THERMOCOUPLE

• Thermocouples are temperature measurement sensors that generate a voltage that changes
over temperature. Thermocouples are constructed from two wire leads made from different
metals.
• The wire Leads are welded together to create a junction.
• As the temperature changes from the junction to the ends Of the wire leads, a voltage develops
across the junction.
• Combinations of different metals create a variety of voltage responses. This leads to different
types of thermocouples used for different temperature ranges and accuracies.
• Choosing a thermocouple often is a function of the measurement temperature range required
in the application.
• Other considerations include the temperature accuracy, durability, conditions of use, and the
expected service life.
 THERMOCOUPLE
• Thermocouples are temperature measurement sensors that generate a voltage that changes
over temperature. Thermocouples are constructed from two wire leads made from different
metals.
• The wire Leads are welded together to create a junction.
• As the temperature changes from the junction to the ends Of the wire leads, a voltage develops
across the junction.
• Combinations of different metals create a variety of voltage responses. This leads to different
types of thermocouples used for different temperature ranges and accuracies.
• Choosing a thermocouple often is a function of the measurement temperature range required
in the application.
• Other considerations include the temperature accuracy, durability, conditions of use, and the
expected service life.
 THERMOCOUPLE
Seebeck Voltage

• In 1820, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when a metal bar is heated on
one end, a voltage (known as the Seebeck voltage) develops across the length of
the bar.

• This voltage varies with temperature and is different depending on the type of
metal used in the bar. By joining dissimilar metals that have different Seebeck
voltages at a temperature sensing junction, a thermocouple voltage (VTC) is
generated.

• The dissimilar metals are joined at a temperature sensing junction (TTC) to create a
thermocouple.

• The voltage is measured at a reference temperature (TCJ) through the two metals.
The leads of the thermocouple are required to be at the same temperature.
 THERMOCOUPLE AMPLIFIER
• Replace the input to our instrumentation
amplifier with a thermocouple to measure
temperature.
• Thermocouples use wires of dissimilar metals
to generate a small voltage when held at
different temperatures.
• A type J thermocouple which has an iron and
• constantan wire is used.
• Two thermocouples are used to measure a
temperature difference between the
• locations where the junction is made.
BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
• An opamp , four resistors and a transducer form the basic bridge amplifier,
BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
• An opamp , four resistors and a transducer form the basic bridge amplifier.
• A thermistor is used as a transducer whose resistance increases as its
temperature decreases. A transducer represented by a resistor R + change in
resistance ΔR.
• Rtransducer = Rreference+ ΔR
BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
• Current I is set by R1,Rref and E.
• I= E/(R1+Rref)
• Vo= 0 for Rtrans=Rref
• Vo= -E ( ΔR/ R1+Ref) =-I ΔR
Where ΔR = Rtrans- Rref

• Zero procedure:
1. Place the transducer in the reference environment eg 25º C
2. Adjust Rref until Vo= 0V
 BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE
•
MEASUREMENT
Design a temperature to voltage converter for a thermistor that will measure temperature between 25º C and 50º C.

Given: Rref = 10000ohms at Tref = 25º C

Design steps: Choose thermistor for the given range.

Select the reference temperature. At reference temp, Vo should be zero.

Calculate ΔR for each temperature

Rtransducer = Rreference+ ΔR

At 50º C, Rtrans = 3603 ohms

3603=10,000+ ΔR

ΔR = -6397 ohms

Select R1= 10Kohm, Choose E=1V

Calculate I= E/Rref+R1= 1/10Kohm+10Kohm = 0.050mA

Calculate Vo= -I ΔR= -0.05mA(-6397)= 319mV

Prepare table for T to V converter

BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT

table for T to V converter

BRIDGE AMPLIFIER FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
STRAIN
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically,
strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length.
Strain is the change in a dimension divided by the original dimension. For example, if we
apply a force to a bar of steel and the length of the bar changes from 10.00 inches to 10.01
inches, then the strain would be 𝜀 = ∆𝐿/𝐿
∆𝐿 /𝐿 = (10.01−10.00)/10.00 = 0.001 (in/in).
 STRAIN
We can measure strain using a device called a strain gauge (see Figure 1), which is
typically a metal foil conductor that is attached to the material that is under test so that
the strain gauge undergoes the same strain as the material. When the conductor in the
strain gauge is stretched by a tension force, it becomes slightly longer and narrower.
 STRAIN
The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length L, cross sectional area A, and
resistivity ρ: 𝑅 = 𝜌L/A
If the length L increases and/or the cross sectional area A decreases, then the resistance
of the conductor increases. This property allows us to measure the strain of a material by
measuring the slight resistance change in the strain gauge that is caused when the strain
gauge is stretched.
 STRAIN
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional
change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

 Strain Gauge Measurement
In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain (ε × 10–3).
Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance.
For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a substantial strain of 500 µε. A strain gauge with a
gauge factor GF = 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2•(500 × 10–6) = 0.1%. For a 120 Ω
gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 Ω.
To measure such small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature sensitivity discussed
in the previous section, strain gauges are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage or
current excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, consists of four resistive arms with an
excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the bridge.
The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

when R1/R2 = R4/R5, the voltage output VO will be zero

 . Strain Gauge Measurement
To measure such small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature
sensitivity discussed in the previous section, strain gauges are almost always used in a
bridge configuration with a voltage or current excitation source. The general Wheatstone
bridge, consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied
across the bridge.
The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

When R1/R2 = R4/R5, the voltage output VO will be zero.

The voltage output VO will be zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in
resistance in any arm of the bridge will result in a nonzero output voltage.
 Strain Gauge Measurement
If we replace R4 in Figure 3 with an active strain gauge, any changes in the strain gauge
resistance will unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal
resistance of the strain gauge is designated as RG, then the strain-induced change in
resistance, ∆R, can be expressed as ∆R = RG•GF•ε.
Assuming that R1 = R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above can be rewritten to
express VO/VEX as a function of strain

Where 𝜀 = ∆𝐿/𝐿
Note the presence of the 1/(1+GF•ε/2) term that indicates the nonlinearity of the quarter-
bridge output with respect to strain.
 Strain Gauge Measurement
By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be avoided. For
example, Figure illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one gauge is active (RG +
∆R), and a second gauge is placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain
has little effect on the second gauge, called the dummy gauge.
However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way. Because
the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance
does not change, the voltage VO does not change, and the effects of the temperature
change are minimized.
 Strain Gauge Measurement
We can double the sensitivity of the bridge to strain by making both gauges active,
although in different directions. For example, Figure 6 illustrates a bending beam
application with one bridge mounted in tension (RG + ∆R) and the other mounted in
compression (RG – ∆R). This half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also
illustrated in Figure , yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately doubles the
output of the quarter-bridge circuit.
 Strain Gauge Measurement
We can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of the arms of the
bridge active strain gauges, and mounting two gauges in tension and two gauges in
compression. The full-bridge circuit is shown in Figure
Strain Gauge Measurement
 Strain Gauge Problem
The full bridge configuration is used to measure the strain resulting from deflection of a
steel bar . Vo is assumed to be 100 mV. Calculate (a) ΔR (b) ΔR/R (c) ΔL/L. Given gain =
1000. GF =2, RG= 120 ohm

Gain = V0/VEX
VEX= 100mV/1000 = 0.1mV
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
SENSOR UNIT- LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR:
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
• The circuit of light sensor switch circuit is built
around very popular operational amplifier IC, light
dependent resistor (LDR), a general purpose PNP
transistor and few other components like resistor,
relay etc.
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
• Main sections:
• Sensor unit
• Voltage comparator unit
• Switching circuit unit
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
• SENSOR UNIT:
• The sensor is designed around a LDR and a variable resistor. We had used here GL5528 LDR photoresistor,
but you can use any module as per availability.
• LDR are made from cadmium sulphide containing no or very few free electrons when not illuminated then its
resistance is quite high. When it absorbed light, electron is liberated and the conductivity of the material
increases thus its resistance become low. The resistance rises to several mega-ohm under dark.
• LDR with variable resistance VR1 basically forms voltage divider network. The output of this network is given to
non-inverting input . The LDR is a variable resistor whose resistance change according to intensity of light
falling on it. Variable resistor VR1 is used to adjust the sensitivity of LDR i.e. On what intensity of light, circuit
triggers the load (bulb).
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
• VOLTAGE COMPARATOR UNIT:
• There are various application of OP-amp out of which IC 741 is configured in voltage
comparator mode which compare input voltage level given to two input pins (Inverting and
non-inverting pins) and produce the output. Resistor R1 and R2 forms a voltage divider
network which divide Vcc into two parts thus ½ Vcc volt is available at inverting input.

• Another input voltage are taken from voltage divider network using LDR and variable resistor
(VR1). Op-amp 741 compares these two voltage and produce output. If voltage at pin 3 is
high, output of IC1 is also high and if voltage at pin 3 is low output of IC1 is low.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
• SWITCHING CIRCUIT:
• The switching circuit is designed using a general purpose PNP transistor BC557. When
output of IC1 is high, the transistor drives to off state. As a result, Relay become dc-
energized. When output of IC741 is low, the transistor starts to conduct and relay
become energized.
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT SENSOR
SWITCH CIRCUIT
WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:
• The LDR is variable resistor whose resistance decrease with the
increases in light intensity. When light falling on an LDR has low
intensity (dependent upon adjustment of variable resistor VR1), its
resistor is large enough and the voltage across VR1 is less than ½
Vcc thus output if IC1 become low. This low output triggers the
transistor T1 and drive the relay, as a result bulb start to glow.
• However, when light falling on LDR is of large intensity, the
resistance of LDR falls and the voltage drop across VR1 is large
enough (more than ½ VCC). Thus, output of IC1 become high. This
high output drives the transistor in off state and as a result relay
become de-energized. Off state and as a result relay become de-
energized.
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT LEVEL
SENSING CIRCUIT
In this basic dark sensing circuit, the light dependent
resistor LDR1 and the potentiometer VR1 form one adjustable arm
of a simple resistance bridge network, also known commonly as
a wheatstone bridge, while the two fixed resistors R1 and R2 form
the other arm.
Both sides of the bridge form potential divider networks across the
supply voltage whose outputs V1 and V2 are connected to the
non-inverting and inverting voltage inputs respectively of the
operational amplifier.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT LEVEL
SENSING CIRCUIT
The operational amplifier is configured as a Differential Amplifier
also known as a voltage comparator with feedback whose output
voltage condition is determined by the difference between the two
input signals or voltages, V1 and V2.
The resistor combination R1 and R2 form a fixed voltage
reference at input V2, set by the ratio of the two resistors.
The LDR – VR1 combination provides a variable voltage input V1
proportional to the light level being detected by the photoresistor.
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT LEVEL
SENSING CIRCUIT
The output from the operational amplifier is used to control a
relay, which is protected by a free wheel diode, D1. When the light
level sensed by the LDR and its output voltage falls below the
reference voltage set at V2 the output from the op-amp changes
state activating the relay and switching the connected load.
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT LEVEL
SENSING CIRCUIT
• PHOTOJUNCTION DEVICES
• Photojunction devices are basically pn-junction light sensors or detectors made from
silicon semiconductor pn-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect
both visible light and infra-red light levels. Photo-junction devices are specifically made
for sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include the photodiode and
the phototransistor.
 PHOTO-DIODE CONSTRUCTION AND
CHARACTERISTICS
When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is
about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes. When
light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed
and the leakage current increases. This leakage current increases
as the illumination of the junction increases.
Thus, the photodiodes current is directly proportional to light
intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One main advantage of
photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response to
changes in the light levels, but one disadvantage of this type of
photo device is the relatively small current flow even when fully lit.
PHOTO-DIODE CIRCUIT
Fig shows a photo-current-to-voltage converter circuit using an
operational amplifier as the amplifying device.

The output voltage (Vout) is given as Vout = IP*Rƒ and which is

proportional to the light intensity characteristics of the photodiode.

This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an

operational amplifier with two input terminals at about zero
voltage to operate the photodiode without bias.
This zero-bias op-amp configuration gives a high impedance
loading to the photodiode resulting in less influence by dark
current and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to the
radiant light intensity.
Capacitor Cf is used to prevent oscillation or gain peaking and to
set the output bandwidth (1/2πRC).
PHOTO-DIODE APPLICATION
Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that
can turn its current flow both “ON” and “OFF” in
nanoseconds and are commonly used in
cameras, light meters, CD and DVD-ROM drives,
TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and
copiers etc, and when integrated into operational
amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors
for fibre optic communications, burglar alarm
motion detection circuits and numerous imaging,
laser scanning and positioning systems etc.
PHOTO-TRANSISTOR
The Phototransistor

An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the

Phototransistor which is basically a photodiode with
amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its
collector-base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it to the
radiant light source.

Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except

that they can provide current gain and are much more
sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100
times greater than that of the standard photodiode and any
normal transistor can be easily converted into a
phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode
between the collector and base.
PHOTO-TRANSISTOR
The Phototransistor

Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor

with its large base region electrically unconnected, although
some phototransistors allow a base connection to control the
sensitivity, and which uses photons of light to generate a base
current which in turn causes a collector to emitter current to
flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types whose outer
casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the
light onto the base junction for increased sensitivity.
 PHOTO TRANSISTOR
In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with
respect to the emitter so that the base/collector junction is
reverse biased.
therefore, with no light on the junction normal leakage or
dark current flows which is very small.
When light falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are
formed in this region and the current produced by this
action is amplified by the transistor.
Usually the sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of
the DC current gain of the transistor. Therefore, the overall
sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be
controlled by connecting a resistance between the base
and the emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler
type applications, Darlington phototransistors are
generally used.
 MEASURING CURRENT FROM
PHOTODETECTOR
• When the switch is at position 1, the photoconductive cell
(aslo known as light sensitive resistor) is connected in
series with inverting input and Ei. The resistance of a
photoconductive cell is very high in darkness and much
lower when illuminated.
• Dark resistance > 500 KΩ
• Light resistance in bright sun = 5 KΩ (approx.)
• If Ei= 5V, photoconductive cell current = I = 5V/ 500 KΩ = 10µA
in dark
• I = 5V/ 5 KΩ = 1mA
 MEASURING CURRENT FROM
PHOTODETECTOR
• When the switch is at position 2, the photodiode (aslo
known as light sensitive resistor) is connected in series
with inverting input (virtual ground) and Ei.

• The photodiode is reversed biased. The resistance of a

photodiode is very high in darkness and conducts a small
leakage current of order of nA.
• Depending on radiant energy striking the diode, it conducts
10µA or more
• I doesnot depend on Ei only on energy striking the
photodiode.
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER

WORKING PRINCIPLE :
When an electrically heated wire is placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is transferred
from the wire to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire reduces, and due to this,
the resistance of the wire also changes. This change in resistance of the wire becomes a
measure of flow rate.
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
Hot Wire Anemometer Principle
The main parts of the arrangement are
as follows:
•Conducting wires placed in a ceramic
body.
•Leads are taken from the conducting
wires and they are connected to one of
the limbs of the wheat stone bridge to
enable the measurement of change in
resistance of the wire.
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
Types of Hot wire Anemometer

There are two methods of measuring

flow rate using a anemometer bridge
combination namely:

•Constant current method

•Constant temperature method
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
The bridge arrangement along with the anemometer has been
shown in diagram.
The anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to measure
flow rate.
A constant current is passed through the sensing wire. That is,
the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant, that is,
not varied.

Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas and hence the temperature of the
sensing wire reduces causing a change in the resistance of the
sensing wire.
This change in resistance becomes a measure of flow rate.
Due to this, the galvanometer which was initially at zero
position deflects and this deflection of the galvanometer
becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated.
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
A current is initially passed through the wire.
Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas and this tends to change the
temperature and hence the resistance of the wire.

The principle in this method is to maintain the temperature and

resistance of the sensing wire at a constant level. Therefore,
the current through the sensing wire is increased to bring the
sensing wire to have its initial resistance and temperature.

The electrical current required in bringing back the resistance

and hence the temperature of the wire to its initial condition
becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated.
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
Advantages
The advantages of a hot wire anemometer are listed below.
•The electronic components used in the design are at affordable rates and accurate
•It offers high sensitivity
•The spatial resolution of the hot wire anemometer is excellent.
•The provides a high-frequency response. That is greater than 10KHz
•It can operate at high temperatures
•The instrument is small and its operation is very simple because there is no additional sensor.
•It has data handling capabilities to collect meaningful data.
•The ratio of signal to noise is low.
•There is a possibility of high flow rates of the fluid.
•It is a well-established, reliable, and accurate device.
•It can measure turbulent and laminar flows
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
Disadvantages
The few disadvantages of hot wire anemometer are,
•It is a fragile type device and can be used only in clean gas fluids.
•Recalibration of a device is necessary due to the accumulation of dust.
•The turbulence intensity is high
•The probes of the instrument might break.
•Contamination issues
•Heat transfer issues between the probe and the surface
•The pointer deflection issues due to the change in atmospheric temperature.
•The power required to operate the device is more.
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
Applications
Some of the applications of hot wire anemometers are given below.
•Used to monitor and check flow hoods, exhaust systems, and HVAC systems
•Used to measure the instantaneous velocity of the fluid.
•Used to measure areas with constant ambient temperature and lower wind velocity.
•Used in automotive industries to monitor air consumption of an engine.
•Used in industrial electronics to calculate airflow, humidity, and temperature on electronic components,
computer chips, PCB’s, electronic enclosures, data center rooms and mounted equipment
•Used in the pharmaceutical industry to monitor the airflow in biosafety cabins, chemical fume, and
laminar flow hoods
•Used by the HVAC professionals to monitor and detect changes in speed and direction of airflow for the
performance testing and safety of the complex ventilation systems.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• Linear hall-effect ICs are magnetic sensor devices designed to respond to magnetic
fields to produce a proportionate amount of electrical output.
• Itthus becomes useful for measuring the strength of magnetic fields, and in
applications that require an output switched through magnetic triggers.
• The modern hall effect ICs are designed with immunity to most mechanical stressful
conditions such as vibrations, jerks, shocks and also against moisture and other
atmospheric pollutions.
• These devices are also immune to ambient temperature variations which otherwise
could make these components vulnerable to heat producing incorrect output results.
• Typically, modern linear Hall Effect ICs can work optimally over a temperature range of
-40 to +150 degree Celsius.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of
rectangular p-type semiconductor material such as gallium
arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium
arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current through itself.
• When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the
magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor
material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and
holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab. This
movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic
force they experience passing through the semiconductor
material.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential
difference is produced between the two sides of the
semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge
carriers. Then the movement of electrons through the
semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an
external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this
effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped material.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a
magnetic field is called the Hall Effect after Edwin Hall who
discovered it back in the 1870’s with the basic physical principle
underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force. To generate a
potential difference across the device the magnetic flux lines
must be perpendicular, (90o) to the flow of current and be of
the correct polarity, generally a south pole.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
The Hall effect provides information regarding the type of
magnetic pole and magnitude of the magnetic field. For example,
a south pole would cause the device to produce a voltage output
while a north pole would have no effect. Generally, Hall Effect
sensors and switches are designed to be in the “OFF”, (open
circuit condition) when there is no magnetic field present. They
only turn “ON”, (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a
magnetic field of sufficient strength and polarity.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor
The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall Element is
directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field passing through the
semiconductor material (output ∝ H).
This output voltage can be quite small, only a few microvolts even when subjected
to strong magnetic fields so most commercially available Hall effect devices are
manufactured with built-in DC amplifiers, logic switching circuits and voltage
regulators to improve the sensors sensitivity, hysteresis and output voltage.

This also allows the Hall effect sensor to operate over a wider range of power
supplies and magnetic field conditions.
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or
digital outputs. The output signal for linear (analogue)
sensors is taken directly from the output of the
operational amplifier with the output voltage being
directly proportional to the magnetic field passing
through the Hall sensor. This output Hall voltage is
given as:

hall effect voltage

HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or
digital outputs. The output signal for linear (analogue)
sensors is taken directly from the output of the
operational amplifier with the output voltage being
directly proportional to the magnetic field passing
through the Hall sensor. This output Hall voltage is
given as:
•Where:
•VH is the Hall Voltage in volts
hall effect voltage
•RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
•I is the current flow through the sensor in amps
•t is the thickness of the sensor in mm
•B is the Magnetic Flux density in Teslas
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Linear or analogue sensors give a continuous voltage output that increases with a
strong magnetic field and decreases with a weak magnetic field. In linear output
Hall effect sensors, as the strength of the magnetic field increases the output
signal from the amplifier will also increase until it begins to saturate by the limits
imposed on it by the power supply. Any additional increase in the magnetic field
will have no effect on the output but drive it more into saturation.
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Digital output sensors on the other hand have a Schmitt-trigger with built in hysteresis
connected to the op-amp. When the magnetic flux passing through the Hall sensor
exceeds a pre-set value the output from the device switches quickly between its “OFF”
condition to an “ON” condition without any type of contact bounce.

This built-in hysteresis eliminates any oscillation of the output signal as the sensor
moves in and out of the magnetic field. Then digital output sensors have just two
states, “ON” and “OFF”.
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Digital output sensors on the other hand have a Schmitt-trigger with built in hysteresis
connected to the op-amp. When the magnetic flux passing through the Hall sensor
exceeds a pre-set value the output from the device switches quickly between its “OFF”
condition to an “ON” condition without any type of contact bounce.

This built-in hysteresis eliminates any oscillation of the output signal as the sensor
moves in and out of the magnetic field. Then digital output sensors have just two
states, “ON” and “OFF”.
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• Most hall effect devices can not directly switch large electrical loads as their output drive capabilities
are very small around 10 to 20mA. For large current loads an open-collector (current sinking) NPN
transistor is added to the output.

• This transistor operates in its saturated region as a npn sink switch which shorts the output terminal to
ground whenever the applied flux density is higher than that of the “on” pre-set point.

• The output switching transistor can be either an open emitter transistor, open collector transistor
configuration or both providing a push-pull output type configuration that can sink enough current to
directly drive many loads, including relays, motors, LEDs, and lamps.
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Circuit diagram using hall effect sensor
• The hall effect sensor explained above can be quickly
configured through a few external parts for converting
magnetic field into electrical toggling pulses for controlling
a load. The simple circuit diagram can be seen below:
In this configuration, the hall effect sensor will convert a
magnetic field within a specified proximity and will convert it
into a linear analogue signal across its "out" pin.