An Educational Programming

Framework for a Subset of

Students With Diverse
Learning Needs:
Borderline Intellectual Functioning

S TEVEN R. S HAW

Students with intelligence test scores between 70 and 85 frequently fall

into the gap between general and special education. Students with bor-
derline intellectual functioning are a large population at-risk for school
failure. Recent educational trends (e.g., the use of response to interven-
tion models of special education eligibility, implementation of inclusive
education, and the accountability components of No Child Left Behind)
have increased awareness and may serve as a catalyst for improving the
education of students with borderline intellectual functioning. However,
students currently receive few supportive educational services. An edu-
cational programming framework is developed for improving the edu-
cation of students with borderline intellectual functioning in response to
recent educational trends. Effective instructional practices can build aca-
demic resilience skills to ameliorate the important, but often-ignored,
risk factor of borderline intellectual functioning.

Keywords: intervention; academic; instruction; accommodations; dif-

ferential curriculum for students with mild disabilities;
© 2008 Hammill Institute on Disabilities inclusion; strategies; intervention(s)
10.1177/1053451208314735
http://isc.sagepub.com

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 tudents with borderline intellectual function- to the educational issues of students with borderline

S ing have intelligence test scores between 70

and 85. Nationwide, this population makes up
approximately 14% of the population, which is
more than all students in all special education
categories combined (Shaw, 1999a). Although these stu-
dents have intelligence test scores that range from the
2nd to the 16th percentile and frequently have difficulty
intellectual functioning.

Trends Affecting Students With

Borderline Intellectual Functioning
Response to intervention. With the revision of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA,
acquiring academic skills, they often are not eligible for 2004), the criteria for learning disabilities may include
special education services (Kaznowski, 2004; MacMillan, measures other than discrepancy models (i.e., differences
Gresham, Siperstein, & Bocian, 1996). between intelligence test scores and academic achievement
Students with borderline intellectual functioning are test scores). Response to intervention (RTI) models have
a subset of diverse learners who account for dispropor- been used to determine special education eligibility in
tionately high levels of school dropout, grade retention, many areas of the United States (Jimerson, Burns, &
school suspension and expulsion, referral for special edu- VanDerheyden, 2007). These models involve providing
cation services, teen pregnancy, incarceration, illicit drug support services for all students with severe difficulty
use, aggression, mental health problems, and underem- acquiring academic skills based on curriculum-based meas-
ployment and unemployment (Ahrens, Evans, & Barnett, urement (CBM) models of assessment (Hale, 2006).
1990; Shaw, 1999a; 1999b). Students with borderline Students who fail to improve significantly with academic
intellectual functioning often have deficits in social skills, interventions and support services may then be eligible for
attention, speech and language skills, and school readi- more intensive services and specialized instruction (Lau
ness (Lynam, Moffitt, Stouthamer-Loeber, 1993; Shaw, et al., 2006; Marston, Muyskens, Lau, & Canter, 2003).
2000a). Students with borderline intellectual functioning Given that intelligence test scores do not factor into RTI
have been called slow learners, shadow children, gray- models, there is no formal differentiation between students
area kids, low achievers, educationally subnormal, and with borderline intelligence and students with learning dis-
crack kids (i.e., because they fall between the cracks) abilities (Jimerson et al., 2007). Therefore, RTI models
because they rarely meet eligibility criteria for special edu- may bring more students with borderline intelligence into
cation but have high failure rates in the general education the special education milieu (Lau et al., 2006).
setting (MacMillan, Gresham, Bocian, & Lambros, 1998;
Stuebing & Shaywitz, 1998; Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1990). Inclusive education. General education classrooms are the
These terms are considered to be pejorative, outmoded, preferred environment for the education of children
and even offensive (Cooter & Cooter, 2004). The label with identified disabilities and diverse learning needs
“children with diverse learning needs” is now widely (Acrey, Johnstone, & Milligan, 2005). Widely imple-
used and far more acceptable in education (Coyne, mented in Canada and throughout Europe, inclusive
Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2007). classrooms are becoming the norm in the United States
as well (Florian, 1998); inclusive education results in
classrooms consisting of students who are heteroge-
Current Educational Services neous in academic ability. Pressures on classroom
teachers to effectively educate (i.e., improve standard-
The majority of students with borderline intellectual ized achievement test scores) increasingly diverse class-
functioning currently receive educational services in the rooms are growing (Heubert, 2002). An educational
general education classroom (MacMillan et al., 1998). programming framework that addresses the specific
However, a large minority of them receive special educa- needs of children with borderline educational function-
tion services in the categories of learning disabilities and ing can help to address the daunting challenges facing
emotionally disabled (MacMillan et al., 1998). There are educators.
few formal educational supports for this population,
although many school systems develop local program- No Child Left Behind. An important aspect of No Child
ming to provide remedial instruction (Kaznowski, 2004; Left Behind (2001) is that all students achieve at a proficient
Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1990). Overall, there is evidence level based on standardized tests of academic achievement
that many students with borderline intelligence are lan- developed by each state. Group-administered standardized
guishing between being ineligible for special education achievement test scores have become the most valued
services and being unable to compete academically with metric in most education systems (Elliott & Thurlow,
their higher-ability peers (MacMillan et al., 1996). To a 2006). This has placed pressure on teachers in the gen-
large degree, this population has been ignored by educa- eral and special education systems to produce students
tors (Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1990). However, there are with high test scores on standardized group achievement
trends in education with the potential to bring attention tests (Heubert, 2002). Teachers are expected to produce

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students who are performing proficiently as demon- Preference for Concrete Material
strated by standardized tests. However, many students
The more abstract the material, the more difficult under-
are of borderline intellectual functioning and are under-
standing of the material and motivation to learn the mate-
prepared for reading, writing, and mathematics (Elliott
rial becomes for students with borderline intellectual
& Thurlow, 2006). Students with borderline intellectual
functioning (Singh, 2004). This is, in large part, a result of
functioning present significant challenges to all educa-
students with borderline intellectual functioning often hav-
tors (Kame’enui, 1993). Raising standardized test scores
ing limitations in working memory (Verguts & DeBoeck,
has become the primary goal of nearly all academic inter-
2001). Working memory is the capacity to hold informa-
vention programs.
tion in mind for the purpose of completing complex tasks
(Sandberg, 2001). When possible, material should be pre-
Summary sented so that there is the opportunity for physical manip-
Students with borderline intelligence have been an over- ulation of materials rather than mental manipulation, with
looked population. This population is generally unsuc- its heavy demands on working memory (Haughton, 1980).
cessful in the general education environment but is rarely
eligible for special education services. Three major edu- Problems With Organization of Knowledge
cational trends have increased awareness and have served
Learning is most effective when it can be assimilated into
as a catalyst for improving the education of students with
a framework of previously learned information (Kolligan
borderline intellectual functioning. The first trend is the
& Sternberg, 1987). New information that does not relate
movement toward needs-based eligibility criteria for spe-
to previously learned information tends to be ineffectively
cial education services using RTI assessment models.
stored and ultimately forgotten (Verguts & DeBoeck,
The second trend is the increased use of inclusive educa-
2001). Students with borderline intelligence tend to have
tional practices, which increases the heterogeneity of
more difficulty recognizing the relationship between
academic skills in the classroom. The third trend is the
newly taught information and previously learned informa-
mandate to increase test scores on standardized achieve-
tion than their average functioning peers (Verguts &
ment tests developed by states and provinces. To address
deBoeck, 2001). Most often, teachers assume that students
these trends, an educational programming framework is
make the connection automatically (Gravemeijer, 1997).
proposed. A framework for the effective education of stu-
The difficulty in integrating new and old information
dents with borderline intellectual functioning requires
results in slower academic skill gains for this population
the following criteria be met:
(Anderson, Fincham, & Douglass, 1999). Explicitly stated
1. Can be implemented by general education teachers. and strategic integration of newly presented information
2. Does not interfere with the instructional needs of along with older information can be an important factor in
other children in classrooms that are heterogeneous improving the instruction of students with borderline
for academic skills. intelligence (Cooter & Cooter, 2004).
3. Is flexible enough to meet the needs of children
from elementary to high school. Difficulty Generalizing Material
4. Has potential to raise achievement test scores. Rote memorization of facts is an insufficient outcome of
5. Can be evaluated. instruction (Kim, Woodruff, Klein, & Vaughn, 2006). The
6. Meets the specific needs of students with borderline ability to generalize strategies is a major component of
intellectual functioning. deep learning (Alessi, 1987). Moreover, most states have
developed high-stakes achievement tests that require sig-
nificant reasoning, inference, application of knowledge,
Characteristics of Students With flexible problem solving, and mastery of material (Elliott
Borderline Intelligence & Thurlow, 2006). Instruction involving simple rote
Students with borderline intellectual functioning have sev- memory of material will result in failing test scores in most
eral characteristics that make classroom learning and suc- states (Silberglitt, Burns, Madyun, & Lail, 2006). Whereas
cessful test performance difficult. These characteristics are a students of average intelligence generalize skills with little
preference for concrete, rather than abstract, learning activ- formal instruction, generalization is a critical teacher-
ities (Singh, 2004); difficulty mentally organizing and stor- driven component of instruction for students with border-
ing newly learned information (Verguts & DeBoeck, 2001); line intellectual functioning (Alessi, 1987).
difficulty generalizing material to new situations (Jensen,
Need for an Increased Pace of Instruction
1998); requiring additional practice to master academic
material (Cooter & Cooter, 2004); and problems with aca- The phrase “slow learner” is an often-used colloquialism
demic motivation (Guay & Vallerand, 1996–1997). for students with borderline intelligence and suggests

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that students with borderline intellectual functioning can be developed. This framework includes concrete
learn more slowly than their average-intelligence instruction, preorganized instruction, generalization
peers. This is not entirely true. Students with border- strategies, appropriately paced classrooms, and develop-
line intellectual functioning have rote memory skills in ing academic motivation. The application of any frame-
the average range (Rodden-Nord & Shinn, 1991). Rote work requires evaluation. An assessment component for
memorization is often a relative strength of students with evaluation of the framework is also described.
borderline intellectual functioning (Jensen, 1998).
However, because students with borderline intellectual Concrete Instruction
functioning do not generalize well, they need more prac-
tice than their average-intelligence peers to understand Experiential teaching methods such as carrying out sci-
and apply a concept. Although it may take students with ence projects; dissecting animals; writing, illustrating,
borderline intellectual functioning more practice to be and publishing books; and working in community-based
able to understand and apply each lesson, it is not schools without walls have been the domain of gifted
because more time is required for them to memorize education (Guay & Vallerand, 1996–1997; Haughton,
each fact. They often require more time to learn a lesson 1980). Meanwhile, their average- and low-ability peers
because they have to learn more examples that take more are required to gain skills and knowledge through the
time before they effectively understand and apply new abstractness of lecture, seatwork, reading, and rehearsal.
concepts (Born & Moore, 1978). In other words, stu- In many regards, this is the reverse of an effective educa-
dents with average to above-average intelligence simply tional strategy (Rapp, 2005). Students with borderline
need to learn the rule or strategy, and then they can apply intellectual functioning have difficulty with abstract con-
it appropriately as needed (Bateman, 1991). Students cepts such as those learned through books or lectures
with borderline intellectual functioning need to over- (Anderson et al., 1999). Conversely, students with bor-
learn each possible application of the rule or strategy derline intellectual functioning perform and learn most
before understanding and before the application of the effectively when they can see, feel, touch, and do
concept becomes clear. Thus, students with borderline (Saunders & Shepardson, 1987). High-ability students
intellectual functioning are extremely inefficient in their perform at a high level in the abstract world of reading
ability to understand and apply new academic informa- and lecture (Rapp, 2005). Yet, for instruction of students
tion (Bateman, 1991). with borderline intellectual functioning to be most effec-
tive, active instruction should consist of the see-it, feel-it,
hear-it, touch-it, do-it approach to teaching (Cooter &
Deficits in Academic Motivation Cooter, 2004; Shaw, 2000b).
When students with borderline intellectual functioning Reading is by nature an abstract task. Black print on
begin school, academic motivation is rarely a problem white paper is translated into symbols that are translated
(Hihi & Harachiewicz, 2000). However, as they get into words and then thoughts. Teaching basic decoding
older, a consistent pattern emerges. Strong effort in the skills is an abstract task requiring a highly structured
early grades is met with academic frustration and possi- approach (Engelmann, Carnine, & Johnson, 1988).
ble failure. Despite the students’ efforts, this cycle of aca- Structured reading programs using direct instruction such
demic frustration and failure is repeated. After some as Reading Mastery (Engelmann & Bruner, 1988), Wilson
years, the cumulative effect of frustration and failure is Reading System (B. A. Wilson, 1988), Orton-Gillingham
that students simply stop trying (Guay & Vallerand, (Gillingham & Stillman, 1997), and Lindamood Bell
1996–1997). In the classroom, such students are referred (Lindamood & Lindamood, 2001) are well supported and
to as unmotivated and, sometimes, as lazy. Academic recommended (Carreker et al., 2005; Gorman, 1997; Joshi,
motivation may have some temperamental and early Dahlgren, & Boulware-Gooden, 2002; Wiltz & Wilson,
environmental factors that place a child at risk for moti- 2005-2006). Some of these direct-instruction programs
vation deficits (Levine, 2003). However, academic moti- (e.g., Wilson Reading System and Orton-Gillingham) take
vation and effort are often extinguished by repeated the opportunity to include specific concrete activities such
failure and frustration (Levine, 2003). as tapping out syllables, drawing letters in sand, and other
experiential aspects of instruction (Gillingham & Stillman,
1997; B. A. Wilson, 1988). Although often referred to as
Framework for Educational multisensory instruction (Gillingham & Stillman, 1997),
the key feature of multisensory instruction may be the con-
Programming crete nature of the instruction rather than the use of mul-
Based on the five major characteristics of students with tiple sensory channels.
borderline intellectual functioning, the following compo- Concreteness also refers to the immediate relevance
nents present the basis for a framework on which differ- of a task to students (Joshi et al., 2002). Reading practice
entiated instruction in a heterogeneous ability classroom can be both concrete and motivating for students. One

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method of improving the concreteness and relevance of related material that has been previously learned and
reading practice is to develop a how-to library. The how- mastered (Cates, 2005). This use of advanced organizers
to library is a collection of how-to books. Students find is well known and widely used (Salend, 2005; Swanson &
reading about building a scale model, then actually Hoskyn, 2001).
building the model, to be motivating (Salend, 2005). Presentation of new material should take place in a
Students read and follow cookbook recipes to create consistent, stepwise fashion. Note that the last step is
something they can eat. Books about playing football, generalization.
dancing, auto repair, computer gaming tips, model car
building, and magic tricks are exciting for students. 1. The association with previously learned information
Even in adult-audience how-to books, the vocabulary needs to be made clear. For example, “Last week we
level is rarely above the sixth grade. Although much of learned about words that help to describe or modify
the vocabulary in these books may be beyond their read- nouns. You remember that these words are called
ing level, the motivation to read to succeed at the latest adjectives.”
computer or videogame, be competent at car repair, or 2. Then, announce that there is something similar, but
stun their classmates with a magic trick can have students slightly different, that the class is going to learn
seeking reading assistance from adults and even consult- today. “This week we are going to learn about words
ing dictionaries. The how-to library increases the con- that help to describe or modify verbs. These words
creteness of the task by increasing relevance to the lives are called adverbs.”
of students. Reading can be turned from an abstract task 3. Next, present the new material.
to a concrete task with positive results through the use of 4. Provide a large number of examples.
direct instruction and concrete reading of how-to books 5. Practice applying the new skill in a variety of situations.
(Berends & Reitsma, 2006). 6. Review.
Mathematics is the area of biggest success and 7. Practice again.
biggest failure in teaching students with borderline intel- 8. Implement generalization strategies.
lectual functioning (MacMillan et al., 1998). For exam-
ple, mathematics is often considered a relative strength This simple instructional model is widely used (e.g.,
during kindergarten through second grade (Lannin, Binder, Haughton, & VanEyk, 1990). However, extra
2003). This is because of the reliance on manipulatives practice sessions to learn how to implement the new skill
and because of the relevance of material to day-to-day are important (Reith & Evertson, 1988). Because of poor
functioning in learning mathematics at the early grades. generalization skills, the extra practice is required to
However, the material becomes more abstract and less rel- learn broad concepts (Corno & Snow, 1986).
evant to day-to-day functioning as students advance
through the mathematics curriculum (Henningsen & Generalization Strategies
Stein, 1997). This trend culminates in high school with
the graduation requirement of passing secondary-level Generalization of an academic skill is the transfer or
algebra. For many students with borderline intellectual application of taught skills to situations requiring similar,
functioning, secondary-level algebra is an extraordinary but not identical, skills. For example, when most students
hurdle to graduation (Lannin, 2003). In the secondary learn that 1 + 1 = 2, they quickly generalize the concept
grades, students with borderline intellectual functioning of addition and figure out that 1 + 2 = 3 without addi-
have extreme difficulty with algebra, plane geometry, pre- tional instruction. Because of difficulties with generaliza-
calculus, and calculus. Perhaps the level of abstraction and tion, students with borderline intellectual functioning
distance from the see-it, feel-it, touch-it, do-it approach is often must be taught explicitly that 1 + 2 = 3. Students
too much for this population, and expectations should be with borderline intellectual functioning tend have rote
more realistic and functional (Rapp, 2005). There is much memory skills in the average range (Bateman, 1991).
to be developed in this area (Corno & Snow, 1986). The Therefore, rote memory is a relative strength for many
mantra of the concrete classroom is that every lesson to be students with borderline intellectual functioning.
learned is taught so that the students “see it, feel it, hear it, However, the minority of instruction in the typical class-
touch it, do it” (Haughton, 1980). room is through rote memory (Fazio, 1997). Many
instructional approaches involve the teaching of an over-
all strategy or rule, and then the students apply the strat-
Preorganized Information
egy or rule to new situations with minimal guidance.
Because many students with borderline intelligence do Although students with borderline intellectual function-
not effectively integrate new information into existing ing effectively learn and recite the strategy or rule they
knowledge, teachers are required to explicitly link all were taught, they have difficulty knowing how, when, and
new activities to previous lessons (Gunter & Reed, 1997). where to apply the strategy or rule (Veenman & Verhej,
Therefore, each lesson needs to start out with a review of 2001). The most effective instruction for students with

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borderline intellectual functioning involves providing learn and apply the skills in the classroom (Gresham,
direct instruction of every specific academic skill with 1995). However, the application of the lesson is rarely gen-
extensive guided practice on how, when, and where to eralized to recess, lunch, or the bus unless generalization
use these skills (Alessi, 1987). of the skills taught is programmed (Gresham, 1995).
Metacognitive reminders can be helpful. Students An example of an effort to reduce the limitation of
with borderline intellectual functioning often memorize context is cross-topic instruction based on big ideas
the strategies used to solve problems and can often recall (Alessi, 1987). This approach is difficult to implement
the strategies if asked but do not always apply the strate- but can be an effective method to improve the general-
gies in the correct situation or at the correct time (Acrey ization of skills. The purpose of cross-topic instruction is
et al., 2005; Hale, 2006). An effective method is to teach to expose students to a big idea throughout the curricu-
one prime strategy—look up the strategy in your problem- lum points of the day. For example, if the big idea is elec-
solving notebook (Price et al., 1997). The notebook con- tricity, then electrical safety can be taught in health
sists of all the strategies students have learned, presented in classes, Benjamin Franklin’s original experiments can be
a step-by-step format much like a cookbook. For example, read about in history, experiments on circuitry can be
the steps to complete basic story problems in mathematics designed in science, and wattage requirements and
(Price et al., 1997) are to read the problem carefully, power supplies can be calculated in mathematics class. In
identify the most important information (e.g., What is this fashion, the topic being taught is not in isolation but
the story about? How many objects were there to begin occurs across topics throughout the day.
with? What is happening to these objects?), underline Ensuring generalization of academic skills is among
the information needed to solve the problem, figure out the most difficult teaching skills. Practicing and being
what this problem wants to know, create a drawing instructed with diverse and concrete examples of the con-
describing the problem, create a math problem that rep- cept is necessary, but not sufficient (Coyne et al., 2007).
resents the drawing, and solve the problem. Every strat- Learning how, when, and where to apply academic skills
egy can be written out as a numbered list or placed in a and strategies is important for successful performance on
comic strip format. Students often have a classroom rules standardized achievement tests (Sliberglitt et al., 2006).
and social skills notebook in addition to the academic
strategies notebook (Gresham, 1995). Appropriately Paced Instruction and Activities
An effective approach to promoting generalization is
the big ideas concept (Coyne et al., 2007). Big ideas are Pace is an important variable in teaching (Born &
overarching concepts that tie information together in an Moore, 1978). Students with borderline intellectual
efficient manner. Using big ideas helps to address the functioning require more practice than their average-
issue of having to teach many learning objectives that are ability peers to learn the same concept (Cooter &
apparently unrelated. For teaching students with border- Cooter, 2004). To teach the required extra material, stu-
line intelligence, some modification of the big ideas con- dents with borderline intellectual functioning must be
cept can aid in generalization. Big ideas can be made taught at a more rapid pace than their average-ability
concrete and practical for students. For example, “math peers (Binder, 1996; Binder et al., 1990). The purpose of
for money management,” “communicating your ideas,” this is threefold: to give students with borderline intel-
and “history as a guide to understanding today’s newspa- lectual functioning a chance to learn all of the discrete
per” are all concrete twists on the big ideas concept. facts they need to know to overcome limitations in gen-
Generalization is itself a big idea. Not only can gen- eralization (Kame’enui, 1993), to minimize transition
eralization refer to linking information together to con- time and the inevitable attention and behavior problems
solidate and integrate information, but it also can refer to that often result (R. Wilson & Wesson, 1986), and to
context (Cates, 2005). Context is often a limiting factor allow for the opportunity to close the academic skill gap
in the knowledge and application of learned information between the students with borderline intellectual func-
(Corno & Snow, 1986). Sometimes children know and tioning and their average-intelligence peers (Rhymer,
apply information at a certain time, in a certain place, in Hennington, Skinner, & Looby, 1999). Slower paced
a certain situation, or in the presence of certain people instruction makes catching up impossible. Slower paced
(Kashinath, Woods, & Goldstein, 2006). Context is more instruction is a guarantee of falling further behind
of a limitation for students with borderline intelligence (Shaywitz et al., 1999). Appropriately paced instruction
than for students with average to above-average intelli- allows more material to be taught over the course of the
gence, who easily and automatically generalize skills day and increases practice opportunities.
(Hale, 2006). Specific and targeted plans to assist stu-
dents to generalize skills to different settings and situa-
Academic Motivation
tions are important (Rapp, 2005). An example is social
skills training. When specific social skills are taught in a Teachers report that over 95% of students with border-
classroom with lectures and role play, many students line intellectual functioning lack academic motivation

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(Bimler & Kirkland, 2001). Because teachers have stu- spelling, and mathematics calculation (Hosp, Hosp, &
dents in their classroom with a history of academic fail- Howell, 2007). Daily CBM can be conducted in as little
ure experiences, explicitly teaching the value of effort as 30 min for an entire class across multiple subject areas
may be required (Fazio, 1997). For most students and (Hosp & Fuchs, 2005). The advantages of CBM are that
teachers, the value of effort appears self-evident (Martin, the results are sensitive to change, can be adapted to
March, & Debus, 2001). For students who have not had match instructional goals, and are aligned with the cur-
their efforts rewarded with positive academic results, the riculum (Hosp et al., 2007). As a result, aspects of the
value of effort is less clear. Students who have not learned curriculum can be changed quickly to meet the needs of
the value of effort frequently are punished for not trying students when there is evidence that progress goals are
in school, thus making school itself an aversive place to not being met (Hosp et al., 2007). In addition, there is
be (Guay & Vallerand, 1996–1997). This leads to a vari- strong evidence that using CBM technology in the class-
ety of future problems such as increased truancy and room results in improved academic skill development
drop-out rates (Bimler & Kirkland, 2001; Guay & and leads to improve state and provincial standardized
Vallerand, 1996–1997). test scores (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986; Hosp et al., 2007;
Overcoming a personal history of failure is not easy Silberglitt et al., 2006).
to accomplish. The most important aspect of overcom-
ing a history of failure is for students to experience aca-
demic success (Levine, 2003). Success occurs when Conclusions
students are taught using effective teaching methods that Students with borderline intellectual functioning repre-
are matched to the students’ skills (Ahrens et al., 1990). sent a number of challenges to teachers and policy mak-
However, teachers developing personal relationships ers. Although students with borderline intellectual
with students can be an important additional step. functioning are not specifically covered under IDEIA
Frequently, even the students with good relationships (2004), they still are at risk for school failure. Students
with teachers still do not care about school and do not with borderline intellectual functioning do not have an
want to try for fear of another failure (Martin et al., educational home under the current educational system.
2001). Yet they will make some effort because they do An organizational framework for effective instruc-
not want to disappoint the teacher with whom the stu- tion can promote effective education of this subset of
dent has developed a personal relationship. This is sim- students with diverse learning needs known as students
ply a foot-in-the-door approach (Martin et al., 2001). with borderline intellectual functioning. This framework
A secondary foot-in-the-door method is to develop includes enhanced concrete and relevant instruction,
classroom communities wherein each class member is prearranged material to be presented, implementation of
invested in the effort and performance of the other students. a plan for aiding in generalization of academic skills,
Peer efforts to encourage and support one another are as implementation of a speeded classroom, and addressed
important as teacher interactions with students (Gresham, academic motivation issues. Progress monitoring is also
1995). Although there are many ways to foster classroom a major aspect of any educational programming frame-
communities, one simple method is to have 25% of the class work. This organizational framework can assist teachers
grade based on group effort and participation, 25% of the in differentiating instruction for students with diverse
grade on individual efforts to encourage classmates, and learning needs, specifically students with borderline
50% on academic performance (Moll, 2003). Although intellectual functioning. If No Child Left Behind is to be
there are many methods for improving academic motiva- more than an empty promise, then educational program-
tion, any attempt to differentiate instruction for students ming must be improved for the large population of stu-
with borderline intellectual functioning requires a thought- dents with borderline intellectual functioning, who are
ful strategy to address academic motivation. currently being left behind.

Progress Monitoring
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Although increasing state and provincial standardized
test scores are the summative goals, progress monitoring Steven R. Shaw, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Depart-
ment of Educational and Counselling Psychology at McGill
is related but equally important (Jimerson et al., 2007;
University. His research interests include the education of chil-
Silberglitt et al., 2006). CBM, a set of short-duration dren with chronic medical issues, microdeletion syndromes and
standardized and validated tests, is an effective approach developmental disabilities, and educational and mental health
to progress monitoring and evaluation (Marston et al., issues of children with borderline intellectual functioning.
2003). Although CBM takes many forms, it is commonly Address: Steven R. Shaw, Department of Educational and
used to evaluate the effects of instructional programs Counselling Psychology, 3700 McTavish, Montreal, QC, H3A
on basic skills such as oral reading, writing, behavior, 1Y2, Canada; e-mail: steven.shaw@mcgill.ca

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