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PARTS OF SPEECH
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/PtsSpch.htm
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Different schools of grammar present different classifications for the parts of speech. Traditional grammarians, for example, base designations on a word's meaning or signification. Example: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Structural grammarians see parts of speech as often identifiable through their position in sentences. Example: Her _________ was on the table.
(noun)
Using valuable ideas from both groups, we may divide parts of speech into two major groups: 2 Classes: 1) content words (open class) 2) function words (closed class)
Content words are words that have meaning. They are words we would look up in a dictionary, such as "lamp," "computer," "drove." New content words are constantly added to the English language; old content words constantly leave the language as they become obsolete. Therefore, we refer to content words as an "open" class. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are content parts of speech. Function words are words that exist to explain or create grammatical or structural relationships into which the content words may fit. Words like "of," "the," "to," they have little meaning on their own. They are much fewer in number and generally do not change as English adds and omits content words. Therefore, we refer to function words as a "closed" class. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, and interrogatives are some function parts of speech.
Note the differences between content and function parts of speech:
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PARTS OF SPEECH
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/PtsSpch.htm
Generally, we can use one or more of five signals to help us determine a word's part of speech designation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. function words (the, what, and) inflectional morphemes (-s, -ed) derivational morphemes word order in sentence patterns stress patterns (subJECT/SUBject, INsert/inSERT, IMprint/imPRINT)
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KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/sentences.htm
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A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s) of clauses it contains. Review: An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.
1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.
Punctuation note: NO commas separate compound elements (subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, etc.) in a simple sentence.
2. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or
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C. a semicolon alone.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above): A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause. B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause. C. Independent clause; independent clause.
3. A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun ) joined to an independent clause.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above): A. Dependent clause, independent clause B. Independent clause dependent clause C. Independent, D. Independent nonessential dependent clause, essential dependent clause clause.
clause.
4. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses.
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Punctuation patterns: Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences. A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.
CONNECTORS--COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES Two independent clauses may be joined by 1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) 2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, Ic, and ic. ic
A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by 1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) Dc, ic. or or Ic dc.
2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c.
I dc c.
3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)
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CONJUNCTIONS
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/conjunctions.htm#COORDINATING%...
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CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used as joiners. Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures. The following are the kinds of conjunctions:
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another: words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.
Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.
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CONJUNCTIONS
Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions: When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.
A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction
B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS either. . .or neither. . . nor both. . . and not only. . . but also
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.
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CONJUNCTIONS
C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS These conjunctions join independent clauses together. The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs: after all also as a result besides consequently finally for example furthermore hence however in addition incidentally indeed in fact in other words instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless on the contrary on the other hand otherwise still then therefore thus
Punctuation:
Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions
after although as as far as as soon as as if
in order (that) insofar as in that lest no matter how now that
unless until when whenever where wherever
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CONJUNCTIONS
as though because before even if even though how if inasmuch as in case (that)
once provided (that) since so that supposing (that) than that though till
whether while why
Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does. Loose: Tight: It is raining, so we have an umbrella. Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
Punctuation Note:
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CONJUNCTIONS
When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a comma.
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PRONOUNS
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/pronouns.htm#Relative%20Pronouns
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PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).
A. Personal Pronouns: SINGULAR subjective 1st person 2nd person 3rd person I you he she it objective me you him her it possessive my, mine your, yours his her, hers its subjective we you they PLURAL objective us you them possessive our, ours your, yours their, theirs
Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

1. three persons (points of view) 1st person - the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours) 2nd person - the one(s) spoken to (you your yours) 3rd person - the one(s) spoken about (he him his she her hers it its they their theirs) Examples
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PRONOUNS
2. three genders feminine (she her hers) masculine (he him his) neuter (it its they them their theirs) Examples
3. two numbers singular (I me my mine you your yours he him his she her hers it its) plural (we us our ours you your yours they them their theirs) Examples
4. three cases subjective (I you he she it we they) possessive (my mine your yours his her hers our ours their theirs) objective (me you him her it us them)
Examples - subjective case
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PRONOUNS
Examples - possessive case
Examples - objective case
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PRONOUNS
NOTE: Because of pronoun case, the pronoun's form changes with its function in the sentence. Follow this link to pronou information.
B.
Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners. Example: Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer) Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as qualifiers: Example:
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PRONOUNS
She wanted that much money? (that describes the adjective much)
C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the sentence. Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns. Examples: I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the pronoun I.) Ill do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.) Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used: theirselves theirself hisself ourself
D. Indefinite Pronouns: Singular: one each (n)either Examples: Somebody is coming to dinner. Neither of us believes a word Harry says. Plural: someone somebody something anyone anybody anything no one nobody nothing everyone everybody everything
Examples: Both are expected at the airport at the same time. Several have suggested canceling the meeting. Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:
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PRONOUNS
Examples: Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug. Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm. Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case. Examples: The accident is nobodys fault. How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute? Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners. one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most Note the differences: Each person has a chance. (Each is a determiner describing person.) Each has a chance. (Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.) Both lawyers pled their cases well. (Both is a determiner describing lawyers.) Both were in the room. (Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.) E. Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a yes or no answer. Examples: What do you want? Who is there? F. Relative Pronouns:
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PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.
Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people. Use that and which to refer to things.
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ADVERBS
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/adverbs.htm
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ADVERBS
Adverbs are traditionally defined as words that describe verbs. Adverbs answer any of the following questions about verbs: how? when? where? why?
The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:
How did he lift the barbell? Easily is an adverb.
When will we use it? Tomorrow functions as an adverb.
Where did she hide the key? Nearby is an adverb.
Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech; therefore, it is sometimes difficult to identify an adverb on the basis of its position in a sentence. For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places in the sentence He climbed the ladder:
Most adverbs end in -ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives:
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ADVERBS
Like adjectives of more than one syllable, adverbs usually become comparative and superlative by using more and most. Examples:
Flat adverbs Adjectives that do not change form (add -ly) to become adverbs are called "flat adverbs." Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep, near. To determine whether these words are functioning as adjectives or adverbs, one must determine
1) 2)
what the word is describing (noun or verb) what question the word is answering
The following examples illustrate the distinction. Early as adjective:
Early describes the noun train and answers the question "which one?" Early as adverb:
Early describes the verb arrived and answers the question "when?"
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ADVERBS
Hard as adjective:
Hard describes the noun pass and answers the question "what kind?" Hard as adverb:
Hard describes the verb threw and answers the question "how?"
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Avoiding Fragments
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleFRAG.htm
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2006, 2000, 1978 Margaret L. Benner
All rights reserved.
The sentence, like many other things, is a large item composed of smaller items. Considered as a large item, it is sometimes difficult to understand. Therefore, we will begin with the smallest, simplest elements that make up a sentence, gradually moving toward the large, more complicated ones.
WORDS A word is the smallest part of speech and the easiest element of speech to recognize. EACH GROUP OF LETTERS IN THIS SENTENCE IS A WORD. There are different kinds of words, according to the particular part a given word plays when it is used in speech (writing or speaking). To each kind of word we assign a label that shows which part of speech that word is. As you may already know, there are eight parts of speech. noun pronoun verb preposition adverb adjective conjunction interjection
We will consider three of them in this unit: noun, pronoun, and verb.
NOUNS A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun may name a type of person, place, thing, or idea.
Nouns that are types are called common nouns.
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Or, a noun may name a particular person, place, thing, or idea.
Nouns that name particular persons, places, things, or ideas are proper nouns. Proper nouns are capitalized. **NOTE: Words that name ideas are sometimes hard to recognize as nouns because they name abstract ideas that we cannot see. These are abstract nouns (e.g. time, imagination, judgment, October, Saturday). Even though these words name things we cannot see, they are still nouns because they name something. Abstract proper nouns should also be capitalized. PRONOUNS A pronoun is a word that may substitute for a noun. Some examples
Look at this sentence John Smith = noun We could substitute a pronoun (such as he) for the noun.
becomes Now look at this sentence
We could substitute pronouns for all three nouns.
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OR
VERBS A verb shows an action or a state of being. Action verbs are easy to recognize. Some examples
This sentence uses an action verb.
drew = action verb Verbs that show state of being indicate that something or someone exists. Some examples
These sentences use verbs of being.
is = verb of being
will be = verb of being
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Now click on the link below to do Exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1 Parts of speech do not just sit idly about without any purpose. They have specific tasks to perform when they are put together in a sentence. Look at this sentence.
There are three nouns in this sentence: philanthropists, millions, and charity. The action in this sentence is expressed by the verb donated. Although there are three nouns in this sentence, only one of them is actually DOING the action of donating: philanthropists. Philanthropists donated We could also express this same idea with a pronoun.
Here the pronoun they is DOING the action of donating. They donated The two sentences above illustrate a rule of sentence structure: When a noun or pronoun is partnered with a verb so that the noun or pronoun is doing the action expressed by that verb, we call that noun or pronoun the verbs SUBJECT. Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action. Look at this sentence.
The verb in this sentence -- are does not express action. Instead, it expresses being or existence tells us that something is alive. Still, as in the earlier sentences, there is a noun paired with this verb. That noun is the one DOING the existing or being: friends. Good friends are This noun friends is the subject of the verb are in this sentence.
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As we did with the action verb example, we could substitute a pronoun for the noun, friends, in this sentence.
FOR YOU TO DO . . . Rewrite the sentence, substituting the appropriate pronoun for the noun, friends. Click on the "submit" button to check your answer. Good friends are loyal people.
Knowing that verbs can express either action or being, we can now expand our rule. When a NOUN or PRONOUN is paired with a verb so that the noun or pronoun is doing the action or the being expressed by the verb, we call that noun or pronoun the verbs SUBJECT. **SPECIAL NOTE: Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not actually stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the meaning. Example
A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone. What we really mean when we make such requests is shown in the sentence below.
You, as the DOER of the action verb, call, is the SUBJECT here. Because we use such statements when we are talking directly to someone, we usually omit the word you. We consider it unnecessary understood in the sentence. Therefore, in statements such as -- Call the plumber, please -- we say that the subject is you (understood)
you (understood) = subject
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This kind of sentence is called an imperative sentence. Now click on the link below to complete Exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2
Now you know how to locate the subject in a noun-verb partnership: look for the noun (or pronoun) that is DOING the action or the being expressed by the verb. The verb in this noun-verb partnership also has a job to do. It functions as the action or as the being that the subject is DOING. Look at these examples.
1.
2. We already know that the noun philanthropists, the DOER of the action, donated, is the subject of the noun-verb partnership, philanthropists donated (example #1). We also know that the noun friends is the subject of the noun-verb partnership, friends are (example #2). These verbs donated and are also perform a specific task in this noun-verb partnership: they express the subjects action or state of being. We call a verb that performs this function a predicate.
Philanthropists = subject donated = predicate
friends = subject are = predicate
you (understood) = subject call = predicate The verbs in the sentences below are also doing the job of a predicate. they = subject
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donated = predicate
they = subject are = predicate This information leads us to a rule: The VERB in a noun/pronoun verb partnership expressing the action or being of the subject is a PREDICATE. Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs that fit together -- the main verb preceded by one of more helping verbs. Helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) help the main verb to form its tense (time) or to emphasize its action. They always come BEFORE the main verb. Note how helping verbs change the tense (time) of each main verb below.
IMPORTANT NOTE: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in ing must ALWAYS have a helping verb with it. An ing verb WITHOUT a helping verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence. FOR YOU TO DO . . . Locate the helping verb(s) in the three sentences given below. Write your answers in the spaces provided. Then click on the "submit" button to check your answers. 1. The dog had howled at the moon for two weeks. The helping verb is: 2. The dog will howl at the moon tomorrow. The helping verb is: 3. The dog has been howling at the moon for two weeks. The helping verb is:
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More About Predicates A predicate usually follows the subject, but it may be separated from the subject by one or more words. Look at this sentence.
Even though hillside is next to the verb howled, it is not the subject here because it is not DOING the howling. The dog is. Sometimes the verbs in the predicate may be separated from one another. Look at these sentences. 1.
The word often is an adverb, not a helping verb. The predicate is has howled. 2.
Example #2 illustrates that when we form questions, we sometimes make the subject separate the helping verbs from the main verb. When separations like #1 and #2 occur, dont be alarmed or confused. Just remember the rules for finding the subject and predicate. You should have no difficulty at all. In some cases as well, the subject may NOT DO the action of the predicate, but may, instead, be acted upon by the predicate. Example
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office = subject was destroyed = predicate NOTE that the noun, office, is NOT the DOER of the action (was destroyed). Instead, office is being acted upon (is being destroyed) by some unknown DOER. In such a case, office is still the subject of the predicate was destroyed. Even when the DOER of the action is known, it is not the subject unless it is working in a partnership with the verb. Example
office = subject was destroyed = predicate
Vandals is NOT the sentences subject because vandals is not working in a partnership with the verb was destroyed.
We use the term passive voice to refer to the predicate in this kind of subject-verb partnership.
SOME FINAL WORDS . . . The terms subject and predicate can be applied ONLY where there is a noun-verb partnership, where the noun and verb interact with one another to create the topic of the sentence. You will NEVER see a subject sitting alone without a predicate (although you may see a noun sitting alone without a verb.) You WILL see a predicate sitting alone without a subject ONLY when the subject is you (understood). In order to be a predicate, a verb ending in ing MUST HAVE a helping verb.
REVIEW OF SUBJECT PREDICATE TRICKY SPOTS:
1. You (understood) subject
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2. Subject separated from predicate
3. Parts of predicate (helping verb / main verb) separated by adverb
4. Subject predicate order changed in a question
5. Subject predicate pair in passive voice
Now click on the link below to do Exercise 3. Link to Exercise 3
Now that you understand nouns/pronouns, verbs, subjects, and predicates (WORDS), you are ready to move up to a larger segment: phrases. A phrase is a group of words which may contain noun/pronouns or verb forms, but does NOT contain a subject or a predicate. **REMEMBER: Every subject has a predicate, and every predicate has a subject. These two functions never appear without each other. They form a partnership, a team. Some examples of PHRASES:
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Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) or verb forms, or both nouns (or pronouns) and verb forms, none of the nouns/pronouns/verbs have the qualifications needed to be subjects or predicates. None of them work as a partnership as a team. Also, these phrases do NOT seem to say anything complete either.
These findings lead to a definition of the phrase: A phrase is a group of related words that 1. does not express a complete thought 2. does not have a subject and predicate pair
Now click on the link below to do Exercise 4. Link to EXERCISE 4
We can now look at a more complicated concept: clauses. Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses. Like a phrase, a clause is a group of related words. Unlike a phrase, a clause DOES contain a subject and predicate.
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Note the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples:
FOR YOU TO DO . . . The words below are a phrase, NOT a clause. This means that the noun, Smith, is NOT a subject and that the verb form, eating, is NOT a predicate. Why cant these two words possibly be subject and predicate? After reading the phrase below, write your answer in the space provided. Click on the "submit" button to check your answer. Smith eating bagels.
You probably noticed that, of the five clause examples given earlier in Section 5, only three were sentences (#1, 3, 4). Look back at all five clause examples. Read each one to yourself. Did you notice any difference in the meaning between the three clauses that ARE sentences (#1, 3, 4) and the two clauses (#2, 5) that are NOT sentences? Yes, there is a difference!
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Clauses #1, 3, and 4 give a thought or an idea that is COMPLETE, that can stand by itself, independent of other words. However, clauses #2 and 5 give only an INCOMPLETE thought or idea, one that cannot stand independent by itself, one that needs some more words to make it whole. To see the difference, look at clauses #1 and 2 copied below for you. 1.
This clause tells us what happened and who made it happen. Its thought is COMPLETE and finished. We are not left hanging or asking questions after a clause like this one 2.
This clause tells us what happened and who made it happen, BUT its thought is NOT complete. The word after changes the clause meaning, making it INCOMPLETE. After reading this clause, we are left hanging left waiting for it to be finished. This clause raises a question: What happened after Webster took the train? These two clauses illustrate the two kinds of clauses we use in the English language: independent clauses Clause #1 and dependent clauses
Clause #1 has these three characteristics: 1. subject 2. predicate 3. complete thought
This kind of clause is called an independent clause or a main clause. It is a complete unit by itself and does NOT need or depend upon any other words for its completeness. FOR YOUR INFORMATION . . .
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AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE AND A SIMPLE SENTENCE ARE THE SAME THING. Clause #2
Clause #2 has these three characteristics: 1. subject 2. predicate 3. incomplete thought
This kind of clause is called a dependent clause or a subordinate clause. It is an incomplete unit on its own, leaving its reader asking questions. It needs or depends on additional words to be a complete thought.
We can now formulate a definition for each type of clause: An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought. A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate, but does NOT express a complete thought. Now click on the link below to do Exercise 5. Link to Exercise 5
You have now reached the main focus of this unit: writing complete sentences. You will be happy to know that while you have been progressing from word to phrase to clause, you have actually already been teaching yourself about sentence structure! Heres the good news. In order to have a sentence, you need only TWO elements: 1. a subject-predicate unit AND 2. a complete thought citizens = subject protested = predicate complete thought? yes In other words, a simple sentence is actually the SAME thing as an independent clause. Since you already know what an independent clause is, you can also understand immediately what a simple sentence is.
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SIMPLE SENTENCE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
= Therefore, as long as you remember what constitutes an independent clause, you will automatically recognize what constitutes a simple sentence. REMEMBER: subject -- predicate pair + complete thought = simple sentence
BACK TO DEPENDENT CLAUSES AND PHRASES FOR A MOMENT . . . Dependent clauses and phrases are called sentence fragments because they are missing one or more parts needed to make a sentence (subject/predicate pair & complete thought) and are, therefore, only pieces or fragments of complete sentences. Look at these examples 1.
= 2.
= 3.
= 4.
= Examples 2, 3, and 4 are fragments, not complete sentences, because they are missing at least one element needed to construct a complete sentence.
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Except in rare instances, fragments are MAJOR WRITING ERRORS. Try not to use fragments in your writing. Use complete sentences instead. Now click on the link below to do Exercise 6. Link to Exercise 6
You have now reached the end of this unit. If you are doing this module on your own, you have completed the learning unit on avoiding fragments.. If you are doing this module as part of your classroom assignment, proceed to the Post Test and follow the directions you find there. Click on the link below to do the Post Test. Link to the Post Test
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Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleCS_FS.htm
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EXERCISES
2006, 1999, 1978 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.
REVIEW
Before going on to compound and complex sentences, you should be thoroughly familiar with the simple sentence. Here is a small review. In order to have a simple sentence (independent clause), you need these three elements: a subject a predicate verb a complete thought
Example of simple sentence:
A simple sentence is the same thing as an independent clause.
Simple sentence
Independent clause
Remember: a simple sentence (independent clause) consists of a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
Now this module will teach you about compound and complex sentences.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
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The word compound means to put together, to form a whole. Sometimes two independent clauses (two simple sentences) can be put together to form another kind of sentence: the compound sentence. There are three patterns one may use to link simple sentences into a compound sentence. Pattern #1:
To see how to form a compound sentence this way, look at these two simple sentences.
They can be made into one compound sentence with a comma and one of these joining words (coordinating conjunctions):
for
and
nor
but
or
yet
so
If put together into a compound sentence, the two simple sentences above would look like any one of these:
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(The joining word or was not used in this compound sentence since the resulting sentence would not make sense.)
For, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so are joining words. They are also called coordinating conjunctions because they join or coordinate two equal clauses. MEMORIZE THEM! One way to memorize them easily is to remember FANBOYS:
Now click on the link below to do exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1.
Pattern #2:
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Two independent clauses can also be joined into one compound sentence with a semicolon alone. (Note: You can use a comma between independent clauses only if you also use a coordinating conjunction.) To learn how to form a compound sentence like this, look at these simple sentences.
They can be made into one compound sentence with a semicolon alone between the two independent clauses.
The semicolon has more strength than the comma. Thus, it can separate two independent clauses by itself; a comma cannot separate two independent clauses unless it is followed by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). Now click on the link below to do exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2 Pattern #3:
Still another way to form a compound sentence is to use a semicolon AND a conjunctive adverb between the two independent clauses.
Here is a list of the most frequently used conjunctive adverbs.
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You should become familiar with these words. To learn how to form a compound sentence with a conjunctive adverb and the correct punctuation, look at the original two simple sentences.
These two sentences can be combined into a compound sentence with a semicolon, appropriate conjunctive adverb, and comma.
Like the coordinating conjunction, each conjunctive adverb has an individual meaning; thus, you should use whichever one fits the sense of the sentence you are writing. For example, see how the sentences meaning changes when therefore is substituted for however:
Why should you use compound sentences? Sometimes it is better to use a compound sentence than a simple sentence. For example, you may use a compound sentence because you want a variety of sentences in your writing. In another instance, you may want to join two complete thoughts that are closely
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related in order to show your reader the relationship.

(For more information on compound sentences, click on this link.)
Now click on the link below to do exercise 3. Link to Exercise 3
REVIEW: COMPOUND SENTENCES To form a compound sentence, remember these rules for constructing it: Use two independent clauses. Join them with 1. an appropriate coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) and place a comma in front of the conjunction;
OR 2. with a semicolon alone;
OR 3. with an appropriate conjunctive adverb (however, etc.), and place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it.
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You might want to print these rules and diagrams into a notebook for future reference.
TWO MAJOR ERRORS: COMMA SPLICES AND FUSED SENTENCES Compound sentences are correct only when constructed as shown in the previous four sections. This section discusses two major errors committed with compound sentences:
X the comma splice
and
X the fused sentence
Please read this section carefully so that you can recognize these errors and avoid them in your writing.
ERROR #1: THE COMMA SPLICE
Writers make this error when they try to separate the two independent clauses in a compound sentence with a comma alone. A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to separate the two independent clauses by itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be spliced together. Example of comma splice
We can repair this comma splice in several ways: 1. We can add an appropriate coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).
2.
We can change the comma to a semicolon.
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3.
We can change the punctuation and add an appropriate conjunctive adverb.
The sentence below is another example of a comma splice.
We repair it by correcting the punctuation.
In each case above, we are forming a correct compound sentence by using patterns 1, 2, and 3 shown at the beginning of this module..
ERROR #2: THE FUSED SENTENCE Writers make this error by joining two independent clauses into a compound sentence without using any punctuation between them. No punctuation between the two independent clauses causes then to fuse into an INCORRECT compound sentence. Example of a fused sentence
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We can repair a fused sentence the same way we repair a comma splice: 1. Add an appropriate coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).
2. Place a semicolon between the two clauses.
3. Add the needed punctuation and an appropriate conjunctive adverb.
The sentence below is another example of a fused sentence.
We can repair it by adding the necessary punctuation.
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In each case above, we are forming a correct compound sentence by using the patterns shown at the beginning of this module. Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is, of course, to make each independent clause into a single simple sentence.
Besides the simple sentence and the compound sentence, there is one other basic pattern The COMPLEX SENTENCE.
Note the difference: A simple sentence = 1 independent clause A compound sentence = 2 independent clauses (joined correctly!) A complex sentence = 1 independent clause joined to 1 dependent clause
Here is an independent clause (simple sentence):
It contains a subject (Tom), a verb (saw), and a complete thought.
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However, look at the following clause:
Because this group of words contains a subject-verb core (friend-read), it is a clause. However, because it does not express a complete thought, it is NOT an independent clause. We call such clauses dependent clauses because they depend on attachment to other sentence elements to be a complete thought.
Here is a list of words that begin dependent clauses. They are called subordinating conjunctions. Become familiar with them.
We can attach the dependent clause [after his friend read the novel] to the independent clause [Tom saw the movie} in two ways to make a sentence. 1. Independent clause followed by dependent clause
2.
Dependent clause followed by independent clause
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Each sentence above is composed of two clauses an independent clause and a dependent clause. By attaching the dependent clause to an independent clause, we give the dependent clause the additional meaning it needs to be a complete thought. A sentence composed of an independent clause and a dependent clause is called a COMPLEX SENTENCE. Two basic patterns for the complex sentence are 1. 2. Independent clause dependent clause. Dependent clause, independent clause.
Punctuation Rule: Pattern #2 (dependent clause first) uses a comma between the clauses; pattern #1 (independent clause first) uses no comma between the clauses. Here are examples of each pattern above. EXAMPLES Pattern #1 Independent clause dependent clause.
EXAMPLES Pattern #2 Dependent clause, independent clause.
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PUNCTUATION REMINDER: When a complex sentence begins with the dependent clause, place a comma between the dependent clause and the independent clause.
(For more information on this kind of dependent clause, click on this link.)
Pattern #3 A third pattern for complex sentences puts the dependent clause IN THE MIDDLE of the independent clause.
EXAMPLE A
EXAMPLE B
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PUNCTUATION NOTE: independent clause.
In example A, no commas separate the dependent clause from the
A child who has chickenpox should stay home from school. The dependent clause who has chickenpox is ESSENTIAL to the sentence. In other words, who has chickenpox is needed to identify which child should stay home from school.
BUT
In example B, the dependent clause must be separated from the independent clause with commas. Mary Jones, who has chickenpox should stay home from school. Here, the dependent clause is NOT ESSENTIAL to the sentence: the dependent clause is not needed to identify the child Mary Jones. For complex sentences using pattern #3, use commas to separate the dependent clause from the independent clause only if the dependent clause is not essential to the sentence's meaning. If the dependent clause is essential, do not separate it from the rest of the sentence with commas.
(For more information on this kind of dependent clause, click on this link.)
REVIEW
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A single independent clause is a simple sentence.
Combining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence.
3 ways to combine:
Combining a dependent clause and an independent creates a complex sentence.
4 ways to combine:
For additional review, click on this link. SUMMARY Certainly it is important to know how to construct simple, compound, and complex sentences in order to write correct English sentences. However, it is also important to know these three kinds of sentences so that you can vary the sentence patterns in your writing.
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Choose this best sentence pattern for each individual writing instance, and thus use the written word to communicate most effectively. Click on the link below to do the Post Test. Now do the post test
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Major Comma Uses
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleCOMMA.htm
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COMMA RULE #1 THE COMMA IN A SERIES: Use commas to separate items in a series. What is a series? A series is a list of 3 or more items, the last two of which are joined by and, or, or nor. _____________, ______________, and _____________ EXAMPLES:
Any of these can be put into sentence form.
The important things to remember about using commas in series are these: 1.
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A series includes 3 or more items of the same type (words or groups of words).
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Major Comma Uses
2. 3.
The series is connected by and, or, or nor before the last item. A comma separates items in the series, including the final item preceded by and, or, or nor.
COMMA RULE #2 THE COMMA WITH COORDINATE ADJECTIVES: Use commas between coordinate adjectives. What are coordinate adjectives? Coordinate adjectives are adjectives placed next to each other that are equal in importance. Two tests to determine whether adjectives are coordinate are the following: 1. 2. See whether and can be smoothly placed between them. See whether the adjectives order can be reversed.
Look at this example.
In this example, a comma belongs between happy and lively because they are coordinate adjectives. Test to make certain: First, try the and test.
And placed between the 2 adjectives sounds smooth. Second, try reversing the adjectives.
When the adjectives are reversed, the sentence still makes sense. Thus, happy and lively are coordinate adjectives in the example and should be separated by a comma.
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Major Comma Uses
CAUTION: Not all adjective pairs are coordinate adjectives. Thus, not all adjectives should be separated from one another by a comma. Look at this example.
In this example, no comma belongs between the two adjectives young and golden because they are not coordinate adjectives. How can we know? First, try the and test.
And placed between the two adjectives does not fit smoothly. Second, try reversing the adjectives.
When the two adjectives are reversed, they do not make sense. Thus, young and golden are not coordinate adjectives and should not be separated by a comma.
COMMA RULE #3 THE COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE: Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet to join two independent clauses that form a compound sentence. What is a compound sentence? A compound sentence is a sentence that has 2 independent clauses. An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that expresses a
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Major Comma Uses
complete thought. It is also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. The two independent clauses in a compound sentence can be joined by: A. Semicolons
OR
B.
A comma and one of the seven joining words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (Taken together, the first letters spell FANBOYS.)
This last type of compound sentence is the one we will concentrate on for comma use. A compound sentence must have two independent clauses not just two verbs, two nouns, or two groups of words that are not independent clauses. Look at this example.
In the above example, two verb groups are being joined by and. The second verb group does NOT have a subject; thus, it is NOT an independent clause. Therefore, NO comma belongs before and. This example is a simple sentence with a compound verb, not a compound sentence.
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Major Comma Uses
However, we can make this sentence into a compound sentence by simply making the last verb part into an independent clause.
Now we have a bona fide compound sentence. The two independent clauses are separated by a comma and the word and. Here are some other examples which illustrate the difference between compound elements in simple sentences (no comma) and true compound sentences (comma).
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Now you are ready to try an exercise. Make certain that you: 1. Know the seven joining words (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). 2. Can distinguish between simple sentences with compound elements (no comma) and compound sentences (comma). Now click on the link below to do exercise 3. LINK TO EXERCISE 3
COMMA RULE #4 THE COMMA WITH INTRODUCTORY WORDS: Place a comma after introductory phrases that tell where, when, why, or how. Specifically . . . use a comma: 1. After a long introductory phrase.
Example:
Usually, it is NOT necessary to use a comma after short introductory prepositional phrases. Example:
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2.
After an introductory phrase made up of to plus a verb and any modifiers (infinitive) that tells why.
Example:
Use a comma even after a short to + verb phrase that answers why. Example:
You can tell you have this kind of introductory to + verb phrase when you can put the words in order in front of the phrase. Example:
Be careful! Not all introductory to phrases tell why.
3.
After an introductory clause that answers when? where? why? how? to what degree?
(A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.) Examples:
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NOTE: When such a clause comes at the end of a sentence, do NOT use a comma. Examples:
Now click on the link below to do exercise 4.
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Major Comma Uses
Link to Exercise 4
COMMA RULE #5 THE COMMA WITH NONESSENTIAL WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES: Separate with a comma any nonessential words or groups of words from the rest of the sentence. 1. Separate interrupter words like however, nevertheless, yes, no, of course, from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
2.
Separate a renamer (an appositive) from the rest of the sentence with a comma.
Example:
3.
Separate adjective phrases from the essential parts of the sentence. (An adjective describes or limits a noun.)
Examples:
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In each instance above, Mary Roberts ran down the street comprises the essential part of the sentence. The adjective phrases are nonessential and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. 4. Separate nonessential adjective clauses from the rest of the sentence. There are two kinds of adjective clauses: - one that is needed for the sentence to be complete (ESSENTIAL) - one that is NOT needed for the sentence to be complete (NONESSENTIAL) The essential adjective clause should NOT be separated from the sentence with commas. The nonessential adjective clause (like other nonessential elements) SHOULD be separated with commas. Two examples illustrate the difference: A.
B.
Look at example A. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, The man was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed the bank), we do not know which man was caught. Thus, the adjective clause is needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this adjective clause is essential. As the rule notes, do not use commas around essential adjective clauses.
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Major Comma Uses
Now look at example B. If we remove the adjective clause who robbed the bank, the sentence reads, Sam Spider was caught today. Without the adjective clause (who robbed a bank), we do know which man was caught (Sam Spider). Thus, the adjective clause is NOT needed to complete the sentences meaning. In other words, this clause is nonessential. Following the rule, you should separate this adjective clause from the rest of the sentence.
REMEMBER, there are 4 nonessential elements that should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas: 1. 2. 3. 4. interrupter words like of course, however renamers (appositives) nonessential adjective phrases nonessential adjective clauses
Now click on the link below to do exercise 5. Link to Exercise 5 Now click on the link below to do the post test. Link to the Post Test
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Apostrophes
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleAPOS.htm
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2000, 1978 Margaret L. Benner
An apostrophe is a small punctuation mark ( ) placed after a noun to show that the noun owns something.
The apostrophe will always be placed either before or after an s at the end of the noun owner.
Always the noun owner will be followed (usually immediately) by the thing it owns.
How can you know: 1. when to use an apostrophe AND
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Apostrophes
2.
where to place the apostrophe CORRECTLY?
TO MAKE A SINGULAR NOUN POSSESSIVE, FOLLOW THESE STEPS: First, determine which noun is the owner: a cows nose To qualify for apostrophe use, the owner: 1. 2. must be a noun (cow) must be positioned in front of the thing it owns
Thats all there is to it! a cows nose means a cow owns a nose
Link to Exercise 1
Now you know when and how to make a singular noun show possession with an apostrophe. The rules for apostrophe use with a plural noun owner are just a little more complicated. Follow these steps.
2.
If the noun owner is plural (more than one owner), do these two things.
A. Place an apostrophe at the end of the noun owner.
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Apostrophes
B. Check to see whether the plural noun already ends in s. four cows noses (yes, it does)
If the plural noun DOES end in s (as most English plural nouns do), do NOT add another s. You have already formed the plural possessive. four cows noses Here are some examples of plural possessive nouns. Notice how each follows the rules for apostrophe placement.
Link to Exercise 2
The exception to the plural possessive rule . . . A few plural nouns do not end in s. Instead, these nouns form their plural with an internal change.
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Apostrophes
To form the possessive of such plural nouns, follow these steps. For our example, we will use this sentence:
Now the plural possessive is formed correctly. NOTE THE DIFFERENCE! Correct possessive form for plural noun owners that end in s:
Correct possessive form for plural noun owners that do not end in s:
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Apostrophes
Link to Exercise 3
SHOWING POSSESSION WITH PRONOUNS You have learned that nouns form their possessive by adding apostrophes. Some pronouns form their possessive in the same way as singular possessive nouns.
However, one group of pronouns does NOT add an apostrophe to form the possessive. This group is the personal pronouns.
Most of these personal pronouns offer no problem. *Only its gives many people trouble. Some writers mistakenly write its to indicate the possessive form of it. EXAMPLE:
THIS IS AN ERROR! THE CORRECT USE OF ITS . . . Its is ALWAYS a contraction for it is or it has.
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Apostrophes
Its (NO apostrophe) is the possessive form of it.
Link to Exercise 4 Link to the POST TEST
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Faulty Pronoun Reference
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/modulePRO.htm
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Every pronoun you write should refer clearly and unmistakably to ONE PARTICULAR noun. We call this noun the antecedent. Look at the following example:
The pronoun "them" clearly refers to the noun disks. Disks is the antecedent for the pronoun them. Unfortunately, it is very easy to create a sentence that uses a pronoun WITHOUT a clear, unmistakable noun antecedent. Look at this example:
The pronoun it does not have a clear noun antecedent. As a result, the reader cannot know for sure whether Kara sold the disk or the cabinet. The pronoun reference is faulty here because the pronoun it has two antecedents. Such errors, called FAULTY or VAGUE PRONOUN REFERENCE, can confuse readers and obscure the intended meaning. This teaching module will show you three major pronoun reference errors and ways to correct them so that you can avoid pronoun reference errors in your writing. ERROR #1: TOO MANY ANTECEDENTS A pronoun should have only one antecedent (the noun it refers to). That antecedent must be clear and unmistakable. Look at this sentence.
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Anyone who reads this sentence would not know which item was to be fixed. Does it refer to the radio or the car? The answer is unclear.
In the above example, faulty pronoun reference occurs because the pronoun it has two possible noun antecedents: radio and car. You can repair this error by substituting a noun for the pronoun.
or
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference.
Most likely, them refers to peanuts since it is highly unlikely that the writer of this sentence intends to pack away the fans. However, since fans could be the antecedent for them, the reference is not entirely clear. The pronoun reference in this sentence is faulty. You can repair this error in at least two ways. HOW TO REPAIR 1. As with the first sentence, you can replace the pronoun them with a noun.
2. You can also repair this error by rephrasing the sentence.
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference.
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The pronoun reference is unclear: Who will get the bonus -- the supervisors or the workers? They could refer to either group. EXAMPLE OF FAULTY PRONOUN REFERENCE (continued)
You can best fix this error by rephrasing the sentence. Revision #1 (gives the bonus to the workers)
Revision #2 (gives the bonus to the workers)
Rephrasing the sentence has made the meaning clear. Link to Exercise 1 ERROR #2: HIDDEN ANTECEDENTS Faulty / vague pronoun reference errors also occur when the pronoun's antecedent functions as an adjective rather than a noun. In such cases, the true antecedent is "hidden" or obscured from the reader because it has been subordinated to another noun. Thus, we call this kind of faulty antecedent a hidden antecedent. Look at this sentence.
The reader of this sentence might think that the dish was being eaten because dish appears to be the antecedent for the pronoun it. Obviously, people do not eat dishes. What this writer means to say is, "We were tired of eating CANDY." However, candy cannot be the antecedent for it because candy, situated in front of the noun dish, is acting like an adjective. Only nouns can be antecedents.
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You can repair this error by substituting the appropriate noun for the pronoun it.
ERROR: HIDDEN ANTECEDENT (continued)
Obviously, she refers to Mary since a house would NOT be able to answer a phone. However, Mary's modifies house -- Mary's is a hidden antecedent and, thus, is not clear. To repair this error, we can change the pronoun she to a noun.
Another way to repair this error is to remove the hidden antecedent.
Still another way to repair this error is to rephrase the sentence.
(The antecedent for her is clearly Mary.) Link to Exercise 2 ERROR #3: NO ANTECEDENT AT ALL Another kind of faulty/vague pronoun reference problem occurs when writers use a pronoun without giving the pronoun any antecedent at all. Look at the following example.
Question: Who are "they" mentioned in the sentence? Answer: Since "they" has no antecedent in the sentence, the identity is unknown.
In this example, the pronoun they has NO noun antecedent to which it can refer. We can repair this error by changing the pronoun without an antecedent into a noun.
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Example
Another way to repair this error is to create an antecedent -- one that is clear and unmistakable. Example
Here is another example of a pronoun without any antecedent at all.
In this example, the pronoun it has no antecedent to which it can refer. The reader knows that Ms. Smith is "wealthy," but it cannot refer to wealthy because wealthy is NOT a noun. There are at least two ways to repair this error. 1. Replace the pronoun with a noun.
With a noun (money) in the place of the pronoun (it), no antecedent is needed. 2. Rephrase the sentence so that the first part contains an antecedent for the pronoun it.
Now the pronoun it has a clear noun antecedent: money. Here is another example of a pronoun without any antecedent at all.
It, which appears at the very beginning of the sentence, has no noun antecedent at all. In addition, the construction It says in the paper is unnecessarily wordy.
We can repair this error by writing a more DIRECT version of "It says in the paper." Example
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Another way to repair the "It says in the paper" error is to rephrase this part of the sentence. Example
Both methods of repairing this faulty/vague pronoun error eliminate the pronoun and, thus, eliminate the need for an antecedent. Below, another example shows how this error in pronoun reference occurs when a pronoun is used to stand for (refer to) a whole group of words INSTEAD OF one clear noun antecedent. Look at this example.
The pronoun which has no single, clear antecedent. Instead, it refers to the entire clause -- "I did not attend the rally." As you know, however, a pronoun must always refer to a single, clear, unmistakable NOUN ANTECEDENT. Thus, the reference in the above example is incorrect. We can repair this error in at least two ways. 1. Replace the pronoun which with a noun.
Now no antecedent is needed since no pronoun is used. 2. Rephrase the sentence to eliminate the pronoun.
OR
OR
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OR
Here is another example of faulty pronoun reference where a pronoun is asked to refer to a whole group of words instead of a clear, single noun antecedent.
The problem pronoun here is This. Its antecedent is the entire preceding sentence. The reader cannot be sure whether Howard is very angry because: 1. 2. Meg telephoned, Meg telephoned yesterday, OR 3. Meg had not attended the meeting the day before.
There are at least two ways to repair this error and create a clear antecedent for this : 1. Replace the pronoun (this) with a noun.
In the above revisions, no antecedent is needed since no pronoun is used. 2. To repair the faulty pronoun reference (this) rephrase the sentence to eliminate the pronoun.
OR
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**** Watch out for "this" and "which" pronouns. Often they are used incorrectly and create faulty or vague pronoun reference problems.**** Link to Exercise 3 You have now reached the end of this self-teaching unit. To see how well you have learned the methods for recognizing and repairing pronoun reference errors, complete the POST TEST. Link to Post Test
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http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/ModuleCASE.htm
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2006, 2000 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.
Before you can begin to study pronoun case, you must first know what a pronoun is and what the personal pronouns are. A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun. Example:
If we reverse the original sentence, it reads:
The nouns positions have been reversed, but the forms stay the same. Note what happens, however, if we substitute pronouns for the nouns.
The original pronouns used for the first example (Joe loves Martha. and He loves her.) CANNOT be used for Martha loves Joe.
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RULE: Correct pronoun case requires different forms of personal pronouns for different jobs in sentences. The personal pronouns have 3 cases: SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE
Corresponding forms are given below.
You should study these pronouns and know which ones belong to which case.
Usually, using correct pronoun case is perfectly natural. Example:
You would not make these errors:
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Now that you understand that pronoun case means using correct personal pronoun forms, the rest of the unit will focus on some tricky pronoun case situations and show you some helpful hints for correct pronoun case in these situations.
Personal Pronouns as Subjects It is rather simple to use the correct subject pronoun under simple subject circumstances. Example:
Sometimes, however, a sentence may have a compound subject. A compound subject occurs when there are two or more subjects joined by and, but, or or. Example:
In such an instance, you may wish to substitute a pronoun for one or more of the noun subjects. BE CERTAIN TO USE SUBJECTIVE PRONOUNS ONLY!
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Do not fall into the trap of using objective case pronouns when subject pronouns are needed. Examples:
Even though you sometimes hear differently, a subjective pronoun is needed to substitute for a subject noun. HELPFUL HINT: If you are at all confused about which case to use, try this: cover the rest of the subject EXCEPT for that part you want to change to a pronoun. Then see which pronoun case sounds correct. Example:
Thus, she is the correct pronoun to use in place of Mary.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS WITH NOUN SUBJECTS
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You must also remember to use subjective case pronouns when a pronoun is used along with a noun subject. Example:
It is incorrect in this instance to use us, the objective pronoun.
Again, as with compound subjects, you can simply cover up the rest of the subject to see which pronoun sounds correct.
Notice how utterly incorrect the following sounds.
ONE FINAL NOTE about pronouns used as subjects: Do NOT use the self pronouns (myself, yourself, herself, etc.) as subjects.
To avoid making this mistake, again block out the rest of the subject and see how the pronoun sounds by itself.
In this instance, the correct pronoun to use is I.
The self pronouns, called reflexive / intensive pronouns, can be used ONLY to reflect back to the subject or to intensify the subject. In other words, they must follow a subject that means to the same as they do.
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Examples:
Personal Pronouns as Subjective Complements Finally, you must use a subjective case pronoun when the pronoun functions as a subjective complement. What is a subjective complement? A subjective complement answers the question who or what after a form of the verb to be. A subjective complement completes the subject. Or, in other words, a subjective complement means the same as the subject but follows the verb. Example:
Doctor means the same as the subject here it completes the subject. Because the subjective complement is the same as the subject, you should use a subject pronoun. Imagine that you have been asked to pick a suspect out of a police line-up. Recognizing the man who robbed you, you point to him and say,
To see if this sentence has a subjective complement, ask yourself, The third man is who or what? The answer is robber.
Therefore, robber is the subjective complement. You may, however, want to use a personal pronoun in place of robber.
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Use a subjective case pronoun.
Do NOT say
Subjective Case Pronouns Brief Review

The subject pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, they.
Link to Exercise 1
The next 3 sections will consider when to use the objective case pronouns.
Personal Pronouns as Direct Objects Like the subjective complement, the direct object answers whom or what after the verb. Unlike the subjective complement, however, the direct object follows an action verb (not a verb of being) and receives the action. A direct object does NOT complete the subject or equal the subject. Example:
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Rule: Determine the direct object by asking whom or what after the action verb in a sentence.
Perhaps you may wish to substitute a pronoun for the direct object, Martha. Simply choose the appropriate (sex and number) object pronoun.
Sometimes a sentence may have a compound direct object (2 objects joined by and, but, or or). Example:
You may wish to change one of the noun direct objects to a pronoun. To do this, follow the same procedure you did with the compound subject situation: Block out the part of the compound object you do NOT wish to change and choose the pronoun that sounds correct for the remaining direct object. Example:
Thus, her is the correct pronoun to use in place of Jane.
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As with subject situations, remember to use an objective case pronoun when a pronoun is used along with a noun direct object. Example:
It is incorrect in this instance to use we, the subjective pronoun.
Here again, as with compound direct objects, if you are at all confused, simply blank out the noun part of the direct object and see which pronoun sounds correct.
Therefore, the correct sentence is
Finally, do not use a reflexive / intensive pronoun as direct object (myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) UNLESS there is a personal pronoun or noun preceding it that it can intensify or refer back to.
Remember: Use a reflexive / intensive pronoun only when you see a noun or pronoun coming before it that it will refer back to (for example, me myself; Jack himself; them themselves).
Link to Exercise 2
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Personal Pronouns Used As Indirect Objects A sentence with a direct object may also have an indirect object. An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that answers the question to whom or to what OR for whom or for what after an action verb. It always sits between the verb and the direct object. NOTE: The word to or for is understood with an indirect object - not stated. Example:
Question: Mary gave a present to whom? Answer: Joe Therefore, Joe is the indirect object in this sentence. Another Example:
Question: Joe gave a party for whom? Answer: Mary Therefore, Mary is the indirect object in this sentence. Determine the indirect object by asking to whom/what or for whom/what after the action verb in a sentence. RULE: A sentence with an indirect object will ALWAYS have a direct object as well. To substitute a pronoun for the indirect object, Mary, in the 2nd example, simply choose the appropriate objective pronoun.
However, sometimes a sentence may have a compound indirect object (two or more indirect objects joined by and, but, or or). Example:
To change one of the indirect object nouns to a pronoun, use the same guidelines you used for
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compound subjects and compound direct objects: block out the part of the indirect object you do NOT wish to change and choose the pronoun that sounds correct for the remaining indirect object. Example:
Thus, him is the correct pronoun to use in place of Harold.
You must also remember to use an objective case pronoun when a pronoun is used along with a noun indirect object. Example:
If you are confused about which pronoun to choose, block out the rest of the indirect object to see which pronoun sounds correct.
Thus, the correct sentence is
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Link to Exercise 3
Personal Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions A sentence containing a preposition will automatically contain an object for that preposition. An object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun following a preposition that answers whom or what after the preposition. Look over this list of the most frequently used prepositions. Make yourself familiar with them!
RULE: Prepositions ALWAYS begin prepositional phrases. Examples:
Each prepositional phrase contains a noun object of the preposition (o.p.). Look at this prepositional phrase.
To determine the o.p., ask whom or what after the preposition.
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Usually, it is not difficult to choose the correct objective pronoun. Sometimes, however, a preposition may have more than one object: a compound object (two objects of a preposition joined by and, but, or or). Example:
In this example, both nouns woman and man are objects of the preposition near. Joined by and, they are compound objects of the preposition. To change one prepositional object to a pronoun, follow the same procedure you did with other compound elements in this unit: 1. 2. Block out the noun o.p. you do not wish to change to a pronoun. Choose the pronoun that sounds correct for the remaining o.p. --- the one you wish to change to a pronoun.
To change both objects (man and woman), simply follow the same procedure with that man.
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**NOTE CAREFULLY:
When followed by compound pronoun objects, the preposition between offers special problems.
Sometimes you will hear between INCORRECTLY followed by one or more subjective pronouns. Example:
The pronoun I is incorrect here. Why? I is incorrect because it is a subject pronoun being used in an object situation: object of the preposition between. Do not let between fool you. Always use objective case pronouns as objects of between or any other preposition.
Me is an objective case pronoun; therefore, it is the correct one to use as the object of the preposition between. Here are more examples using between.
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Although at first the correct choice may not sound right, always choose the objective form pronoun to act as an object of a preposition (o.p.) after the preposition between. As with subjects, direct objects, and indirect objects, sometimes a pronoun may be used next to a noun object of a preposition (but not as compound). Example:
If you are confused about which pronoun to choose next to an object of the preposition, block out the rest of the object of the preposition and see which pronoun sounds correct. Example:
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NOTE: Finally, the "self" pronouns can be used as objects of prepositions ONLY when they clearly refer back to a noun or pronoun preceding them. Example:
In this sentence, himself refers back to baby and is, therefore, correct.
Link to Exercise 4
Now that you have learned about the major subject / object positions in sentences and the correct pronoun case to use in each, you are ready to consider a few more instances which require special attention. Correct Use of Who and Whom Choosing between who or whom is often confusing. Here are some tricks to help you know whether to use who or whom. Like he, they, etc., who is a subject pronoun (subjective case). Therefore, who should be used whenever it will do the job of subject or subject complement in a sentence. Example:
Try using a subject pronoun like he in place of who.
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If the substituting sounds all right, then use the subjective form who. Whom, on the other hand, is an object pronoun (objective case). Therefore, it should be used whenever it will do the job of direct object, indirect object, or object of preposition. Example:
Try using an object pronoun like him in place of whom.
Helpful Hint: Try substituting he for who and him for whom when you are determining which word is the correct one to use. Sometimes, however, sentences can be more complicated than the examples given so far:
Which is correct who or whom? In such an instance, you must see the sentence as two distinct parts and determine how who / whom is functioning in its own distinct section of the sentence.
________ took the flowers. Since who / whom took the flowers needs a subject, then the subject pronoun who is the correct one to use. The sentence reads correctly as
Here is another example of a sentence with two distinct parts. Choose who or whom depending on how it is functioning in its own distinct section.
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The clause who / whom I want to win already has a subject: I. A closer look inside the clause shows that it really means I want who / whom to win. Thus, who / whom will function as a direct object answering the question whom or what after the verb want. Therefore, the choice should be the object form. Test your choice with the objective case pronoun him.
Thus, the sentence reads correctly as
REMEMBER: 1. 2. 3. If you can substitute he, use who . . . the subject pronoun. If you can substitute him, use whom . . . the object pronoun. Determine the correct choice by deciding how the pronoun (who / whom) is being used in its own clause.
Link to Exercise 5
Comparisons Often we compare one thing, quality, or person to another by using either than or as . . . as to form the comparison. When we are using nouns in the comparison, there is no need to worry about choosing a correct noun. Examples:
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The difficulty arises when a pronoun is substituted for the noun coming after the comparison. You must choose between subjective and objective forms. Here is a helpful hint to aid you in choosing correct pronoun form.
To choose the correct pronoun for Martha, simply carry out the sentence to its logical conclusion.
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In both instances, the correct pronoun can be determined by completing the idea of the sentence. In the examples above, a subject pronoun (she) is the correct one. However, at other times, an object pronoun will be correct. Examples
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As shown in these four examples using comparisons, choose the pronoun that fits the intended meaning of the sentence.
Link to Exercise 6 Pronouns with verbals Finally, you must choose the correct pronoun case when you use pronouns with verbals. A verbal is a verb form doing the job of a noun or adjective. There are two kinds of verbals used with pronouns gerunds and participles. #1 GERUND Gerunds end in ing and act like nouns.
When nouns or pronouns precede gerunds in sentences, USE THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
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Sometimes sentences can be more complicated.
It would be WRONG to use the subjective or objective pronoun form.
RULE: When a personal pronoun precedes a gerund, use POSSESSIVE case. Sometimes, however, an ing verbal will not require a possessive pronoun. Not all ing verbals are gerunds. Example:
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In this example, the direct object is them. Eating is functioning as an adjective, not a noun. Therefore, eating is not a gerund. An ing verbal that acts like an adjective (i.e., it modifies a noun or pronoun) is called a participle. Review:
Link to Exercise 7
Link to the Post Test
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Subject - Verb Agreement
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2000, 1978 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.
Although you are probably already familiar with basic subject-verb agreement, this chapter begins with a quick review of basic agreement rules. Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. In the present tense, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways: nouns ADD an s to the singular form; verbs REMOVE the s from the singular form.
These agreement rules do not apply to verbs used in the simple past tense without any helping verbs.
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The agreement rules do, however, apply to the following helping verbs when they are used with a main verb: is-are, was-were, has-have, does-do.
The agreement rules do not apply to has-have when used as the SECOND helping verb in a pair.
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They do NOT apply to any other helping verbs, such as can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must.
The subject-verb agreement rules apply to all personal pronouns except I and you, which, although SINGULAR, require PLURAL forms of verbs.
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Now click on the link below to do exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1 The remainder of this teaching unit deals with some more advanced subject-verb agreement rules and with exceptions to the original subject-verb agreement rule Compound Subject The word compound means made up of two or more parts. Two or more words can be compounded or linked by joining them with any of three words: and, or, and nor Here are some examples of compounding:
Compound nouns can function as a compound subject. In some instances, a compound subject poses special problems for the subject-verb agreement rule (+s, -s).
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However, instead of using two sentences (as above), we may choose to give the above information in one sentence.
This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined by and), illustrating a new rule about subject-verb agreement. Although each part of the compound subject is singular (ranger and camper), taken together (joined by and), each one becomes a part of a plural structure and, therefore, must take a plural verb (see) to agree in the sentence. SUBJECT-VERB RULE #1 Two or more singular (or plural) subjects joined by and act as a plural compound subject and take a plural verb (singular + singular = plural). You can check the verb by substituting the pronoun they for the compound subject.
Or and nor as joiners word somewhat differently from and. While the word and seems to ADD things together, or and nor do not. They suggest a CHOICE.
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Look at this sentence.
This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined together by or). Each part of the compound subject (ranger, camper) is singular. Even though both words function together as subject (joined by or), the subject still remains SINGULAR (ranger or camper) since a CHOICE is implied. This compound subject, therefore, requires a singular verb to agree with it. SUBJECT-VERB RULE #2 Two or more SINGULAR subjects joined by or (or nor) act as a singular compound subject and, therefore, take a singular verb to agree. Note: Two or more plural subjects joined by or (or nor) would naturally take a plural verb to agree.
However, or and nor can pose a more difficult problem. Thus far we have been working with compound subjects whose individual parts are both either singular or plural
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What if one part of the compound subject is singular and the other part is plural?
What form of a verb should be used in this case? Should the verb be singular to agree with one word? Or should the verb be plural to agree with the other? Solution: 1. If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by and, always use a plural verb.
2.
If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by or or nor, use the verb form (singular or plural) which will agree with the subject closer to the verb.
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Now click on the link below to do exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2 Group Nouns Some nouns which name groups can be either singular or plural depending upon their meaning in individual sentences.
Because they can describe either the individuals in the group (more than one plural), or the group as a single entity (one only singular), these nouns pose special problems. However, there are some guidelines for deciding which verb form (singular or plural) to use with one of these nouns as the subject in a sentence. If we refer to the group as a whole and, therefore, as a single unit, we consider the noun singular. In this case, we use a singular verb.
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If, on the other hand, we are actually referring to the individuals within the group, then we consider the noun plural. In this case, we use a plural verb.
Of course group nouns, like other nouns, can also appear in plural forms (with an s).
When used in the plural form, group nouns mean MORE THAN ONE GROUP. Thus, it uses a plural verb.
Thus, there are three important subject verb agreement rules to remember when a group noun is used as the subject: 1. Group nouns can be considered as a single unit, and, thus, take a singular verb.
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2.
Group nouns can be considered as individual members within a single unit and, thus, take a plural verb. Group nouns can be given plural forms to mean two or more units and, thus, take a plural verb.
3.
Plural Form / Singular Meaning Nouns Some nouns are regularly plural in form, but singular in meaning.
Even though these nouns APPEAR to be plural because they end in s, they actually refer to only one thing made up of smaller, uncounted parts. Therefore, they are considered singular.
You can see that substituting that pronoun it instead of they makes more sense here. Another group of plural form nouns end in ics.
Similarly, it is a more suitable substitute for any of these words than is they.
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These nouns appear to be plural (end in s), but generally refer to only one thing and are, therefore, generally considered singular.
NOTE: Occasionally, however, the ics nouns can have a plural meaning: We can speak about individual parts of these wholes. In this case, we apply the same rule as applies to group nouns when we consider the individual members within the group (see Section 3.3): We use a plural verb. Note the difference in meaning and, therefore, in the verb chosen (singular or plural) between the two uses of the ics noun, statistics.
Now click on the link below to do exercise 4. Link to Exercise 4 Indefinite pronouns can pose special problems in subject verb agreement. The difficulty is that some indefinite pronouns sound plural when they are really singular. As subjects, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take singular verbs. Look at them closely.
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These should be easy to remember.
However, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take plural verbs.
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EXCEPTIONS: A third group of indefinite pronouns takes either a singular or plural verb depending on the pronouns meaning in the sentence. Look at them closely. (SANAM)
Now click on the link below to do exercise 5. Link to Exercise 5 So far we have considered subjects that can cause subject-verb agreement confusion: compound subjects, group noun subjects, plural form singular meaning subjects, and indefinite subjects. The remainder of this teaching unit examines subject verb agreement problems that can result
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from word placement in sentences. There are four main problems: prepositional phrases, clauses beginning with who, that, or which, sentences beginning with here or there, and questions.
Here is a list of frequently used prepositions:
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A prepositional phrase may be placed between the subject and verb.
In the above example, the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject boy. Sometimes, however, a prepositional phrase inserted between the subject and verb makes agreement more difficult.
Car is the singular subject. Was is the singular helping verb which agrees with car. If we arent careful, however, we may mistakenly label riders as the subject since it is nearer to the verb than car is. If we choose the plural noun, riders, we will incorrectly select the plural verb were.
Solution to the Prepositional Phrase Problem 1. 2. Learn the major prepositions (see page 28). Be alert for prepositional phrases placed between the subject and verb, and identify the noun in the phrase immediately as the object of a preposition: An object of a preposition can NEVER be a sentence subject. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb which agrees with it.
3.
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4.
Remember the indefinite pronoun EXCEPTIONS considered in Section 3.5, p.18: Some, Any, None, All, and Most. The number of these subject words IS affected by a prepositional phrase between the subject and verb.
Now click on the link below to do exercise 6. Link to Exercise 6 A clause beginning with who, that, or which and coming BETWEEN the subject and verb can cause agreement problems. Like the prepositional phrase, the who / that / which clause never contains the subject.
TO AVOID SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT ERRORS . . . 1.

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Identify who / that / which clauses immediately.
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2. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb that agrees with it.
Now click on the link below to do exercise 7. Link to Exercise 7 When a sentence begins with there is there are / here is here are, the subject and verb are inverted. After all that you have learned already, you will undoubtedly find this topic a relatively easy one!
The verb in such constructions is obviously is or are. The subject, however, does not come BEFORE the verb. Instead, the subject in this kind of sentence comes AFTER the verb, so you must look for it AFTER the verb.
In this example, because the subject, book, is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the subject is plural, however, then the verb must be plural.
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In this example, because the subject, books, is plural, the verb is also plural. Remember: In here is here are / there is there are constructions, look for the subject AFTER the verb and choose a singular (is) or a plural (are) verb to agree with the subject. And finally, sometimes creating a question will cause the subject to follow the verb as well. Here, identify the subject and then choose the verb that agrees with it (singular or plural).
Now click on the link below to do exercise 8.
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Link to Exercise 8
Click on the link below to do the Post Test. Link to Post Test
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2008 Margaret L. Benner
ACTIVE / PASSIVE VOICE

Active voice In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.
Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in the active voice. To see how well you understand active voice, do Exercise 1.
Passive voice One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive. Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.
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Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive voice. Now do Exercise 2.
Writers can change most sentences from active to passive or from passive to active as desired. To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following: 1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot
2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by
3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form as required
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Now do Exercise 3.
A CAUTION ABOUT PASSIVE VOICE: Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-actionreceiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to understand than the same sentence in passive voice.
It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice.
To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown above.
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1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct object slot
2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed
3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.
Some passive voice sentences may not even mention a doer of the action. Example:
To change sentences like these into active voice, create a doer-of-the-action subject. Example:
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Because active voice is more direct, most writers prefer to use it whenever possible.
Now do Exercise 4.
When should one use the passive voice? The passive voice may be a better choice when the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence Examples
Since we do not know (or need to know) who counted the ballots or who appreciates our efforts, passive voice works fine in the example above.
The passive voice may also be a better choice when the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action Examples
The above examples emphasize what happened -- something was broken, someone was questioned for sixteen hours --rather than who made it happen.
The passive voice may also be a better choice when
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the writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety.
Now try the post test.
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Pronoun - Antecedent Agreements
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copyright 2002, 1979 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.
In order to understand pronoun antecedent agreement, you must first understand pronouns. A pronoun is a word used to stand for (or take the place of) a noun. Below are the personal pronouns. They are called personal because they usually refer to persons (except for it, which refers to things).
Look at this sentence.
There are two nouns in this sentence: John and man. Either of these nouns can be replaced by a pronoun. If we replace John (the subject of the sentence) with a pronoun, we choose he, a subject pronoun.
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If we replace man (the object in the sentence) with a pronoun, we choose him, an object pronoun.
For you to do:

Rewrite the following sentence in the space provided, first replacing the subject noun Laura with a subject pronoun; then replacing the object noun Amy with an object pronoun. Click on the "submit" button to see if your answers are right. Laura hired Amy Smith.
Now rewrite this sentence, replacing both nouns with personal pronouns. Write your answer in the space provided and check your work. Then continue reading this page. John hired the woman.
These sample sentences tell us some important things about pronouns: 1. 2. A pronoun takes the place of a noun. The pronoun which replaces the noun must agree with it in these ways: a) A subject pronoun must replace a subject noun. An object pronoun must replace an object noun. b) A feminine pronoun must replace a feminine noun. A masculine pronoun must replace a masculine noun. c) A singular pronoun must replace a singular noun. A plural pronoun must replace a plural noun. Thus, in the sentence
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We must replace the singular, masculine subject noun, John, with the singular, masculine subject pronoun, He. We can replace the singular, feminine object noun, woman, with singular, feminine object pronoun, her.
Here is another problem for you to solve. Three words describe the properties of of the pronoun he. Select the correct ones, then click on "submit" and check your answers. The pronoun he = subject or feminine or singular or object masculine plural
A pronoun can also refer to an earlier noun or pronoun in the sentence. Look at this sentence.
We do not talk or write this way. Automatically, we replace the noun Lincolns with a pronoun. More naturally, we say
The pronoun his refers to President Lincoln. In this sentence, the pronoun his is called the REFERENT because it refers back. We call President Lincoln the ANTECEDENT because it comes before the pronoun that refers to
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it later. (ante = before) Thus, the mechanics of the sentence look like this:
Look at the examples below to see how to choose the right pronoun for two antecedents joined by and, or, or nor. 1. When two or more singular noun antecedents are joined by and, they make a PLURAL antecedent. (1 + 1 = 2) example:
NOTE: The plural pronoun their replaces both masculine and feminine nouns. If both noun antecedents joined by and are plural, then the referent pronoun will also be PLURAL.
2.
When two or more noun antecedents are joined by or or nor, choose a pronoun referent to agree with the antecedent CLOSEST TO THE VERB. Examples:
A.
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Two singular antecedents
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B. Two plural antecedents
C.
One singular antecedent followed by a plural antecedent
D.
One plural antecedent followed by a singular antecedent
In the above examples, C and D are the most difficult because the antecedents have both a singular and a plural noun. Remember these two guidelines . . . 1. For antecedents joined by and always choose a plural referent pronoun. 2. For antecedents joined by or or nor choose a referent pronoun to agree with the antecedent closest to the verb.
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Some nouns which name groups can be either singular or plural, depending upon their meaning in individual sentences. Some examples of group nouns are:
Because they can describe either the group as a SINGLE ENTITY (only one singular) or the INDIVIDUALS in the group (more than one plural), these nouns pose special problems as antecedents. However, the following guidelines can help us decide which referent pronoun agrees with such noun antecedents. First, if we refer to the group as a whole, and therefore, as a single unit, we consider the noun as a singular. In this case, we use a singular referent pronoun. Example:
On the other hand, if we are actually referring to the individuals with the group, then we consider the noun plural. In this case, we use a plural referent pronoun. Example:
Here, each member of the class is considered separately. The students in the class will each hand in a report. Of course, we can make group nouns plural as well, usually by adding an s. Some examples of plural group nouns are:
When used in the plural form, a group noun means more than one group. It naturally takes a plural referent pronoun.
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Example:
Remember these three important points about pronoun antecedent agreement when a group noun is the antecedent: 1. Group nouns considered as single units take singular referent pronouns. (the club uses it ; the woman uses she or her) 2. Group nouns which consider the members as individuals in the group take plural referent pronouns. (the club member uses they or their) 3. Plural group nouns meaning two or more groups take plural referent pronouns.
(the clubs use they or their)
Sometimes a personal pronoun may be an antecedent. In this sentence, he is the antecedent for the referent pronoun his.
His is both masculine and singular to agree with the masculine, singular antecedent he. In the following sentence, she is the antecedent for the referent pronoun her.
Her is both feminine and singular to agree with the feminine, singular antecedent she. In this sentence, I is the antecedent for the referent pronoun, my.
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My is singular to agree with the singular antecedent, I.
Remember this important guideline: A referent pronoun agrees with its personal pronoun antecedent. **You may want to look back at the chart of personal pronouns to see which referents agree with which antecedents.
Indefinite pronouns as antecedents also pose a special problem. Some indefinite pronouns seem as if they should be plural when really they are singular. Use the following guidelines. 1. As antecedents, the indefinite pronouns below ALWAYS take a singular pronoun referent. Look at them closely.
Examples:
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2. The following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take plural pronoun referents.
Examples:
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3. However, the following indefinite pronoun antecedents may be either singular or plural, depending upon how they are used in a sentence.
Generally speaking, if one of these indefinite pronouns is used to designate something that CAN be counted, then the pronoun is plural. If one of these indefinite pronouns is used to designate something that CANNOT be counted, then the pronoun is singular. Examples:
In the above sentence, all designates the voters. Voters can be counted (1 voter, 2 voters, etc.). Therefore, the plural pronoun their is the correct referent for all.
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In the above sentence, all designates sugar. Sugar cannot be counted (1 sugar, 2 sugars). Therefore, the singular pronoun, its, is the correct referent for all.
In the above sentence, all designates some unnamed people (e.g. campers, ranchers). Campers, ranchers people CAN be counted. Therefore, the plural pronoun their is the correct referent for all. Now click on the link below to do Exercise 4. Link to Exercise 4 You have now reached the end of this unit. If you are doing this module on your own time, you have completed the learning unit on avoiding problems with pronoun - antecedent agreement. If you are doing this module as part of your classroom assignment, proceed to the Post Test and follow the directions you find there. Click on the link below to do the Post Test. Link to the Post Test
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CAPITALIZATION RULES
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Capitalize . . .
1. the first word of a sentence EXAMPLE
2. proper nouns names of relatives (to indicate family relationship) when used with name EXAMPLE
names of relatives when used as proper name | EXAMPLE
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titles A. preceding a name EXAMPLE
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize titles that follow names.
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize titles used as general words.
B. when used in direct address
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR TITLES Capitalize very high ranking government officials' titles even when not followed by a name or used in direct address when a specific individual is referred to. EXAMPLES
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If no specific individual is referred to, do not capitalize titles of even very high ranking government officials. EXAMPLE
Capitalize important words in compound titles used with names, but do not capitalize prefixes or suffixes added to the titles. EXAMPLES
3. major words in titles of books, articles, and songs
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EXAMPLE
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize short prepositions, conjunctions, or articles unless they are the first word of the title EXAMPLES
4. names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books EXAMPLES
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
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5. directions that are names, such as North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country EXAMPLE
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize directions when used as compass directions
6. days of the week, months of the year, and holidays EXAMPLES
7. seasons, when used in a title EXAMPLE
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EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the names of seasons if they are used generally.
8. countries, nationalities, and specific languages EXAMPLES
9. periods and events EXAMPLES
EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize century numbers
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10. names of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups EXAMPLES
11. trademarks EXAMPLES
12. the first word in a sentence that is a direct quote, even if the direct quote comes in the middle of a sentence EXAMPLE
13. the first word of a sentence following a colon EXAMPLE
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EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the first word of a list following a colon if the list is not a complete sentence.
14. The first word in each line of most poetry EXAMPLE
15. the single-letter word, first person pronoun I. EXAMPLE
16. salutations and closings in letters - first word only unless proper name is used EXAMPLES
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17. initials, initialisms, and acronyms EXAMPLES
18. names of the planets EXAMPLES
NOTE - Experts disagree about whether to capitalize earth, sun, and moon. For consistency, this author suggests capitalizing them when they are used to designate celestial bodies.
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The verb expansion rule provides a formula that covers every predicate ve...
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleVerbExpan.htm
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2006 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.
The verb expansion rule provides a formula that covers every predicate verb possibility in the English language. The entire formula looks like this:
The items in parentheses are optional items. The items not in parentheses are necessary for every verb. MV = main verb Every verb must have a main verb. For example:
T = tense Every verb must indicate a time. Simple tenses are present and past. For example:
Thus, the simplest form of every verb could be written using only the essential parts of the verb expansion rule
T + MV
(Tense + Main Verb)
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To illustrate the specific verb, we designate the tense and the main verb:
The tense (present or past) is applied to what follows it -- in this case, the main verb. Try Exercise 1 to see whether you understand this basic part of the verb expansion rule.
Expanding the rule

The rule begins to expand when we add the items in parentheses. They may be used or not used in any combination. When used together, however, they must always be used in the order given in the rule. You may add a modal auxiliary verb (M) to the main verb. This addition expands the smallest form of the verb rule to
T + M + MV
There are four modal auxiliary verbs with both present and past tenses.
The modal auxiliary must has no tense designations. Each part of the verb expansion rule influences what follows it. Thus, with the modal addition, the tense marker (T) will designate the tense of the modal auxiliary. To add a modal auxiliary to the verb, indicate present or past tense, write the base (present) modal form and follow it with the base form of the main verb. (When writing the rule, always use the base form of the main verb and any auxiliary verbs.)
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Do Exercise 2 now to make sure that you understand modal auxiliary verbs. You may add the auxiliary verb has / have to the main verb. To add has / have to the verb, change the form of the verb: Add the -en ending to the main verb. Thus, the present verb eat becomes has eaten or have eaten, depending on the subject.
Because adding the auxiliary verb have to the main verb always requires adding the -en ending to the main verb, the + - en is included inside the parentheses with have.
(have + -en)
Notes: 1. The verb expansion rule always uses the generic have, even if the final form will appear as has or had. 2. The -en ending may not look like -en in the final verb.. The -en ending is used to designate all endings that are used with the auxiliary verb have. (e.g. has sat, have thought, had drawn, have talked) Now the rule expands to include have + en:
T + have + -en + MV
As before, the tense designation (T) is applied to whatever follows it. In this case, that will be the auxiliary verb have. In addition, now the -en ending (have + -en) will apply to whatever follows it. In this case, that will be the main verb.
Click on Exercise 3, where you will add have + -en to the main verb. If both a modal auxiliary and have + en are used with the main verb, the verb expansion rule
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expands to
T + M + have + -en + MV
The tense designation is applied to whatever follows it -- in this case the modal auxiliary. Examples:
Do Exercise 4 to check your understanding. You may add the auxiliary verb be to the main verb. To add be to the verb, change the form of the verb: Add -ing to the main verb. Thus, the present verb eat becomes is eating, are eating, was eating, or were eating.
Because adding the auxiliary verb be to the main verb always requires adding the -ing ending to the main verb, the + - ing is included inside the parentheses with be.
(be + ing)
Note: The verb expansion rule always uses the generic be, even if the final form will appear as is, are, was, or were. Now the rule expands to include be + ing:
T + be + ing + MV
As before, the tense is applied to whatever follows it. In this case, that will be the auxiliary verb be. In addition, now the -ing will apply to whatever follows it. In this case, that will be the main verb.
Do Exercise 5 to see how well you understand the addition of be + -ing to the main verb..
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If both a modal auxiliary and be + ing are used with the main verb, the verb expansion rule expands to
T + M + be + -ing + MV
The tense designation, along with the -en and -ing endings, should be applied to whatever follows each one. Examples:
If a modal auxiliary, have + en, and be + -ing are used with the main verb, the verb expansion rule expands to
T + M + have + -en + be + ing + MV

Again, the tense designation, along with the -en and -ing endings, should be applied to whatever follows each one. Examples:
Go to Exercise 6 to check your understanding so far. You may create a passive voice verb by adding the be + en to the main verb. Adding be + -en to the main verb will make the verb passive. This change will mean that the subject of the sentence will not do the action of the verb; instead, the subject will be acted upon. Now the rule expands to include be + -en:
T + be + -en + MV
Here too, the tense designation and the -en ending apply to whatever follows them.
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Try Exercise 7 to check your understanding of the passive be + -en addition. The passive be + -en option may be used with any other optional part of the verb expansion rule. Examples
Now do Exercise 8. If all of the other optional parts of the verb expansion rule are used with be + -en, the verb expansion rule expands to its full potential. Examples
These examples show the full expansion rule at work:
Click on the Post Test to see how well you understand the Verb Expansion Rule.
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This brief instructional unit will examine strengths and weaknesses of var...
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleSENTCOMB.htm
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PARTS OF SPEECH
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
PUNCTUATION
USAGE
EXERCISES
2005 Margaret L. Benner
All rights reserved.
This brief instructional unit will examine strengths and weaknesses in various kinds of sentences. In addition, it will show you some techniques for creating sentences that are economical: use the fewest words to say the most clear: transmit your intended meaning to the reader easily and immediately tight: do not lead the reader through chain-like masses of "ands," "buts," or "ors" graceful: provide a pleasant experience for the reader Using a variety of sentence combining methods will enhance your writing as well by providing a mixture of sentence types and thereby keep your reader from becoming bored. In general, avoid the following kinds of sentences: 1. Primer style sentences - ERROR
Combine these short, choppy sentences into one sentence by eliminating unnecessary words and subordinating where possible.
2. Loose, stringy, run-on, over-coordinated sentences - ERROR
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Combine these loose ideas into one sentence by eliminating unnecessary words and subordinating where possible.
3. Excessively subordinated, tangled sentences - ERROR
Reduce subordinated clauses to words and eliminate unnecessary words.
In addition, use one or more of the following methods to combine sentences into clear, economical, tight units of thought:
Method #1: Reduce one sentence into a present participial phrase (-ing phrase).
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The emphasis in each example above is different: Example 1 emphasizes creeping through the grass while example 2 emphasizes watching the mouse.
Method #2: Reduce one sentence into a past participial phrase (-ed or -en verbal phrase).
Method #3: Reduce one sentence into an adverbial clause (beginning with when, if etc.).
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Note that each combination in the above example emphasizes a different part of the sentence. The first sentence combination emphasizes that Jones feels good; the second emphasizes that she works out.
comma use with adverbial clauses
Method #4: Reduce one sentence into an adjectival clause (beginning with that, which, who, etc.).
Note that each combination in the above example emphasizes a different part of the sentence. The first sentence emphasizes how long Bill Bristol was at the supermarket; the second
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emphasizes what time he got there.

comma use with adjectival clauses
Method #5: Reduce one sentence into an appositive (re-namer).
Note that each combination in the above example emphasizes a different part of the sentence. The first sentence emphasizes that Ms. Browne is an applicant; the second emphasizes that she is a well known financial advisor.
Method #6: Create a series.
Here are some examples that use several methods at a time to combine sentences. Note carefully how all information has been included in the final sentence in a concise, clear, graceful manner.
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Click on the link to complete the post test for this self-teaching unit.
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To see how well you have learned to avoid and repair misplaced and dangling modifiers, complete the POST TEST below. There is no answer key for the POST TEST. Instead, you are to have your response checked by the Writing Support Program office. If the results of your POST TEST indicate that you need more work in some area of this chapter, the Writing Support Program office will direct you to additional material. If you do well on the POST TEST, the Writing Support Program office will tell you that you have satisfactorily completed the unit. You must print out a copy of this original page to complete the Post Test. Make your corrections right on the printout. Then bring your completed Post Test to the Writing Support Program office for evaluation and review so that you can take the final test in the office. Link to Printable Post Test
Part I - Misplaced Modifiers

Directions: The sentences below contain misplaced modifiers. Circle the misplaced modifier and draw an arrow to where it belongs in the sentence to convey the intended meaning. 1. A wind blew across the field that was cold and blustery. 2. Joan had made up her mind to be an architect before she was thirteen years old. 3. Fortunately, Mark almost sold all his bronze sculptures. 4. He struck the fish bowl with his forehead, which fortunately was empty. 5. I told Mick when my new computer arrived I would let him surf the internet. 6. We only have three more miles to go before reaching the hotel. 7. Elvis saw a bird sitting on the telephone wire that he could not identify. 8. Throw that spoiled package of meat into the trash can. 9. She found a woolen child's scarf in the yard. 10 Hung across two poles, I saw a clothesline.
Part II - Dangling Modifiers

Directions: Using either of the two methods explained in the module, rewrite each of the following
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sentences to correct the dangling modifiers. 1. At the age of ten, my parents took me to Disney World. 2. After finishing the ice arena, it will be opened to the public. 3. While talking, the fire alarm sounded. 4. Getting up early, the house seemed unusually quiet to me.. 5. Not being aware of what had happened, the confusion puzzled Jill. 6. Glancing to my left, a fast-flowing stream wound its way through the meadow. 7. Not knowing his way around the campus, it was hard for Jones to find his classrooms.. 8. As a budding high school athlete, one of my goals was to be a football hero. 9. My dog slept at my feet while grading papers last night. 10. By writing a letter to the editor, the public will know your views.
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What is a misplaced modifier
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/moduleDangling.htm
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t 2000, 1999, 1998, 1998 Margaret L. Benner
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies / describes. Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical. Example
The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch. Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more sensible place in the sentence, generally next to the word it modifies. Example
Now it is the watch that is gold.
There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the intended meaning.
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Example 1
Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies. Corrected
Example 2
Corrected
Sentences like these are common in everyday speech and ordinarily cause their listeners no trouble. However, they are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your writing. 2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences. For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the sentence's meaning. Just means only John was picked, no one else:
Just means that John was picked now:
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Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else:
Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends upon what the writer has in mind. Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous. This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:
To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.
Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often misplaced and cause an unintended meaning. This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money:
Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.
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Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not cause listeners difficulty. However, such sentences are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your writing. Now click on the link below to complete Exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1 3. Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that modify the wrong nouns. To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are supposed to modify.
Example 1 (a buyer with leather seats?)
Corrected
Example 2 (a corner smoking pipes?)
Corrected
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Example 3 (a house made of barbed wire?)
Corrected
Click on the link below to complete Exercise 2. Link to Exercise 2 4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns. To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to modify. Example 1 ( a buttered woman?)
Corrected
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Example 2 (a hamper that Ralph wore?)
Corrected
Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible meanings. Example
Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on Monday?) Correction #1 (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)
Correction #2 (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)
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Click on the link below to complete Exercise 3. Link to Exercise 3
DANGLING MODIFIERS
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word or words it modifies (i.e. is placed next to). Two notes about dangling modifiers: Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving it to a different place in a sentence. In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it can also come at the end.
Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify anything to which the modifier can refer.
Example 1
This sentence does not specify who is looking toward the west. In fact, there is nothing at all in the sentence to which the modifying phrase looking toward the west can logically refer. Since the modifier, looking toward the west, is sitting next to the funnel shaped cloud, the sentence suggests that the cloud is doing the looking. Example 2
This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!
At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.
Example 1
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Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Jim - is mentioned later. Example 2
Since having been fixed the night before is placed next to Priscilla, the sentence means that Priscilla was fixed the night before. As the above examples show, dangling modifiers result in inaccurate and sometimes ludicrous statements.
How to correct dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.
Correction Method #1
1. Leave the modifier as it is. 2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified. 3. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies. Thus, this dangling modifier
may be corrected to
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Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.
Using the same method, this dangling modifier
may be corrected to
Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst. Click on the link below to complete Exercise 4. Link to Exercise 4
Correction Method #2
1. Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb. 2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.
Thus, the dangling modifier
may be corrected to
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Now the sentence means that I (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother enrolled in medical school.
Using the same method, the dangling modifier
may be corrected to
Now the sentence means that the car (not Priscilla!) was fixed. Click on the link below to complete the final exercise. Link to exercise 5 Link to Post Test
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PUNCTUATION
comma | semicolon | colon | apostrophe | parentheses | dash | italics | quotation marks Use a SEMICOLON 1. Between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Example
2. Between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb Example
3. Between items in a series containing internal punctuation Example
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4. Between independent clauses containing internal punctuation even when the clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions. Example
Use a COLON 1. Before formally introducing a list (*An independent clause must precede the colon.) Examples
Incorrect
2. Between two independent clauses when the second explains or expands the first Examples
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More Punctuation
3. Before a formal appositive (*An independent clause must precede the colon) Example
Incorrect
4. Between hour and minute / chapter and verse (Bible) Examples
Use an APOSTROPHE 1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns) Examples
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More Punctuation
2. To show joint ownership with nouns Example
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3. To show individual ownership with nouns Example
4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns Examples
: Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of the personal possessive pronoun its. Example
Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has.

Correct
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5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words. Examples
Use PARENTHESES 1. To enclose interrupting elements that add information or identification
Examples
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2. To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence Example
Use a DASH To set off parenthetical matter Example
NOTE: UNLIKE PARENTHESES, WHICH MINIMIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE. PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL, DASHES EMPHASIZE PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL.
Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.
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Use ITALICS (underlining) 1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such Examples
2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical expressions), or unusual words and phrases. Examples
3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays, movies, radio programs, TV programs, long musical works, long poems, works of art, names of ships and airplanes. Examples
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Use QUOTATION MARKS 1. To enclose titles of minor works: articles, essays, poems, songs, chapters of books, short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs. Examples
2. To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted. Examples
3. To enclose a direct quotation: a person's exact words
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Example
NOTE: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect quotations. Incorrect
Correct
NOTES FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS: 1. Start the quotation with a capital letter. 2. Place commas and periods INSIDE the quotation marks. 3. Place semicolons and colons OUTSIDE the quotation marks. 4. Place question marks and exclamation marks INSIDE the quotation marks if the quotation itself is a question or an exclamation. 5. Place question marks and exclamation marks OUTSIDE the quotation marks if the quotation itself is NOT a question or exclamation.
USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS to enclose a quotation inside another quotation.
Examples
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More Punctuation
If the quotation within another quotation is a question or an exclamation, place appropriate punctuation next to the item concerned. Examples Question quotation inside statement quotation
Statement quotation inside question quotation
Question quotation inside question quotation
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More Punctuation
Exclamation quotation inside question quotation or Question quotation inside exclamation quotation
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PARTS OF SPEECH

Note the differences between content and function parts of speech:

KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION

A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.

1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION

KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION

2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c.

3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)

KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

after although as as far as as soon as as if

in order (that) insofar as in that lest no matter how now that

unless until when whenever where wherever

whether while why

Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

Examples - subjective case

Examples - possessive case

Examples - objective case

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:

How did he lift the barbell? Easily is an adverb.

When will we use it? Tomorrow functions as an adverb.

Where did she hide the key? Nearby is an adverb.

The following examples illustrate the distinction. Early as adjective:

2006, 2000, 1978 Margaret L. Benner

All rights reserved.

Nouns that are types are called common nouns.

Or, a noun may name a particular person, place, thing, or idea.

becomes Now look at this sentence

We could substitute pronouns for all three nouns.

This sentence uses an action verb.

These sentences use verbs of being.

will be = verb of being

you (understood) = subject

Philanthropists = subject donated = predicate

friends = subject are = predicate

office = subject was destroyed = predicate

REVIEW OF SUBJECT PREDICATE TRICKY SPOTS:

1. You (understood) subject

2. Subject separated from predicate

3. Parts of predicate (helping verb / main verb) separated by adverb

4. Subject predicate order changed in a question

5. Subject predicate pair in passive voice

Now click on the link below to do Exercise 3. Link to Exercise 3

Now click on the link below to do Exercise 4. Link to EXERCISE 4

Clause #1 has these three characteristics: 1. subject 2. predicate 3. complete thought

Clause #2 has these three characteristics: 1. subject 2. predicate 3. incomplete thought

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

2006, 1999, 1978 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.

Example of simple sentence:

A simple sentence is the same thing as an independent clause.

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Now click on the link below to do exercise 1. Link to Exercise 1.

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Here is a list of the most frequently used conjunctive adverbs.

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Comma Splices and Fused Sentences