NOTES: KINDS OF SENTENCES AND THEIR PUNCTUATION

A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s) of
clauses it contains.

Review:

 An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete

thought.

 A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete

thought.

1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

Punctuation notes: NO commas separate two compound elements (subject, verb,

direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, etc.) in a simple sentence.

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2. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by

A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),

B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore), or
C. a semicolon alone.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):

A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.
B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.
C. Independent clause; independent clause.

3. A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a

subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun ) joined to an independent clause.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):

A. Dependent clause, independent clause

B. Independent clause dependent clause
C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause,
D. Independent essential dependent clause

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4. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined
to one or more dependent clauses.

Punctuation patterns:

Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences.
A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.

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NOTES: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS:

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
 Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
 words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

 Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the

beginning or end.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses,

no comma should be placed before the conjunction.

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A coordinate conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate
clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound

sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or both. . . and

neither. . . nor not only. . . but
also

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

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 C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:
after all in addition next
also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after
the conjunctive adverb.

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions.

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until
as in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
because provided (that) while
before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
how than
if that
In as much as though
in case (that) till

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Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they
make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two

clauses in a sentence.

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses

than a coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between
the two clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the
dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a comma.

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NOTES: COHESIVE DEVICES
 Cohesive devices are sometimes called linking words, linkers, connectors,
discourse markers, or transitional words.
 Cohesive devices are words or phrases that help to connect your ideas and
make your writing more coherent and logical.
 They show the relationship between sentences, paragraphs, or sections of
a text or speech.

Adding Information
 You can use cohesive devices to add more information to a point you have
made or to introduce a new point that supports your argument. Some
examples of cohesive devices for adding information are:
 And: This is the most common way to join two sentences or clauses that have
the same importance. For example: She likes reading and writing.
 Also: This can be used to add another point that is similar or related to the
previous one. For example, He is good at math. He also excels in science.
 As well as: This can be used to add another noun or noun phrase that is
similar or related to the previous one. For example: She speaks English as
well as French.
 Too: This can be used at the end of a sentence to add another point that is
similar or related to the previous one. For example: He likes coffee. I like it
too.
 Furthermore / Moreover / In addition: These can be used to add another
point that is more important or stronger than the previous one. They are
usually used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: The
project was delayed due to technical issues. Furthermore, the budget was
exceeded by 20%.
 Along with / Together with / Alongside: These can be used to add another
noun or noun phrase that is related to the previous one and shows a
connection or contrast. For example: The report was submitted along with a
summary of the findings.

Sequencing Information
 You can use cohesive devices to show the order or sequence of your points
or ideas. This can help to make your writing clearer and more organized.
Some examples of cohesive devices for sequencing information are:

 Firstly / Secondly / Thirdly / Finally: These can be used to introduce your

main points or arguments in a logical order. They are usually used at the
beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: Firstly, I will explain the
background of the issue. Secondly, I will present some possible solutions.
Thirdly, I will evaluate their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, I will give
my opinion and recommendation.

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  Next / Then / After that / Subsequently: These can be used to show the
chronological order of events or actions. They are usually used at the
beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: Next, we will discuss the
methodology of the research. Then, we will analyse the data and results.
After that, we will draw some conclusions and implications. Subsequently, we
will make some recommendations for future research.
 Before / After / During / While: These can be used to show the time
relationship between two events or actions. They are usually used as
prepositions followed by a noun or a clause. For example: Before we start the
presentation, please turn off your phones. After she finished her degree, she
got a job in a multinational company. During the meeting, he raised some
important questions. While he was driving, he saw an accident.
 Meanwhile / Simultaneously: These can be used to show that two events or
actions happen at the same time but in different places or situations. They
are usually used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For
example: Meanwhile, in another part of the city, a fire broke out in a
factory. Simultaneously, scientists from different countries were working on
a vaccine for the virus.

Emphasizing Information
 You can use cohesive devices to emphasize a point you have made or to
show its importance or significance. Some examples of cohesive devices for
emphasizing information are:

 Above all / Most importantly: These can be used to introduce the most
important point or argument in your writing. They are usually used at the
beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: Above all, you should
practice your writing skills regularly. Most importantly, you should follow
the instructions of the task carefully.

 Especially / Particularly / Specifically: These can be used to emphasize a

specific point, example, or detail that is relevant or important. They are
usually used after a noun or a verb. For example: She enjoys reading
books, especially novels. He is particularly good at solving problems. They
specifically asked for your opinion.
 Indeed / In fact / Actually: These can be used to emphasize a point that
is true or surprising. They are usually used at the beginning or in the
middle of a sentence. For example: Indeed, he is one of the best writers in
the world. She is very smart, in fact, she has a PhD in physics. He likes
broccoli.

Contrasting Information

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  You can use cohesive devices to show a contrast or difference between two
points or ideas. This can help to make your writing more balanced and
objective. Some examples of cohesive devices for contrasting information
are:

 But / However / Nevertheless / Nonetheless: These can be used to

introduce a point that is different from or opposite to the previous one.
They are usually used at the beginning of a sentence or after a comma. For
example: She likes reading but hates writing. He is rich; however, he is not
happy. She failed the exam, nevertheless, she did not give up. He was
tired, nonetheless, he continued working.
 On the other hand, / On the contrary / Conversely: These can be used
to introduce a point that is different from or opposite to the previous one,
especially when comparing two situations or perspectives. They are usually
used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: Some
people think that technology has improved our lives. On the other hand,
some people think that it has made us more isolated. He claimed that he
was innocent. On the contrary, the evidence proved that he was
guilty. Women tend to live longer than men. Conversely, men tend to earn
more than women.
 Although / Even though / Though / Despite / In spite of: These can be
used to introduce a point that is different from or opposite to the
previous one but does not change the main idea or argument. They are
usually followed by a noun or a clause. For example: Although he was sick,
he went to school. Even though she studied hard, she failed the
exam. Though it was raining, they decided to go out. Despite his age, he is
very active. In spite of the traffic, they arrived on time.

Giving Examples or Evidence

 You can use cohesive devices to give examples or evidence to support your
points or arguments. This can help to make your writing more convincing and
credible. Some examples of cohesive devices for giving examples or evidence
are:

 For example, / For instance / To illustrate: These can be used to

introduce a specific example or instance that illustrates your point or
argument. They are usually followed by a noun or a clause. For
example: There are many benefits of exercise. For example, it can improve
your mood and health. Some animals are endangered due to human
activities. For instance, poaching and deforestation threaten the survival
of elephants and tigers. He is very talented in music. To illustrate, he can
play several instruments and sing.
 Such as / Like / Including: These can be used to introduce one or more
examples that belong to a category or group that you have mentioned.

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 They are usually followed by a noun or a noun phrase. For example: There
are many types of fruits, such as apples, bananas, and oranges. Some
sports, like soccer and basketball, require teamwork and coordination. He
has visited many countries, including France, Germany, and Italy.
 According to / Based on / In terms of: These can be used to introduce
evidence or information. They are usually followed by a noun or a noun
phrase. For example: According to a recent survey, most people prefer
online shopping over traditional shopping. Based on his performance, he
deserves a promotion. In terms of quality, this product is superior to
others.

Explaining Results or Consequences

 You can use cohesive devices to show the result or consequence of something
that you have mentioned. This can help to show cause and effect relationships
in your writing. Some examples of cohesive devices for explaining results or
consequences are:

 As a result, / Consequently / Therefore / Thus: These can be used to

introduce a result or consequence that follows from a cause or reason that
you have mentioned. They are usually used at the beginning of a sentence
or paragraph. For example: He failed to submit his assignment on time. As
a result, he lost 10% of his marks. She studied hard for the exam.
Consequently, she passed with flying colours. They did not have enough
money to buy food. Therefore, they had to borrow from their
neighbours. He was late for the meeting. Thus, he missed an important
opportunity.
 For this reason, / Because of this / That is why: These can be used to
introduce a result or consequence. They are usually used at the beginning
of a sentence or paragraph. For example: He was allergic to peanuts. For
this reason, he avoided eating them. She was very tired after working all
day. Because of this, she fell asleep on the couch. They had a lot of
homework to do. That is why they could not go to the party.
 So / Then: These can be used to introduce a result or consequence. They
are usually used in the middle of a sentence after a comma. For
example: He forgot his keys, so he had to break the door. She was hungry,
then she ordered a pizza.

Providing Explanations or Reasons

 You can use cohesive devices to provide explanations or reasons for something that
you have mentioned. This can help to show your understanding and analysis of
the topic or issue. Some examples of cohesive devices for providing
explanations or reasons are:

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  Because / Since / As: These can be used to introduce a cause or reason
for something that you have mentioned. They are usually followed by a
clause. For example: He quit his job because he was unhappy. Since it was
raining, they decided to stay home. As he was sick, he could not attend the
class.
 Owing to / Due to / Because of: These can be used to introduce a cause
or reason for something that you have mentioned. They are usually
followed by a noun or a noun phrase. For example: Owing to his hard work,
he achieved his goals. Due to the bad weather, the flight was
cancelled. Because of her kindness, everyone loved her.
 In order to / So as to / So that: These can be used to introduce a
purpose or intention for something that you have mentioned. They are
usually followed by a verb or a clause. For example: In order to pass the
exam, he studied hard. She left early so as to avoid the traffic. He turned
off the lights so that he could sleep.

Drawing Conclusions or Summarizing

 You can use cohesive devices to draw conclusions or summarize your main
points or arguments in your writing. This can help to show your position and
perspective on the topic or issue. Some examples of cohesive devices for
drawing conclusions or summarizing are:

 In conclusion / To conclude / To sum up: These can be used to introduce

the final paragraph or sentence of your writing where you restate your
main points or arguments and give your opinion or recommendation. They
are usually used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For
example: In conclusion, I believe that technology has more benefits than
drawbacks for society. To conclude, I would like to thank you for your
attention and cooperation. To sum up, there are three main reasons why I
prefer online shopping over traditional shopping.
 In short / In brief / In summary: These can be used to introduce a
short summary of your main points or arguments in your writing. They are
usually used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. For example: In
short, he is a great leader and a role model. In brief, the project was
successful and met all the objectives. In summary, there are many factors
that influence consumer behaviour.

 All in all, / Overall / On the whole: These can be used to introduce a

general evaluation or assessment of your main points or arguments in your
writing. They are usually used at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph.
For example: All in all, it was an enjoyable and memorable experience.
Overall, I think that this is a good product and worth buying.
 *On the whole, I agree with the author’s point of view and arguments. *

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