Sensors & Transducers

The Wheatstone Bridge

 Many biomedical passive transducers/sensors are used in a circuit
configuration called a Wheatstone bridge.
 The Wheatstone bridge circuit is ideal for measuring small changes in
resistance.
 The Wheatstone bridge can be viewed as two resistor voltage dividers
connected in parallel with the voltage source E.

Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Circuit
Bridge Circuit Redrawn for
Simplify Analysis
The Wheatstone Bridge
The output voltage E0 is the difference between the two ground
referenced potentials EC and ED produced by the two voltage divider
networks;

Where EC and ED can be calculated as;

So, the output can be calculated as;

• Example: A Wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12
v dc source and contains the following
resistances; R1 = 1.2 kΩ, R2 = 3 kΩ, R3 = 2.2 kΩ,
and R4 = 5 kΩ. Find the output voltage E0.

Solution
Null Condition
 The null condition in a Wheatstone bridge circuit exists when the output voltage E0
is zero.
 The equation of Wheatstone bridge is,

 The null condition exists when either the excitation source voltage E must
be zero or the expression inside bracket s must be equal to zero.
 So the null condition occurs when; ECB = EDB and EAC = EAD
 Therefore, the ratio of two equals are,

Replacing voltages with the equivalent current and resistance ,

So, the null condition in a Wheatstone bridge

circuit occurs when
Cont…
• Example: Show that the null condition exists in a Wheatstone bridge consisting of the following
resistances, R1 = 2 kΩ, R2 = 1 kΩ, R3 =10 kΩ, and R4 = 5 kΩ.

• Solution

 Note that it is not necessary for the resistances to be equal for the null
condition, only that the ratios of the two half-bridge voltage dividers must be
equal.
 Since both sides of the equation evaluate to the same quantity, we may
conclude that the bridge is in the null condition.
 A bridge in the null condition is said to be balanced.
Strain Gauge
 Strain gauges are displacement-type transducers that
measure changes in the length of an object as a result of an
applied force.
 A strain gauge is a resistive element that produces a
change in its resistance proportional to an applied
mechanical strain.
 A strain is a force applied in either compression (a push
along the axis to-word the center) or tension (a pull along
the axis away from the center).
 The piezoresistive effect describes change in the electrical
resistivity of a semiconductor when mechanical stress
(force) is applied.
 Mechanism for Piezoresistivity
• Figure (a): shows a small metallic bar with no
force applied.
 It will have a length L and a cross-sectional area A.
 Changes in length are given by ΔL and changes in
area are given by ΔA.
• Figure (b): shows the result of applying a
compression force to the ends of the bar.
 The length reduces to L – ΔL, and the cross-sectional
area increases to A + ΔA.
• Figure (c): shows the result of applying a tension
force of the same magnitude to the bar.
 The length increases to L + ΔL, and the cross-
sectional area reduces to A – ΔA.
 Strain Gauge Resistance
 The resistance of a metallic bar is given in terms of
the length and cross-sectional area in the expression as;

Where;
•ρ is the resistivity constant of the material in ohm-meter (Ω-m)
•L is the length in meters (m)
•A is the cross-sectional area in square meters (m2)
 The above equation shows that the resistance is directly
proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the square
of the cross-sectional area.
Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge
• Piezoresistivity:
 The change of resistance with changes in size and shape is some called
piezoresistivity.
 The resistance of the bar will become R + h in tension.
 The resistance of the bar will become R - h in compression.
 Where the h is change in resistance.
 Examine the equation of strain gauge, it is found that changes in both
length and cross-sectional area tend to increase the resistance in tension
and decrease the resistance in compression.
 The resistances after force is applied are in tension:

 The resistances after force is applied are in compression:

Strain Gauge

• Example: A thin constantan wire stretched taut has a length of 30 mm and a cross-
sectional area of 0.01 mm2. The resistance is 1.5 Ω. The force applied to the wire
is increased so that the length further increases by 10 mm and the cross-sectional
area decreases by 0.0027 mm2. Find the change in resistance h, where the
resistivity of constantan is approximately 5 x 10-7 Ω-m.
• Solution:

where
 Gauge Factor (GF):
 The fractional change in resistance, (ΔR/R), divided by the fractional change
in length, (ΔL/L), is called the gauge factor (GF).
 The gauge factor GF is a unit less number.
 The gauge factor provides sensitivity information on the expected change in
resistance for a given change in the length of a strain gauge.
 The gauge factor varies with temperature and the type of material.
 Therefore, it is important to select a material with a high gauge factor and
small temperature coefficient.
 For a common metal wire strain gauge made of constantan, GF is
approximately equal to 2.
 Semiconductor strain gauges made of silicon have a GF about 70 to 100 times
higher and are therefore much more sensitive than metallic wire strain gauges.
Cont…
 The gauge factor (GF) for a strain gauge transducer
is a means of comparing it with other semiconductor
transducers.
 The definition of gauge factor is;
or where
Where;
GF is the gauge factor (dimensionless)
ΔR is the change in resistance in ohms (Ω)
R is the unstrained resistance in ohms (Ω)
ΔL is the change in length in meters (m)
L is the length in meters (m)
Cont…
• Example: A 20 mm length of wire used as a strain gauge exhibits a resistance of
150 Ω. When a force is applied in tension, the resistance changes by 2 Ω and the
length changes by 0.07 mm. Find the gauge factor GF.
Solution

 The gauge factor gives us a means for evaluating the relative sensitivity of a
strain gauge element.
 The greater the change in resistance per unit change in length the greater the
sensitivity of the element and the greater the gauge factor GF.
Types of Strain Gauges
Strain gauges typically fall into two categories:
1. Unbonded Strain Gauge
2. Bonded Strain Gauge
 Unbounded Strain Gauge
 The resistance element is a thin wire of a special alloy
that is stretched taut between two flexible supports, which
are in turn mounted on a thin metal diaphragm.
 When a force such as F1 is applied, the diaphragm will
flex in a manner that spreads the supports further apart,
causing an increased tension in the resistance wire.
 This tension tends to increase the resistance of the wire
in an amount proportional to the applied force.
 Cont…
 Similarly, if a force such as F2 is
applied to the diaphragm, the ends of the
supports move closer together, reducing
the tension in the taut wire.
 This action is the same as applying a

compression force to the wire.

 The electrical resistance in this case

will reduce in an amount proportional to

the applied force
 Bonded Strain Gauge

 A bonded strain gauge is

made by cementing a thin wire
or foil element to a diaphragm.
 Flexing the diaphragm
deforms the element. causing a
change in electrical resistance
exactly as in the unbonded strain
gauge.
Strain Gauge
 Many biomedical strain gauge transducers are of bonded construction because
the linear range is adequate and the extra ruggedness is a desirable feature in
medical environments.
 The Statham P-23 series are of the unbonded type strain gauge transducer but are
made in a very rugged housing. These are among the most common cardiovascular
pressure transducers used in medicine.
 In addition, changes in temperature can also cause thermal expansion of the wire
and thus lead to large changes in the resistance of a strain gauge.
 Therefore, very sensitive electronic amplifiers with special temperature
compensation circuits are typically used in applications involving strain gauge
transducers.
 Strain Gauge
 Most physiological strain gauge
transducers use four strain gauge elements
connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit as
shown in the figure.
 Both bonded and unbonded types of
transducers are found with an element
geometry that places two elements in
tension and two elements in compression for
any applied force (tension or compression).
 Such a configuration increases the output
Mechanical configuration Using a
of the bridge for any applied force and so common diaphragm
increases the sensitivity of the transducer .
Cont…
 Assume that all resistors of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit are equal
(R1 = R2, = R3, = R4) when no force
is applied.
 Let ΔR = h, when a force is applied,
the resistance of R1 and R4 will be (R
+h), and the resistance of R2 and R3
will be (R – h).
 From a rewritten version of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit equation, we
know that the output voltage is
Cont…
• Example: A strain gauge transducer is constructed in
a Wheatstone bridge circuit configuration. In the
null condition, each element has a resistance of 200
Ω. When a force is applied, each resistance changes
by 10 Ω. Find the output voltage if a 10-V
excitation potential is applied to the bridge.
• Solution
Transducer Sensitivity
 It is the rating that allows us to predict the output voltage from knowledge of the
excitation voltage and the value of the applied stimulus.
 The units for sensitivity (Φ) are micro-volts per volt of excitation per unit of
applied stimulus (μν/ν/g).
 If the sensitivity factor (Φ) is known for a transducer, then the output voltage
may be calculated as,

where
E0 is the output potential in volts (V)
E is the excitation potential in volts (V)
F is the applied force in grams (g)
Φ is the sensitivity in (μν/ν/g)
 Cont…
• Example: A transducer has a sensitivity of 10
μν/ν/g. Predict the output voltage for an applied
force of 15 g, if the excitation potential is 5 V dc.
• Solution

Note that the sensitivity is important in both the design and the repair of
medical instruments because it allows us to predict the output voltage
for a given stimulus level, and therefore the gain of the amplifier
required for processing the signal.
 Potentiometer Transducers
 A potentiometer is a resistive-type transducer that
converts either linear or angular displacement into an
output voltage by moving a sliding contact along the
surface of a resistive element.
 Figure below illustrates linear (a) and angular (b)
type potentiometric transducers.
 A voltage Vi is applied across the resistor R (at
terminal a and b). The output voltage Vo between the
sliding contact (terminal c) and one terminal of the
resistor (terminal a or b) is linearly proportional to
the displacement.
 Elastic Resistive Transducers
 In certain clinical situations, it is desirable to measure changes in
the peripheral volume of a leg when the venous outflow of blood
from the leg is temporarily occluded by a blood pressure cuff.
 This volume-measuring method is called plethysmography.
 The measurement can be performed by wrapping an elastic
resistive transducer around the leg and measuring the rate of change
in resistance of the transducer as a function of time.
 This change corresponds to relative changes in the blood volume
of the leg.
 If a clot is present, it will take more time for the blood stored in
the leg to flow out through the veins after the temporary occlusion is
removed.
 A similar transducer can be used to follow a patient’s breathing
pattern by wrapping the elastic band around the chest.
 Cont…
 An elastic resistive transducer consists of
a thin elastic tube filled with an electrically
conductive material, as illustrated in the
Figure below.
 The resistance of the conductor inside the
flexible tubing is given by;

Where;
ρ is the resistivity of the electrically conductive material in ohm-
meter (Ω-m)
L is the length in meters (m)
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor in square meters
(m2)
Cont…
• Example: A 0.1 m long by 0.005 m diameter elastic resistive transducer has a
resistance of 1 kΩ.
(1) Calculate the resistivity of the electrically conductive material inside the
transducer.
(2) Calculate the resistance of the transducer after it has been wrapped around a
patient’s chest having a circumference of 1.2 m. Assume that the cross-sectional
area of the transducer remains unchanged.

Solution
 Capacitive Transducers
• The capacitance, C (in farad), between two equal-size parallel plates
of cross-sectional area, A, separated by a distance, d, is given by;

• where
ϵo is the dielectric constant of free space (8.85 ×10-12 F/m),
ϵr is the relative dielectric constant of the insulating material placed between the
two plates.
The method that is most commonly employed to measure displacement is to
change the separation distance, d, between a fixed and a movable plate.
This arrangement can be used to measure force, pressure, or acceleration.
Capacitive Transducers
• Capacitive displacement transducer:
• (a) Single Capacitance
• (b) Differential Capacitance.
Cont…
• Example:
Biopotential
Electrodes