granum.
Lamella = A sheet-like membrane that connects the granum stacks to one
another.
Stroma = An aqueous fluid that fills up the interior of the chloroplast;
contains metabolic enzymes used in photosynthesis as well as a copy of
the chloroplast genome.

Define photosynthesis; state the word and chemical equation for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis = A process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy which
can later be released to fuel the organism’s activities.

Discuss the limiting factors of photosynthesis.

Explain how plant structures aid the process of transpiration

Transpiration = A process used by plants in the stomata in which water loss occurs due to water vapor. Light
intensity and temperature are directly proportional to the rate of transpiration as they cause the stomata to open
more. However, humidity is inversely proportional to the rate of transpiration as it is more difficult for water to
evaporate in humid air. Moreover, atmospheric pressure is inversely proportional to the rate of transpiration as water
vapor travels at a quicker rate when the atmospheric pressure is low.

The structure of stomata resembles pores. Therefore, transpiration is able to occur due to the opening of the stomatal
pores. The guard cells are able to increase the opening of the stomata therefore enabling transpiration. They
accomplish this due to changes in their concentration status. When the guard cells are plassmolyzed (hypertonic),
the stomata are less inclined to open therefore the rate of transpiration decreases. On the other hand, when the guard
cells are turgid (hypotonic), the stomata are more inclined to open therefore the rate of transpiration increases.

Define metabolism; list the factors that affect the rate of metabolic reactions.
Metabolism = The sum of all chemical processes in any organism. Factors affecting metabolism include age, gender,
inherited genes, exercise levels, muscle to fat ratio and temperature.

Distinguish between anabolic and catabolic reactions.

Anabolism = A metabolic reaction which involves the synthesis or buildup of small molecules to form larger ones.
I.e. Amino acids (small molecules) bonding together to form proteins (large molecules).
Catabolism = A metabolic reaction which involves the breakdown of large molecules to form smaller ones.
I.e. Digestion or respiration where sugars and fats are broken down into energy.
Define respiration.
The process of breaking down glucose into a form that cells can use as energy. Cells of an organism obtain energy
by combining oxygen and glucose, found in food.

Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration; state the word and chemical equations for aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic Aerobic

Anaerobic respiration = Process of creating energy Aerobic respiration = Process that produces energy
without oxygen, short term energy 2 ATP. using oxygen, long term energy 38 ATP.
Word and Chemical Equations: Word and Chemical Equation:
➔ Animals = glucose ---> lactic acid + energy
➔ Plants and microorganisms = glucose --->
ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
➔ Yeast = glucose + enzymes ---> carbon
dioxide + ethanol

Outline the process of respiration.

Explain that enzymes are a type of catalyst.

Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a chemical reaction. Enzymes are catalysts that lower the activation
energy when carrying out their function.

Distinguish between substrate, product, active site and enzyme substrate complex.
Substrate = A molecule which an enzyme acts upon during a chemical reaction.
Product = What is formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Active Site = A specific region of the enzyme in which a substrate binds to it; where the chemical reaction occurs.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex = What is formed when a substrate binds with an active site of an enzyme during the
process of a chemical reaction.

Explain the lock and key theory; discuss why the induced fit model is
more accepted to describe enzyme action.
The lock and key theory states that enzymes have a specific shape that
directly correlates with the shape of a corresponding substrate. The
substrate fits into the enzyme how a key fits into a lock. On the other
hand, the induced fit model states that once the active site comes in
contact with the substrate the enzyme would mold itself to the shape
of the substrate allowing them to bind together. The induced fit theory
is more accepted as it suggests the active site changes slightly.

Discuss the limiting factors of enzyme activity.

 Topic 5
Discuss the meaning of being healthy; outline the factors causing disease.
What defines health?

Physical Mental Social

Condition of one’s body which is State of psychological Ability to interact with people and have a
affected by lifestyle choices. well-being. sense of belonging in a community.

What causes disease?

Pathogens Environment Host

Pathogens enter our bodies and The environment has many The host can impact risk of infection if
cause infections. They multiply and risk factors which can cause they have pre existing medical
damage our cells leading them to and spread diseases easily. conditions, damaged immunity, etc are
become a disease. Contaminated food, pollution, more susceptible.
chemical exposures, etc.

Define disease; discuss types of diseases and state specific examples of each.
Disease = A medical disorder or malfunction, either physical or mental, that are not the result of physical injury.
➔ Self-inflicted = Something that is caused by the person with the disease. I.e. alcoholism, anorexia, etc.
➔ Single-factor = Has a single cause and typically involves/is located in a specific organ. I.e. Cystic fibrosis.
➔ Multifactorial = Has many causes. I.e. Diabetes.
➔ Acute = Develop rapidly and quickly, usually are short-term. I.e. Influenza.
➔ Chronic = Develop slowly and gradually, are usually long-term. I.e. Cancer.
➔ Infectious = Diseases that can be transmitted. I.e. SARS.
➔ Noninfectious = Diseases that cannot be transmitted, are usually genetic. I.e. Alzheimer's.

Define epidemiology; distinguish between endemics, epidemics and pandemics.

Epidemiology = The study of the trends of infectious diseases and the classification of disease outbreaks.
➔ Endemic = A disease that is present in a population.
➔ Epidemic = An outbreak of a highly-contagious disease that infects many people simultaneously.
➔ Pandemic = A type of epidemic that is prevalent in many geographic locations.

Define pathogen; list ways that pathogens may enter the body.
Pathogen = A microorganism that causes disease. Pathogens may enter the body through hand-to-eye contact, food,
the nose (airbourne) or skin (open wounds or insect bites).

Describe the types of pathogens and describe a specific example of each.

Pathogen Description Example of Disease

1. Virus An infectious agent that only replicates within the Coronavirus = Respiratory virus;
living cells of an organism. (refer to unit 1 topic 3 for spreads through droplets from
characteristics of viruses). sneezes/coughs.

2. Bacteria A unicellular organism that lacks an organized nuclear Salmonella = Bacterial disease that
structure however contains a cell wall; bacteria can affects the intestinal tract; spreads
have a positive or negative influence on an organism through contaminated water and
such as aiding in food digestion and nutrient absorption. food.

3. Fungi Spore-producing organisms that feed on natural matter. Aspergillus fumigatus = Fungal
 They can invade tissues and disrupt functions then disease which can cause lung and
continue to replicate. sinus infections.

4. Protozoa All humans have protozoa living in their body which Malaria = Fatal disease caused by
are normally not harmful. However, they can be parasites that infect mosquitoes
infected with pathogenic protozoa that cause disease. who feed on humans.

5. Worms Parasitic worms are mostly intestinal that are soil Taeniasis = Parasitic disease
transmitted and infect the gastrointestinal tract. caused by tapeworms which can
infect humans through raw food
consumption.

Outline the process of viral infection in the body.

1. The keys on the surface of the virus structure (receptor) will match the locks on the surface of a body cell,
thus welcoming the virus into the cell.
2. The welcoming committee of the cell interlocks and pulls the membrane of the virus down into the cell.
3. The welcoming structure will disperse and the virus bursts inside the cell.
4. The genetic material of the virus enters the cell nucleus.
5. The nucleolus threads the material from the virus and they exit the nuclear structure.
6. The threaded viral material goes through the mitochondria which translates the material into proteins.
7. The proteins are sent back to the nuclear structure where they are reassembled into mini viruses.
8. The reassembled structures exit the nuclear structure and exit the cell.
9. Upon exiting the cell, the virus multiplies and others exit along with it which will then go through the same
process in other cells in order to multiply further.

Define different types of immunity; distinguish between active and passive immunity.
Herd immunity = Indirect increase of immunity in a population due to a sufficient number of people in the
population who have previously been immune.
Active immunity = To be exposed to antigens thus increasing the production of antibodies. I.e. Vaccinations.
Passive immunity = When antibodies are transferred from one organism to another. I.e. Breastmilk.
Auto-immunity = A condition in which an organism confuses a healthy tissue as an antigen thus producing
antibodies against them although they are naturally present in the organism.

Outline the mechanisms the human body uses to prevent pathogens from entry.
➔ First line of defense = Skin cells: The epidermal layer of skin cells prevent bacteria from entering the body.
➔ Second line of defense = Guard cells: Aka macrophages; a type of white blood cell that engulfs germs
inside a membrane and breaks down the bacteria via enzymes thus killing it. This prevents them from
entering the blood in order to prevent them from infecting the body. They also secrete alert signals to the
rest of the immune system to prevent further infection by releasing messenger proteins.
➔ Third line of defense = Neutrophils: A type of white blood cell that generates barriers to kill bacteria.
➔ Fourth line of defense = Dendritic cells: Collects bacterial samples and activates helper and killer T-cells
which causes a chain reaction thus causes the T-cells to multiply. The T-cells connect with B-cells thus
causing them to produce antibodies.

Distinguish between antibodies, antigens and antibiotics.

Antibodies = Aka immunoglobulin, is a blood protein that an organism produces in order to fight against a specific
antigen. Antibodies immobilize pathogens by clumping them together. This clump is then destroyed when a
phagocyte engulfs and digests it (phagocytosis).
Antigens = Molecules on the outside of a pathogen that an organism recognizes as foreign. Antigens trigger the
immune system to respond in the form of antibodies which will then fight the pathogen.
Antibiotics = An antimicrobial substance in the form of a medicinal or pharmaceutical product that fights negative
bacteria by killing it or restricting its growth.
Outline the process of phagocytosis.
The phagocyte surrounds a bacterial cell and encloses it in a vacuole. Then, enzymes are secreted into the vacuole to
destroy the bacterial cell.

Outline the process of antibiotic resistance.

When bacterial cells become immune to antibiotics and are able to resist
them. A bacteria that is resistant to an antibiotic will use the pilus
structure to connect with a non-resistant bacteria. Once the connection is
made, the resistant bacteria will share some of its resistant DNA to the
non-resistant bacteria. The two resistant bacterial cells will separate and
continue to undergo the same process with other non-resistant bacterial
cells.

Discuss the consequences of bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics.

The resistance of bacteria to antibiotics will lead to increased mortality
rate as it is harder to eliminate the bacteria during an infection.
Furthermore, there will be a scarcity of medical resources due to
prolonged hospital stays and larger number of admitted patients. A
financial scarcity is also likely to occur as a result of higher financial
costs.

Define vaccine; discuss why vaccines are not effective for all viruses.
A vaccine is a dead or inactive sample of a pathogen which is given to an individual in the form of an injection. It is
not possible for all viruses to have a vaccine as the vaccine may not be sufficiently effective according to the nature
of the virus. If a virus replicates rapidly and the vaccine is not efficient enough in eradicating the virus, it is not
effective and therefore the virus does not have a vaccine. Moreover, if a virus has multiple disease-causing antigens,
the virus develops and multiplies in the body at a substantially quicker rate than the function rate of the vaccine.
Therefore, the vaccine will be deemed as ineffective and the virus does not have a vaccine.

Determine why immunization protects an organism from one disease but not all of them.
This is because different diseases will have different antigens that cause that disease. Therefore, immunity to one
antigen will result in the immunity of one disease but not another.

Describe what is meant by herd immunity and explain how it benefits people who are not vaccinated.
Herd immunity is an indirect increase of immunity in a population due to a sufficient number of people in a
population who have been previously immune. This benefits people who are not vaccinated as they can become
immune to a disease through passive immunity as a result of the active immunity of another organism.

Topic 10
Outline the factors that affect biodiversity; discuss how human threats are harming biodiversity; state how much of
the Earth’s surface is utilized for agriculture.
Agriculture Habitat loss

Agriculture greatly leads to loss of biodiversity as the Habitat loss leads to decreasing biodiversity as the
land it requires occupies and disrupts natural habitats. species no longer have access to the environment that
This pushes species out of their home, reducing the they thrive in. These organisms are displaced and put in
amount of different species available in an area. threat of extinction.

Invasive species Population growth

Invasive species impact biodiversity because they come Population growth affects biodiversity because the
into the habitat and disrupt the natural food chain. growing amount of people requires a greater amount of
space to house the population. To accommodate for this
increased need for housing, countries expand urban
development into natural habitats. This disrupts the
 home of the species which puts them at endangerment,
decreasing the diversity of wildlife available in the
area.

Pollution Poaching

Pollution decreases biodiversity as it kills organisms Poaching places species in a position of endangerment
putting species at risk of endangerment leaving the which decreases the variety of species living in an
diversity of different species lessened in an area. ecosystem.

Roughly 38% of the earth’s surface is utilized for agricultural purposes.

Outline the factors that have contributed to an increase in human population.

Technological Technological advancements allow for higher productivity with agricultural production
advancements which provides cleaner food options as well as improved medical services.

Cleaner food options Cleaner produce and overall food options allow for better fertility therefore decreasing
the amount of birth defects that occur.

Improved medical Improved medical services have decreased the death rate of many diseases and have
care decreased the amount of birth defects that occur.

Outline what is meant by exponential growth.

When increments are increasing unproportionately, rates become rapid in proportion to total growing size.

Define invasive species.

Invasive species = Organisms that are non-native to the ecosystem that they inhabit.

List different types of pollution and outline the sources of them.

Source Type Cause Effect

Soil Spreading fertilizers; manure Eutrophication.

Agriculture runoff.

Land Spraying crops. Disturbance of ecosystem.

Manufacturing Land Disposal of byproducts and Contaminated land; health

waste; industrial dumping. risks for surrounding life.

Domestic Land Landfill waste. Groundwater contamination;

methane.

Air Greenhouse gases. Global warming.

Transport
Water Oil leakage. Water contamination.

Energy Air Burning fossil fuels; radiation Acid precipitation; health risks
leaks. for surrounding life.

Suggest some of the effects of pollution on human health.

➔ Soil pollution will decrease the sanitation of crops such as fruits and vegetables which may cause
gastrointestinal disease.
 ➔ Water pollution will increase the risk of disease from water contamination of harmful chemicals as well as
pathogens such as parasites, bacterias and amoebas.
➔ Air pollution will increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases as it increases the carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere and decreases the rate of carbon sequestration from soil and trees.

Carbon sequestration = The process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Determine the link between fossil fuels and acid rain affecting trees.
Acid rain is caused by fossil fuels as they form harmful oxides when they are burned. When these oxides are
released into the atmosphere, acid rain will occur. This affects trees as it causes decreased resistance to drought and
disease, loss of nutrients, root hair damage and slowed decomposition as well as decreased carbon sequestration.

Explain the process of eutrophication.

Eutrophication is the excessive richness of nutrients in a body of water. It leads to dense growth of plant life and
death of animal life. Eutrophication is caused by overuse of fertilizers and overenrichment of nutrients such as
phosphorus from sewage, industrial waste and agricultural runoff. This impacts the environment in many ways.
Firstly, it can lead to the endangerment and even extinction of species therefore causing biodiversity loss.
Furthermore, it lowers the pH levels in seawater therefore causing ocean acidification. Not only does this further the
biodiversity loss crisis but it also contributes to global warming as it hinders the ability of marine life to absorb CO2.

Explain how pollutants can lead to biomagnification.

Biomagnification is when the concentration of a pollutant in the tissues of tolerant organisms is at increasingly high
levels in the food chain. Excessive use of fossil fuels will increase pollution and release of pollutants such as
greenhouse gases which in turn will result in biomagnification.

List the greenhouse gases; explain how the greenhouse gas effect can lead to climate change.
➔ Carbon dioxide
➔ Methane
➔ Nitrous oxide
➔ Chlorofluorocarbons

Climate change = Extreme and frequent changes in temperature and

weather patterns (climate). Examples include rising sea levels, floods
and droughts.
The greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation in the Earth’s
atmosphere which results in the greenhouse effect. Issues such as
pollution and deforestation increase the greenhouse gas levels in the
atmosphere therefore increasing the rate at which the greenhouse
effect is taking place. This in turn causes excess heat to be trapped in
the Earth’s atmosphere therefore causing global warming and climate
change.

Explain why some animals are at risk of extinction.

Issues such as deforestation lead to habitat loss therefore causing
animals to be malnourished. Moreover, pollution causes a negative
impact on the living conditions in ecosystems for animals. This
decreases the availability and quality of food as well as the rate of
successful reproduction which gradually leads to extinction.

Compare and contrast in-situ and ex-situ conservation methods.

In-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation

To conserve the natural habitats of ecosystems and To conserve ecosystems outside of the natural habitat
maintain a healthy environment for the organisms of the organisms living in those ecosystems. I.e.
living in those ecosystems. I.e. National parks are used Captive breeding environments such as zoos are used
 to maintain genetic variation and biodiversity therefore to conserve ecosystems in an environment that is not
preventing extinction. their natural habitat.

Topic 6
Outline the life cycle of a cell.
G1 = Cells increase in size, produce RNA, and synthesize protein.
S = Period of DNA replication in preparation for mitosis.
G2 = After DNA replicates the cell continues to grow and produce
proteins.
M = Cell growth and protein production stop. All energy is focused on
cell division of daughter cells.
Interphase = When double-stranded chromosomes are produced.

Describe how the structure of DNA was discovered; deduce who should
be credited with the discovery of DNA.
The DNA structure was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick
in 1953. Although the concept of DNA was already discovered
previously, the two scientists were able to provide evidence of the
double-helical structure of DNA. However, their discovery would not have been possible without the help of
chemist Rosalind Franklin, who used x-ray diffraction to produce photographs of the DNA structure, which were
used (without Franklin’s permission) by Watson and Crick to demonstrate their findings.

Define the following.

Replication = When the genome of DNA is copied in order to produce replicas of the DNA.
Heredity = Aka inheritance, the process of a parent cell passing down biological traits to their daughter cell.
Semi-conservative = When only half of the parent cell
is replicated in the daughter cell.
DNA = Aka Deoxyribonucleic acid, is a nucleic acid in
cells that withholds genetic information about the
development and function of an organism. The
deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules form
nucleotides which make up the double-helical backbone
structure of the DNA. The nucleosides join together
with the nitrogenous base pairs to form nucleotides,
which are held together with hydrogen bonds.

Draw, label and annotate a nucleotide; identify the 4 base pairs.

Nucleoside = A pentagonal deoxyribose sugar connecting with a nitrogenous
base.
Nucleotide = When a nucleoside connects with a phosphate molecule; the
building blocks of DNA.
The nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and
Cytosine (C). They join together in base pairs by hydrogen bonds.
Chargaff’s rule states that Adenine can only connect with Thymine to form a
base pair and Guanine can only connect with Cytosine to form a base pair.

Outline the process of DNA replication.

1. The gyrase enzyme unwinds the DNA structure.
2. The helicase and primase enzymes bind together to separate the DNA structure to 2 separate, single helical
strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs thus creating a replication fork.
3. DNA Polymerase enzymes bind free nucleotides in the cell to their respective bases in order to form base
pairs along a singular DNA strand.
4. The ligase enzyme synthesizes the DNA chain by restoring the hydrogen bonds between the newly aligned
sets of free nucleotides (Okazaki fragments).
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

➔ Stores genetic information.

➔ Deoxyribose sugar.
➔ Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).
➔ Double strand helix.
➔ Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the nucleoid of prokaryotic cells.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

➔ Stores information about forming proteins.

➔ Ribose sugar.
➔ Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).
➔ Single strand helix.
➔ Found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Both

➔ Pentagonal sugars joined with phosphate molecules to form nucleic acid.

➔ Polymers of nucleotides.

Outline the processes of protein synthesis and genetic coding.

Protein synthesis = The process of producing and creating protein by coding for a specific sequence of amino acids.
Transcription (first step) Translation (second step)

Transcribes the DNA into a message which occurs The mRNA travels through the ribosome and the tRNA
within the nucleus. RNA Polymerase connects (transfer RNA) carries amino acids to the mRNA. The
complementary bases to form mRNA (messenger amino acids are attached to the codons in the mRNA
RNA) which exits the nucleus to enter the cytoplasm and a polypeptide chain is formed. This chain morphs
and attaches to the ribosome. into a complex shape which is known as protein.

Genetic coding = The translation of DNA into proteins through protein synthesis. The genetic code for DNA is
copied and carried from the DNA to the ribosomes where transcription and translation is done.
Codon = mRNA reading nitrogenous bases in triplets forming a genetic code for amino acids.
Stop Codon = The end of mRNA that indicates that the protein building is finished.

Explain the process of genetic mutations.

Somatic cells = All the cells within the developing or developed organism with the exception of gametes.
 Mutagens = Environmental factors that can alter DNA.
Examples:
➔ X-rays
➔ Ionizing radiation
➔ Chemicals such as cigarette tar
Genetic mutations are changes in the DNA of an organism.
They can occur in a gamete which will be passed down to
the next generation. Mutations may also occur in the somatic
cells and are not inherited. These changes in DNA occur in
the genetic code (point mutation) and can happen due to one
of three scenarios:
➔ The deletion of a base in the DNA’s genetic code
(deletion mutation).
➔ The insertion of an additional base in the DNA’s
genetic code (insertion mutation).
➔ When DNA is copied and replicated incorrectly
(substitution mutation).
Chromosome = A linear strand composed of protein and a
single molecule of DNA. Chromosomes contain one or two strands which are called chromatids as well as a protein
structure that holds them together, which is called a centromere.
Humans have 23 chromosomes.
Gene = A section of a chromosome that provides the genetic code for
a specific protein.
Allele = Different variations of the same gene.
➔ Dominant = Overpowers the recessive allele.
➔ Recessive = Is overpowered and masked by a dominant
allele.
Homozygous = When there are two identical alleles for a
characteristic.
Heterozygous = When there are two different alleles for a
characteristic.
Genotype = The genetic information in the cell for a characteristic.
Phenotype = The physical effect of the genotype on an organism.
Monohybrid cross = A representation of the possible combinations as
to how a characteristic can be inherited by the next
generation.
F1 = The first filial generation which means that it is
the first generation of offspring to be produced by
the original parental generation.
F2 = The second filial generation which means that
it is the second generation of offspring to be
produced by the original parental generation.

Distinguish between asexual and sexual

reproduction.
Diploid = A cell or organism that has paired
chromosomes (one from each parent).
Haploid = A cell or organism that has single sets of
chromosomes.

Reproduction = The process of an organism producing a new generation of offspring.

➔ Sexual = From two parents using gametes to produce two sets of chromosomes for the offspring (one from
each parent). There are two stages in sexual reproduction which are meiosis and fertilization. Organisms
such as animals tend to reproduce sexually as they have specialized reproductive organs.
 ➔ Asexual = No gametes involved. As opposed to meiosis and fertilization, asexual reproduction involves the
process of mitosis. Organisms such as plants tend to reproduce asexually as they do not have specialized
reproductive organs.

Define mitosis and meiosis; outline the products of meiosis; compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis Meiosis

Cell division that leads to two identical cells. Cell division that produces gametes.
➔ 4 stages in total. ➔ 8 stages in total.
➔ For cellular proliferation. ➔ For sexual reproduction.
➔ Produces 2 diploid daughter cells. ➔ Produces 4 haploid daughter cells.
➔ Genetic variation does not change. ➔ Genetic variation is increased.
➔ Chromosome number remains the same. ➔ Chromosome number is halved.

Identify the stages of mitosis; outline the process of each stage of mitosis.
0. Interphase Chromosomes and cellular contents are duplicated
however the cell function remains the same; protein
synthesis occurs.

1. Prophase Chromosomes condense into chromatin and the nuclear

membrane disintegrates. The spindle fibers (made of
microtubules) start to appear and attach themselves to
the centromere of each chromosome.

2. Metaphase Spindle fibers move 3. Anaphase Spindle fibers contract and

towards the poles and separate the chromatids on
the centromeres line up opposite ends of the cell.
in the center.

4. Telophase Chromosomes at 5. Cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides into two

opposite poles and daughter cells.
spindle fibers
disassemble, nuclear
membrane forms.
Label the male and female reproductive systems.
Gamete = The reproductive cells of organisms. Male reproductive systems contain gametes called sperm cells
whereas female reproductive systems contain gametes called egg cells.
Zygote = The product of two gametes combining.
Fertilization = A process that occurs after meiosis when two gametes combine in order to form a zygote.
Puberty = Changes in adolescents to reach sexual maturity and be able to reproduce.

Male Female

Bladder = Organ which holds liquids and gases. Fallopian Tube = Long, narrow duct which transports
Vas Deferens (sperm duct) = Allows for sperm cell sperm cells to the egg.
maturation and transport from the testicles to the Funnel = Tube that engulfs the ovaries.
outside of the body. Ovary = Where the egg and estrogen are formed.
Seminal Vesicle = Pair of glands which produce Ovarian Ligament = Connects the uterus and the ovary.
constituent ingredients of sperm. Uterus = Muscular organ of the female reproductive
Prostate Gland = Secretes fluids that nourish and system that nourishes and houses the egg.
protect sperm. Endometrium = Innermost lining of the uterus which
Cowper’s Gland = Discharges a secretion into maintains uterine cavity.
semen. Uterine Wall = Thick wall made of muscle tissue
Urethra = Tube that leads from the bladder and surrounding the uterus.
discharges urine outside of the body. Cervix = Connects the uterus and vagina which sperm
Scrotum = Protects the testicles and blood vessels. travels through to reach and fertilize the egg.
Penis = Reproductive organ responsible for urinary Vagina = Muscular canal that extends from the uterus to
excretion. the outside of the body which is responsible for
Epididymis = Stores and transports sperm from the childbirth, menstruation, and intercourse.
testis. Vulva = General term for external female reproductive
Testis = Organ which produces sperm. organs including the clitoris.

Outline the menstruation cycle.

1. Follicular phase = The follicular phase begins when the pituitary gland in the brain releases the FSH and
LH hormones to stimulate the production of follicles on the surface of an ovary. During this phase, the
uterus lining will thicken. This phase lasts 13-14 days.
2. Ovulation = Ovulation is when a mature egg is released from an ovary and moves along a fallopian tube
towards the uterus. There is a 16-32 hour window in which this can take place however this window can
happen anytime within a 7 day period.
 3. Luteal phase = Cells in the ovary in the corpus luteum release progesterone and a small amount of estrogen,
causing the lining of the uterus to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. If a fertilized egg implants in the
lining of the uterus, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone, which maintains the thickened
lining of the uterus. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum dies, progesterone levels drop, the
uterus lining sheds and the period begins again. This phase lasts 7 days.

State the hormones involved in female reproduction; explain how the female hormones control the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone = Steroid hormone that stimulates the uterus in preparation for pregnancy; produced in the ovaries.
This hormone is important because it thickens the lining of the uterus in preparation for pregnancy.
Estrogen = Develops the maintenance of female sex characteristics and long bones; produced in the ovaries. This
hormone is important for maintaining reproductive health by regulating the menstrual cycle.
FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) = Hormone that promotes production of ova or sperm; produced in the pituitary
gland in the brain. This hormone is important because it helps control the menstrual cycle and the production of eggs
by the ovaries.
LH (Luteinizing hormone) = Sexual development and functions while controlling menstrual cycle; produced in the
anterior pituitary gland in the brain. This hormone is important because it helps control the menstrual cycle and
triggers the release of eggs from the ovary.

Topic 7
Discuss Charles Darwin’s contribution to the theory of evolution by natural selection; justify the theory of natural
selection using evidence.
Evolution = Change in characteristics of a species over several generations from an ancestor relying on the process
of natural selection, theory was proposed by Charles Darwin. Darwin developed this theory during his explorations
and studies of the organisms in the Galapagos.
➔ Finches around the island had different beaks depending on the food source available in their
location. However, they all came from one ancestor.
➔ He also found that the finches were similar to those in Ecuador nearby but different to pigeon
species around the world.

Suggest how comparison of the pentadactyl limb and embryos of different vertebrates can be used as evidence of
evolution.
Many vertebrates have similar bone structure to this organism however their limbs look very different from the
outside. This pentadactyl structure is a five fingered limb. Many organisms share this structure, such as humans,
who develop this structure in the embryonic stage. Other organisms such as bats, horses, etc share this structure
however are very different from one another.

Compare and contrast natural and artificial selection.

Natural Selection Artificial Selection

➔ Process that occurs naturally without any ➔ Desired traits from species are selected by
human interference. humans and they are bred to make beneficial
➔ Traits acquired are for the purpose of organisms.
increasing survival. ➔ Acquired traits do not always enhance the
➔ ‘Survival of the fittest’. chance of survival for the species.
➔ Examples = Finches, peppered moths. ➔ Examples = Seedless fruits, domestic animals.

Explain how meiosis leads to variation; suggest how variation within a species occurs.
Meiosis leads to variation because the daughter cells produced by the parent cells are genetically unique meaning
they have their own set of genes that are unequivocally different from all other organisms. This occurs because
sexual reproduction (meiosis) takes a random combination of genes from each of the 2 parent cells.

Define the types of isolation.

➔ Geographical = In which two populations are separated due to a geographic barrier such as a river or
mountain.
➔ Behavioral = In which there is a lack of sexual activity within a species.
 ➔ Ecological = In which two populations are separated due to changes in their ecological habitats.
➔ Temporal = In which there are differences between the fertility behaviors of two species due to different
reproductive cycles.

Define speciation using real life examples.

Speciation = A process in which a new kind or part of an organism is created that occurs when a group of organisms
within a species separate from the rest of the members developing their own characteristics.
➔ Finches are native to the archipelago of islands in the Galapagos. Ever since the 1800s, Finches have
continuously evolved through natural selection and underwent the process of allopatric speciation due to
different factors of reproductive isolation. This includes geographical isolation due to frequent volcanic
eruptions as well as the fact that it is an archipelago. After these eruptions, the environmental conditions of
the finches environment changed, especially in terms of the availability of food sources, therefore the
finches were forced to adapt. For instance, tree finches and warbler finches have long, narrow and pointed
beaks which they used to eat insects, which is prominent in their diet. However, ground finches have broad
and blunt beaks to help them eat fruits and crack open nuts, which is prominent in their diet.

Evaluate the impact of habitat destruction on speciation.

Habitat loss decreases speciation because it restricts the gene flow of organisms therefore limiting their ability to
pass down a wide variety of genes to a new generation of offspring.

Topic 8
Suggest how humans are adapted to allow survival in many conditions.
➔ Bipedalism: The ability to walk on two feet which allows us to partake in common activities in daily life.
➔ Opposable thumbs and hand dexterity: Ability to coordinate muscles in the hands therefore allowing us to
use tools.

Discuss why some organisms live in large communities and some are solitary.
This is an example of adaptations that organisms develop in order to survive. Larger animals, such as sharks, are
solitary in order to have their own territory and reduce competition for food. On the other hand, smaller animals,
such as sardines, live in large communities in order to share the workload of hunting food and locating shelter as
well as defending themselves against predators.

Discuss how some species of plant thrive in damp conditions whilst others survive in the desert.
This is another example of how organisms must adapt to their environment according to their structures and
functions. For instance, some plants, such as moss, are nonvascular meaning that they lack vascular tissue.
Therefore, they require close proximity with water in order to prevent loss of moisture (desiccation). However, some
plants, such as cacti, are capable of storing water in their leaves, stems and roots which allows them to thrive in dry
climates such as deserts.

Outline the difference between types of neurons; identify different types of stimuli; explain how a synapse functions;
state the different types of receptors.
Stimulus = A change in environment that evokes a reaction from the organisms surrounding it.
➔ Mechanical = Produced by a physical change.
➔ Thermal = Produced by change in skin temperature.
➔ Chemical = Activity or change of activity generated by smell or taste receptor.
Reflex = An automatic and involuntary reaction to a stimulus.
Reflex arc = A neural pathway that controls a reflex.
Neurons = Specialized cells that transmit information to the other cells in the nervous system.
➔ Sensory = Contain thermoreceptors therefore are stimulated by thermal stimuli. This means that sensory
neurons are programmed to detect and send information about extreme temperatures.
➔ Relay = Aka interneurons, relay nerve impulses from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons.
➔ Motor = Located in the spinal cord and brain; transmit impulses to control muscle movements.
Neurotransmitter = A molecule secreted by a neuron that carries messages between nerve cells.
Receptor = Protein that binds to molecules and causes responses to stimuli.
➔ Photoreceptor = Respond to changes in light.
➔ Chemoreceptor = Respond to changes in chemical substances.
 ➔ Mechanoreceptor = Respond to changes in pressure and touch.
➔ Sonoreceptor = Respond to changes in sound.
➔ Thermoreceptor = Respond to changes in temperature.
Effector = A muscle or gland in the body that acts upon responses to stimuli.
Response = Behavior in a living organism that is the result of being exposed to stimuli.
Hormone = Molecules in living organisms that are produced by glands in the body and act as messengers that allow
for regulation of bodily functions.
Tropism = Response of a plant to a stimulus with greater intensity from one direction than another.
➔ Phototropism = In response to light.
➔ Gravitropism = Process of plant growth in response to gravitational pull against the plant.

Outline the process of a reflex arc

Receptors will receive a nerve impulse of a mechanical or thermal stimuli which travels to the spinal cord in the
central nervous system through sensory neurons. After this stage, the relay neurons will intercept the sensory
information and it travels to the motor neurons where an action is conducted by muscles or glands.

Distinguish between the CNS and PNS.

Central nervous system (CNS) = Consists of the brain and spinal cord;
controls movement though the 5 senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting,
feeling).
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) = Consists of the nerves that connects the
CNS to the rest of the body; transmits motor commands to muscles in the
body, carries sensory information to the CNS.

Outline the 5 sensory organs in the human body.

1. Eyes = For sight (ophthalmoception).
2. Ears = For hearing (audioception).
3. Tongue = For tasting (gustaoception).
4. Nose = For smelling (olfalcoception).
5. Skin = For touching and feeling (tactioception).

Describe types of responses in animals and plants.

Animals Plants

Animals have nervous systems therefore they use Plants do not have nervous systems therefore they do
neurons and receptors in order to receive stimuli and not receive stimuli through neurotransmission.
translate it into signals for the nervous system to However, plants receive stimuli through proteins and
function. chemical messengers (hormones).
Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors that affect organisms.
Biotic factors = Factors that are living. Examples include animals, plants and fungi.
Abiotic factors = Factors that are nonliving. Examples include water, soil and temperature.

Outline the types of adaptations

Structural = Adaptations to the body composition of an organism. I.e. Giraffes have longer necks to reach food.
Behavioral = Responsive actions of an organism when exposed to a stimulus. I.e. Hibernation to seek shelter during
the winter.
Physiological = Adaptations that optimize regulation of homeostatic conditions. I.e. Webbed feet on ducks to help
them swim.

Describe the plant hormones and their function

Auxin = A plant hormone that is responsible for stem elongation, seed formation, vascular differentiation and plant
embryogenesis.
Ethene = A hydrocarbon gas that is responsible for fruit senescence.

Draw and label a motor neuron.

Soma = Contains the genetic information of
the cell and maintains the cell structure.
Nucleus is found here.
Dendrite = Fibers in the shape of short
branches that convert chemical information
from neuron cells or receptor cells into
electrical signals.
Myelin sheath = Insulating layer that
surrounds the axon; composed of protein and
fat. It improves the conduction speed of
electrical impulses along the axon.
Axon = A long fiber that transmits electrical
signals to terminal regions for communication
with other neuron cells.
Axon terminal = Holds a synapse allowing for
neurotransmitters to carry out their function.
Synapse = Structure that permits a neuron to pass an electric or chemical signal to another neuron. They connect
neurons in the brain to neurons in the body to the muscles in the body.
Schwann cell = Cells that surround neurons and help with maintaining the function of peripheral nerves.
Node of ranvier = Gaps in the myelin sheath that increase the speed of travel for action potential along the axon.
Action potential = The change in voltage presented as a nerve impulse that travels across a membrane.

Explain how a synapse works

Synapses are structures that permit neurons to transmit electrical or chemical signals to another neuron. They
connect neurons in the brain to neurons throughout the body. This process occurs when there is a change of voltage
across a membrane (action potential). Once the action potential presents itself, voltage-gated calcium ion channels
open the presynaptic terminal. This allows for the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters through the process
of exocytosis. Afterwards, the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with ligand-gated ion
channels at the postsynaptic membrane, causing it to open. Once this phenomenon has occurred to a sufficient
extent, the postsynaptic cell becomes depolarized, which allows for the action potential to continue along the
neuron.
Draw and annotate the eye and ear structures.
Lens = Works with the cornea to ensure proper focus of light on the retina.
Pupil = Regulates the flow of light to the retina.
Iris = Controls the quantities of light that the pupil allows to
enter.
Ciliary body = A ring-shaped muscle behind the iris that
changes the shape of the lens to help the eye focus.
Cornea = Covers the iris and pupil; has a slight curvature which
allows it to help the eyes focus through light refraction due to
its curved shape.
Retina = Thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye composed of
photoreceptors which receive light and translate it to impulses.
Conjunctiva = Protects and lubricates the eye through
producing mucus and tears; lines the inside of the eyelids and
covers the sclera.
Sclera = Maintains the shape of the eye and protects it from
injury.
Choroid = A network of blood vessels and stroma between the
retina and the sclera.
Aqueous humor = Water-like fluid between the cornea and the
pupil. It allows the cornea to expand in order to protect the eye
from dust, particles and bacteria that may be harmful.
Vitreous humor = Gelatin-like fluid that provides metabolic nutrients for the lens, coordinates eye growth and
supports the retina.
Optic nerve = A part of the CNS; transmits electrical impulses from the eye to the brain.
Macula = Translates light that enters from the eye; is responsible for central vision.

Temporal muscle and bone = Protects the nerves in the ear.

Cartilage = Tissue that helps maintain the shape and structure of the ear.
Ear canal = An entryway for soundwaves; carries sound to the inner ear.
Tympanic membrane = Aka the eardrum vibrates due to soundwaves carried from the ear canal. These vibrations are
sent to the ossicles.
Tympanic cavity = Increases the efficiency of the tympanic membrane.
Oval window = Tissue that connects the middle ear to the inner ear.
Semicircular canals = Three fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear help maintain head balance.
 Ossicles = A short chain consisting of
3 bones that transmit vibrations caused
by soundwaves from the eardrum to
the fluid in the inner ear.
➔ Malleus/hammer
➔ Incus/anvil
➔ Stapes/stirrup
Cochlea = Spiral-shaped bone filled
with fluid that moves in response to
vibrations received from the oval
window. These vibrations are
translated into electrical impulses that
the brain can interpret as sound
frequencies.
Vestibular nerve = Sensory nerve that
balances the head by sending
information to the brain.
Cochlear nerve = Sensory nerve that
sends auditory information from the cochlea to the brain.
Eustachian tube = Balances pressure and drains fluid from the middle ear.

Topic 9
Outline Robert Paine’s experiment; discuss the impact of removing the top predator from an ecosystem.
Robert Paine experimented in ecosystems and found that not all species are equal. His discovery was that some
species have a greater influence whereas other species do not have much of an impact. He called them ‘keystone
species’ as they are necessary to the functionality of an ecosystem. He experimented in an ecosystem where the
main predator was the Pisaster starfish. From conducting the experiment he found that species diversity was higher
when this species was removed. This shows that a singular animal can have a large impact towards its ecosystem
due to the significance of their contributions to that ecosystem. Another example of this is whales. If whales are
removed from their ecosystem, smaller organisms such as fish and krill will suffer due to the lack of fecal plumes in
the photic zone. These fecal plumes are produced by whales and benefit the smaller organisms due to their rich
concentration of iron and nitrogen, therefore allowing for aquatic plant growth and fertilization. This plant growth
will lead to an increase in phytoplankton which will subsequently increase the presence of zooplankton, therefore
providing a greater food supply for fish and krill. Moreover, zooplankton and significant contributors to the carbon
sequestration of marine life therefore they will help in reducing air pollution.

Define the following.

Producer = An organism that obtains its energy through sunlight; capable of photosynthesizing.
Trophic level = The position an organism occupies within a food chain/web.
Niche = The role of a particular species within its environment.
Consumer = Category in the food chain for organisms that rely on the consumption of other organisms for energy as
they are unable to produce their own.
Omnivore = An organism that is able to survive on a diet consisting of both plants and animals.
Carnivore = An organism that is able to survive on a diet consisting of only animals.
Herbivore = An organism that is able to survive on a diet consisting of only plants.
Detritivore = An organism that obtains nutrients through consuming detritus (decomposing plant and animal parts as
well as feces).
Decomposer = An organism that decomposes organic material.
Saprotroph = An organism that feeds on or derives nutrition from decaying organic matter.
Autotroph = An organism capable of forming nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances.
➔ Plants
➔ Algae
Heterotroph = An organism that derives its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances.
➔ Animals
➔ Fungi
Distinguish between photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis

➔ Process for organisms to produce food. ➔ Process for organisms to produce food.
➔ Powered by sunlight. ➔ Runs on chemical energy.
➔ Involves photoautotrophs. ➔ Involves chemoautotrophs.
➔ Chlorophyll required. ➔ Chlorophyll not required.

Construct a food chain/web; describe energy flow through a food chain/web; draw pyramids of energy to represent
energy flow in a food chain/web.
Food chain = A diagram showing who eats whom.
Food web = A diagram showing a summation of all the food chains present in an ecosystem.

First consumer = Primary

Second consumer = Secondary
Third consumer = Tertiary
Fourth consumer = Quaternary
Energy in a food chain/web flows from one trophic level to the next starting with producers and ending with
quaternary consumers.

Define the following; describe examples of each type of symbiotic

relationships; distinguish between interspecific and intraspecific
competition.
Symbiosis = Biological interactions between two or more different
organisms. There are 6 main types of symbiotic relationships:
1. Commensalism = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms
where one benefits and the other is neither benefited or harmed. The
species gaining the benefits is the commensal and the other is the
host species.
◆ Tree frogs use plants as protection.
2. Parasitism = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one organism (parasite) lives on or
inside another organism (host) causing it harm.
◆ Fleas that live on dogs.
3. Mutualism = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms where both species involved receive
benefits.
◆ Bees pollinate flowers and receive nectar which is nutritious towards them.
4. Herbivory = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms where an animal consumes a plant.
5. Predation = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one organism (predator) kills another
organism (prey) for food.
6. Competition = A symbiotic relationship between two organisms where both organisms are competing for
the same resource.
 ◆ Interspecific = When two organisms of different species compete for the same resource.
◆ Intraspecific = When two organisms of the same species compete for the same resource.

Define keystone species; describe examples of keystone species; suggest the impact of removing keystone species
from an ecosystem.
Keystone species = Species that define the entire ecosystem by having a disproportionately large impact on other
species. With absence of keystone species the ecosystem may fail to exist. This is because they have a significant
influence on balance between predators and prey which allows for the ecosystem to be balanced and functional.
➔ Wolves in forest and tundra ecosystems.
➔ Elephants in savanna ecosystems.

Define the following.

Combustion = When an organic material is reacted or burned in the presence of oxygen giving off the products of
carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Decomposition = Breakdown of dead material from plants and other organisms to release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere making it available for plants for photosynthesis.
Denitrifying bacteria = Microorganisms that convert nitrates in soil into free atmospheric nitrogen.
Ammonia = Fungi and prokaryotes that decompose nitrogen tissues to release inorganic nitrogen back into
the ecosystem as ammonia (process of ammonification).
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria = Prokaryotic
microorganisms that are capable of
transforming nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere into fixed nitrogen compounds
that can be used by plants.
Nitrification = The process of converting
ammonia into nitrites and then to nitrates
done by bacteria in the soil.

Outline the carbon cycle using a flow chart.

The carbon cycle shows how carbon travels
through the atmosphere into organisms and
Earth then back to the atmosphere. Plants
photosynthesize using CO2 from the air,
animals eat the plants and food and CO2 gets
stored in their bodies or released through
respiration. The decomposition and
fossilization of animals and plants results in fuels (oil, coal, gas). These fuels are used to power vehicles, factories,
and more which all pollute the air with more CO2.

Outline the nitrogen cycle using a flow chart.

The nitrogen cycle shows how nitrogen moves

between plants, animals, bacteria, the atmosphere,
and soil. Bacteria is important to the cycle
because it helps nitrogen change states. Nitrogen
goes into soil and bacteria helps it change states
which can be absorbed by plants. Animals get
their nitrogen from plants.
Processes in the cycle:
➔ Fixation = Making of nitrogen usable by
plants, bacteria turns nitrogen into ammonium.
➔ Nitrification = Ammonium gets changed
into nitrates for plants to absorb.
➔ Assimilation = Plants get nitrogen by
absorbing nitrates from soil through their roots,
 then it gets used in amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.
➔ Ammonification = Decaying process when plant/animal dies decomposers (fungi, bacteria) change the
nitrogen back to ammonium so it can reenter the cycle.
➔ Denitrification = Bacteria release excess nitrogen from soil back into the atmosphere.

Topic 11
Define clone; list the different forms of cloning.
Cloning = The process of producing organisms with identical or virtually identical DNA which can be done either
naturally or artificially.
➔ Gene cloning = Copies of genes or segments of DNA.
➔ Reproductive cloning = Produces copies of a whole organism.
➔ Therapeutic cloning = Creates embryonic stem cells for lab research.
➔ Embryo cloning = Splitting the cells of an embryo before it is specialized therefore producing clones.
➔ Nuclear transfer = Transferring a sperm cell to an egg cell therefore stimulating cell division to produce an
embryo.

Describe the process of creating a clone using specialized cells.

➔ Nucleus
containing DNA is
removed from
unfertilized egg cell
of a female
organism.
➔ Skin cells
from a second party
are fused with the
egg cell through
electrical impulses.
➔ Cell fusion
occurs.
➔ Cell
division occurs.
➔ Early-stage
embryo is
developed and
implanted in a
surrogate mother.

Discuss the ethical issues associated with cloning.

The process of cloning is considered unethical in humans as it introduces a high likelihood of death and can be an
unsafe practice. Some raise the psychological issues of the compromised parent and child relationship due to
cloning. Also, the commodification of human life as a research project. Lastly, cloning has ethical concerns in
relation to scientists ‘playing god’.

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of cloning.

Advantages Disadvantages

➔ Allows farmers and breeders to reproduce ➔ Most cloned embryos do not develop properly.
faster. ➔ Low birth rate of embryos; inefficient.
➔ Produces healthier animals which reduces the ➔ Health effects have been observed in some
use of antibiotics and growth hormones species such as increased birth size and
 making the process more ethical and safer to various defects in the vital organs.
consumers. ➔ Other issues that arise include premature
➔ Can be used to protect endangered species. aging and problems with the immune system.

Define selective breeding; describe the process of selective breeding.

Selective breeding = The process of using animal and plant breeding to selectively develop certain phenotypic traits.
➔ Decide which traits are the most desirable and beneficial.
➔ Choose parents who present these traits.
➔ Select the best offspring from the parents to breed the next population.

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of selective breeding on farming.

Advantages Disadvantages

➔ Maximizes the quality of what is being bred. ➔ Increased risk of genetic mutations.
➔ Species variation. ➔ Is not always 100% successful.

Define the following.

Genetic modification = Technique used to change the characteristics of an organism by transferring pieces of DNA
to alter the genetic code.
Bacterium = Prokaryotic round, spiral, or rod-shaped single celled organisms belonging to domain bacteria.
Restriction enzyme = Protein produced by bacteria that splits DNA along the molecule.
Vector = DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell to be
replicated or expressed.
Plasmids = Small double stranded DNA unit capable of self-replicating.

Outline the process of genetic modification in bacteria to treat diabetes.

Bacteria can be genetically modified to possess a gene rendering itself capable of producing human insulin. This can
be used to treat people with diabetes as the disease is the result of being unable to produce insulin.

Discuss the impact of GMOs on farming and food production.

Genetic engineering is a common practice used in farming and agriculture. One beneficial trait that is modified is the
crop's ability to produce their own insecticide that reduces crop losses to insects. Also, GMOs can resist herbicides
which are used to kill weeds therefore, they don’t harm the actual plants. Genetic engineering can also produce crops
with greater nutritional value and those resistant to climate changes in seasons. Once an organism has been
genetically modified, it is referred to as a transgenic organism.

Evaluate the issues surrounding GMOs.

An ethical issue that rises with the topic of genetic engineering is the act of ‘playing god’. Also, the process of
genetic engineering in agriculture can be very expensive as farmers are required to purchase a new seed every year.
GMO companies have bought out seed selling companies controlling seed availability which has reduced the
amount of non-GMO seeds in certain areas. There can be many issues associated with the exposure of GMO into the
open environment including environmental risks. It can also lead to ecosystem damage and destruction due to
disturbances in the food chain such as imbalances between predators and prey.
Define stem cells and 3D bioprinting.
Stem cells = Cells from which all other specialized cells are formed from.

Categories of stem cells:

➔ Totipotent = Completely undifferentiated stem cell, capable of producing an entire organism. The zygote
and the cells at the very early stages following fertilization are considered totipotent.
➔ Pluripotent = Undifferentiated stem cell, capable of producing any cell type in the body. Human embryonic
stem cells and human induced pluripotent stem cells are considered pluripotent.
➔ Multipotent = Partially differentiated stem cell that can make a number of cell types within a particular
lineage. Adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells are considered multipotent.

3D bioprinting = Utilization of 3D printing techniques to combine cells to create parts that imitate natural ones.

Outline the process of bioprinting.

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of bioprinting.

Advantages Disadvantages

➔ Replaces organ donors. ➔ Expensive therefore not available to all.

➔ Could eliminate cell rejection. ➔ Consumes large amounts of energy.
➔ May replace animal testing. ➔ Difficult to maintain the cell environment
➔ Saves time with waiting for a suitable donor. which results in many cell deaths.

Define genome mapping.

Genome mapping = Methods used to identify the location of a gene and the distance between different genes.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of genome mapping.

Advantages Disadvantages

➔ Diagnosis of disease. ➔ Expensive process.

➔ Early detection of certain diseases. ➔ Genetic information collected can be misused
➔ Pinpoints where a gene lies on a specific invading a patient's privacy.
chromosome. ➔ Interrupts gene pool and natural selection.