Reflection of Light

Reflection is the bouncing of light rays when it hits a surface like a plane mirror. Plane mirrors
exhibits regular reflection where the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. All plane
shiny surfaces exhibit this kind of reflection. Irregular or diffused reflection illuminates shaded
areas such as under the trees and inside buildings. This is observed in objects with irregular
surfaces such as rocks, buildings etc.

Reflection is the bouncing back of light into the same medium it has been traveling after striking
a surface. The ray that strikes the surface is called the incident ray. The ray that rebounds from
the surface is called the reflected ray. A line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence
is called the normal. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of
incidence (θi); that between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection (θt).
Figure 6-1 shows these rays and angles.

The Laws of Reflection

There are two types of reflection. Reflection from smooth surfaces is called regular or specular
reflection. Reflection from rough surfaces is called diffuse reflection. Each individual ray for each
type of reflection obeys the following laws of reflection.

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. That is 0i – 0t.

2. The incident ray, the normal, and the reflected ray lie on one plane.

When a group of parallel rays strikes a smooth flat surface, the reflected rays are parallel to each
other. Reflection from a mirror is irregular.
When a group of parallel rays strikes a rough surface, the normal line at the point of incidence is
different for each ray. Consequently, when the individual ray is reflected from the surface
according to the laws of reflection, the group of rays will be scattered in all directions.

The reflected rays cannot be parallel to each other.

Sample Problem:
A ray of light is incident on a surface at 33° from the normal. Find the angle between the
incident ray and the reflected ray.

Given: angle of incidence = 33°

Solution:
It follows, by the law of reflection, that the angle of reflection is also 33°. Therefore, the angle
between the incident ray and the reflected ray is 66°.

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Diffuse reflection is more common than regular reflection. The walls, ceiling, floors, and most of
the objects inside our rooms, except the mirrors, are rough surfaces and hence scatter the light
incident upon them.
Specular or regular reflection is an important principle in a reflecting telescope. In addition, without
regular reflection, we would not be able to see our image in a mirror.

Thank the publisher of the book for the pages that are rough rather than glossy. A glossy page
makes a book difficult to read since it causes regular reflection and produces glare.

Night driving is easier when the road is dry. The road is basically a rough surface and scatters
light. If the road is wet, however, the water fills in the irregularities, smoothing the road in the
process. The headlights of an approaching car will be reflected regularly and concentrated in a
beam of light, and will produce glare.

Mirrors and Reflection of Light

A mirror is not necessarily a silvered plate of glass. Rather, it is any surface that is smooth enough
to produce regular reflection of light incident upon it. There are two types of mirror—namely, the
plane mirror and the spherical mirror. A plane mirror is one with a flat surface. The ordinary mirror
we have at home, where we see the exact image of ourselves, is a plane mirror. Plane mirrors
are also used by architects or interior designers to make a room seem bigger.

A spherical mirror has a reflecting surface taken from the surface of a sphere. It may be concave
or convex. A concave mirror curves inwards in the direction of the incident rays. A convex mirror
bulges outward to the incident rays. The hollow part of a shiny spoon is a concave mirror. But if
you turn it over, it becomes a convex mirror. A shiny Christmas ball, the rearview mirrors in cars,
and the wide range mirrors in supermarkets designed to catch shoplifters are convex mirrors.
Shaving mirrors, makeup mirrors, and dentist’s mirrors are concave mirrors.

Plane Mirror Images

The image formed by a mirror may be real or virtual. A real image of an object is formed by actual
intersection of reflected rays. It is formed in front of the mirror and is always upside down relative
to the object. It can be projected on a screen placed in front of the mirror. On the other hand, a
virtual image is formed behind the mirror and is upright relative to the object. There is no actual
intersection of reflected rays. But if we extend the rays as if they came from behind the mirror,
there is an intersection. Note that this intersection is not formed by actual reflected rays but by
the extended rays. Hence, virtual images cannot be projected on a screen. Real and virtual
images may be bigger than the object, the same size as the object, or smaller than the object.

Images formed by plane mirrors are always virtual, upright, the same size as the object, the same
distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror, and laterally reversed. Laterally
reversed means that the left of the object becomes the right of the image, and vice versa.

Sample Problem
Plane mirrors in a beauty salon are arranged in such a way that they face each other. Suppose
that two mirrors are 2.0 m apart and an object is placed 0.5 m from one of the mirrors. Find the
distances of the first image formed by each mirror.
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Solution:

We are given that the two mirrors—MA and MB—are 2.0 m apart and that the object is 0.5 m from,
say, MA. Let us represent the object by an arrow.

Recall that the object’s distance in front of the mirror is equal to the image’s distance behind the
mirror. For MA, the first image is 0.5 m at its back. Let us label it I1A. For MB, the first image formed
is 1.5 m behind it. Let us label it I1B.

Spherical Mirrors Terminology

Spherical mirrors are mirrors cut out of a spherical reflecting surface. There are two types of
spherical mirrors—concave and convex mirrors.

Here are some terms we shall encounter frequently in our study of spherical mirrors.
 The center of curvature (C) is the center of the sphere from where the mirror was taken.
 The vertex (V) is the center of the mirror. It is sometimes called the pole of the mirror.
 The radius of curvature (R) is the radius of the sphere. It is the distance between C and
V.
 The principal axis, or optical axis, is a straight line joining C and V.
 The aperture (AB) refers to the width of the mirror.
 The principal focus (F) is the point where the reflected rays meet as in the case of a
converging mirror (concave mirror), or the point where the reflected rays seem to come
from behind a diverging mirror (convex mirror).
 The focal length (f) is the distance from the pole to the principal focus. Since the
principal focus is midway between C and V, the focal length is one-half of the radius of
curvature.

When parallel rays strike a concave mirror, the rays will be reflected and meet at a single point—
the principal focus. Hence, we say that a concave mirror is converging. A convex mirror is a
diverging mirror because when parallel rays strike it, the reflected rays spread out and never come
to a focus. However, if the reflected rays were extended, they would appear or seem to come
from a single point behind the mirror. This point is also called the principal focus of the convex
mirror. Since there is an actual meeting of reflected rays in concave mirrors, the principal focus is
real. On the other hand, the principal focus for a convex mirror is virtual.

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Spherical Mirror Images

A shiny spoon is a perfect example of a spherical mirror. It may be concave or convex, depending
on which side you use. Try looking at the concave side. The image is usually small and upside
down. Move the spoon towards you. You should notice that the closer you are to the spoon, the
larger the image, up to a certain point. Beyond this point, your image becomes upright. Try looking
at the side that bulges out. This is the convex side of the spoon. You will see an upright, smaller
image of yourself. Try moving the spoon closer or farther from you. You should observe that
whichever way you go, the image remains upright and smaller than you are.

Convex Mirror Images

The image formed by a convex mirror is never real because the reflected rays spread out from
the mirror. Images formed by a convex mirror are always virtual, upright, and smaller than the
object.

Concave Mirror Images

A concave mirror can produce real or virtual images, depending on the distance between the
mirror and the object. The image may also be larger than, the same size as, or smaller than the
object. Table 6-1 shows the characteristics of image formed at each position of the object.

Note that plane mirrors, convex mirrors, and concave mirrors form virtual images that differ in the
size of the image relative to the object. Virtual images formed by convex, plane, and concave
mirrors are smaller than, the same size as, and bigger than the object, respectively.

Ray Tracing for Spherical Mirrors

There are four special rays that are convenient to draw in locating the image formed by
a spherical mirror. The intersection of any two of these rays will give us the position of the image.

1. A ray passing through the center of curvature is reflected along itself.

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 2. A ray parallel to the optical axis is reflected through the principal focus as in case
of converging mirrors; or when extended, it appears to come from the principal
focus as in case of diverging mirrors. Broken lines are used to indicate an
extended ray.

3. A ray passing through the focus (or which when extended passes through the
focus) is reflected parallel to the optical axis.

4. A ray striking the vertex of the mirror is reflected at an equal angle on the
opposite side of the principal axis.

We can trace the image of an object formed by a spherical mirror by drawing rays emanating from
one or more points on an object. We consider a point on the object, usually the tip, then draw
incident and reflected rays. We need to draw at least any two of the four rays mentioned. The
point where the reflected rays intersect is the location of the image of the tip of the object. In like
manner, the image of the other points of an object may be located and the image of the whole
body can be traced.

Let us make a ray diagram for the image formed by a convex mirror. For simplicity, let us choose
an arrow as the object and suppose that this arrow does not extend below the principal axis. We
choose the following rays, Ray A is parallel to the optical axis and striking the tip of the object.
Ray B is passing through the center of curvature and striking the tip of the object. We need to
extend the reflected rays behind the mirror to find their intersection. Figure 6-11 shows that the
image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, upright, and smaller than the object. Broken lines are
used to indicate the virtual image.

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For a concave mirror, the characteristics of the image depend on the distance of the object from
the mirror. Let us consider an object located beyond the center of curvature. We draw two rays
striking from the tip of the object: Ray A parallel to the optical axis, and Ray B passing through
the center of curvature. Figure 6-12 shows the ray diagram for this object. We can see that the
image is real, inverted, and smaller than the object. The image is located between the center of
curvature and the principal focus.

Sample Problem:
Verify by means of a ray diagram that the image of an object located at the center of curvature of
a concave mirror is real, inverted, and the same size as the object. Show also that the image is
located at the center of curvature.

Solution:
We choose to draw these rays: Ray A parallel to the principal axis, and Ray B passing through
the focus.

Mirror Equation and Magnification

The position and size of the image formed by mirrors may be determined using ray diagrams.
However, the position of the image may be quickly determined using the mirror equation given
below.

The focal length as well as the radius of curvature are positive for concave mirrors, negative for
convex mirrors. The distance of the image from the vertex of the mirror is positive for a real image,
negative for a virtual image. The distance of the object from the vertex of the mirror is always
taken to be positive.

The size of the image relative to the object, termed as magnification and represented by a capital
letter M, can be obtained by getting the absolute value of the ratio of the image distance to the
object distance from the mirror.

If M is equal to 1, the image is the same size as the object. If M is less than 1, the image is smaller
than the object. If M is greater than 1, the image is bigger than the object.

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Sample Problem:

An object is placed 20.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius 50.0 cm. (a) What is the focal
length of the mirror? (b) Where is the image located? (e) Characterize this image.

Given: R = 50.0 em
d0 = 20.0 em

Solution:
a. We know that focal length is one-half of the radius of curvature.

b. Use the mirror equation and substitute the values.

The negative sign of di tells us that the image is virtual. Hence, it must be upright.
Solve for the magnification to know the relative size of the image to the object.

Since M is greater than 1, the image is bigger than the object.

Reflection on a Plane Mirror

Mirrors are smooth reflecting surfaces, usually made up of polished metal or glass that has been
coated with some metallic substance. Mirrors can be flat or curved. A mirror with a flat surface is
called a plane mirror.

When you look directly into a plane mirror, you will see the reflected images of yourself and objects
around you. You can verify this in front of a bathroom mirror. If you turn off the light in the bathroom
to make the room completely dark, the image will disappear. The image will only appear when the
light is turned on.

The image you see that is upright and appears to be behind the mirror is known as a virtual image.
Figure 19.1A shows how a plane mirror forms the virtual image of a hand. Light rays reflected
from the hand travel out in all directions. They strike the mirror and are reflected toward the eye.
The reflected rays are in the same line with an apparent path that leads to the image. So, even
though the rays are reflected, the brain treats them as if they had come from behind the mirror,
where the hand’s image appears to be located.

If you stand in front of a plane mirror and raise your right hand, the mirror image will raise its left
hand, and the image in front of a plane mirror is said to show right-left reversal relative to the
object. However, the object and image thumbs are both at the bottom. The image formed by a
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plane mirror is laterally inverted where the image is the right way up but the right hand beeomes
the left hand.

The letters of the word AMBULANCE are printed backwards and are reversed in sequence so
that they appear in the proper orientation and order when seen in a rearview mirror. (Figure
19.2B).

Figure 19.2B

The position and size of the virtual image formed by a plane mirror can be located by using ray
diagrams.

Consider an object in front of a plane mirror shown in Figure 19.4.Two rays are coming from the
tip A of the object AB. Ray 1 is incident normally to the mirror and hence is reflected normally as
shown. Ray 2 has an angle of incidence θ and is reflected with an angle of reflection θ'.The
extended reflected rays intersect at the back of the mirror at point C forming the virtual image of
point A. Points below A in the object AB will form images below C such that CD becomes the
image of AB. Now from the figure, θ = θ', thus triangles AMB and CMD are similar. Hence,

Figure 19.4

The ratio is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the AB 6 object.This ratio is called
the lateral magnification denoted by the equation:

A single mirror gives one image. If you add one more mirror, more images will be formed. This is
due to multiple reflections. Figure 19.5 shows that two mirrors facing each other will give you an
infinite number of images. Two adjacent mirrors give a multiple number of images depending on
the angle between them.

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Reflections on Curved Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are either concave or convex. If the side of the spherical surface that bends
outward is used to reflect light, the mirror is said to be convex. If the side of the mirror that bends
inward is used as a reflecting surface, then it is a concave mirror.

The inner surface of a metal spoon is concave and the outer space is convex
(Figure 19.6).

A curved mirror has a vertex (V), a center of curvature (C), and a principal focus or focal point (F)
(Figure A-below). The center of curvature is the center of the sphere from which the mirror is
formed. The distance from V to C is the radius of curvature (R). The distance from V to F is called
the focal length (f).The line passing through the center of curvature and perpendicular to line AB
is the principal axis. Line AB is tangent to the curve at the vertex (Figure A).

Ray diagrams are used to determine the location, size, and kind of image formed by curved
mirrors. Consider the tip of the arrow (O) in figure B above. To locate the image formed by a
curved mirror, rays from O can be drawn using the law of reflection.

First: A ray from O parallel to the principal axis of the mirror surface is reflected and
passes through the focus (ray 1).
Second: A ray from O passes through the center of curvature and is reflected along the
same line (ray 2).

The intersection of the reflected rays for rays 1 and 2 is the tip of the image (I).

Total Internal Reflection

When light passes obliquely from a denser to a less dense medium, it is refracted away from the
normal. Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction until the angle of
refraction is 90°. Light appears to emerge between the surfaces of the two media. The angle of
incidence corresponding to an angle of refraction of 90° is called the critical angle, which is
represented by θC. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, no refraction occurs.
The light will be totally reflected back to the first medium. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.

The critical angle may be determined using Snell’s law. Suppose light passes from a denser
medium whose index of refraction is n1 to a second less dense medium with an index of refraction
n2.
When a ray of light passes obliquely from a
denser medium to a less dense medium, it is
refracted away from the normal. (a) lf the angle
of incidence is less than the critical angle, then
light is refracted in accordance with the laws of
refraction. (b) lf the angle of incidence is equal
to the critical angle, the refracted ray is along the
boundary between Medium 1 and Medium 2.
The angle of refraction is 90°. (c) lf the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, light
is totally reflected back to the first medium, with
an angle of reflection equal to the angle of
incidence.

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Sample Problem:

a. What is the critical angle for diamond air interface?

b. What happens to light if it strikes the interface at an angle of incidence of 20.5°?
c. What if the angle of incidence is 30.6°?

Solution:

Let n be the index of refraction of diamond equal to 2.42, and n 2 be the index of refraction of air
approximately equal to 1.00.
a. Solve for the critical angle

b. Since the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, the light will be refracted. The
angle of refraction is computed according to Snell’s law.

c. Since the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light will be totally
reflected back to the diamond at an angle of reflection of 30.6°.

Refraction of Light

Refraction is the change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to another of
different optical density. It occurs at the boundary between the two media as a result of the change
in the speed of light upon crossing the boundary. Optical density should not be confused with
mass density (mass per unit volume). Optical density has something to do with the transparency
of a substance to light. Light travels slowly in an optically dense substance.
A lot of phenomena that result from refraction may be observed in our daily life. A pencil or a straw
placed obliquely in a glass of water appears to be broken. An object lying underwater or in a pool
appears shallower than it actually is.

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The refraction of lunar light or sunlight due to the ice crystals in clouds, especially during winter,
results in the formation of halos around the moon or the sun. Stellar scintillation (commonly known
as the twinkling of a star); mirage or what appears to be puddles of water on the road on a hot
day; and longer daytime are the result of the refraction of light as it passes through layers of air
having different temperatures in the atmosphere.

Refraction of light is responsible for the image formation in our eyes and lenses.

Index of Refraction

The index of refraction of a substance is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in the
substance. In the equation
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

n is the index of refraction, c is the speed of light in a vacuum and equal to 3 X 108 m/s, and v is
the speed of light in the substance. A substance is said to be optically denser than another if its
index of refraction is greater than that of the other substance. The higher the index of refraction,
the slower light travels in that substance.

The index of refraction varies slightly with the wavelength of light used. Table 7-1 lists the values
of index of refraction of some substances for yellow light, which has a wavelength of 589 nm.

A material has an index of refraction of 1.5. What is the speed of light in this material?

Given: n =1.5

Solution:
To solve this, we need to manipulate the formula for index of refraction then substitute the values.
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

𝑐 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣= = = 2 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 1.5

Laws of Refraction

When light passes from one medium to another of different optical density, it is refracted
according to certain laws.

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 1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal lie on one plane. In the figure, Ray
AB is the incident ray, and Ray BC is the refracted ray. Angles θ1 and θ2 are the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction, respectively.

2. (a) When a ray of light passes obliquely from an optically denser medium to a less dense
medium, it is refracted away from the normal. (b) When a ray of light passes obliquely
from an optically less dense medium to a denser medium, it is refracted towards the
normal. (e) When the incident ray is perpendicular to the interface (i.e., at an angle of
incidence of zero degree), no bending of the light ray occurs.

3. Snell’s law, named after the Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snell,
relates the indices of refraction of two media and the angles from the normal using the
equation.

n1sin θ1 = n2sinθ2

where:

n1 = index of refraction of the incident medium

n2 = index of refraction of the refractive medium
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ2 = angle of refraction

Sample Problem

A ray of light travels from air into a liquid at an angle of incidence of 30°. If the angle of
refraction is 20°, what is the speed of light in the liquid?

Given: θ1 = 30°
θ2 = 20°
n of air = 1.0003

Solution:

We need to solve for the index of refraction of the liquid using Snell’s law.

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
(1.0003) (sin30°) = n2 (sin20°)
n2 =1.462

Solve for the speed of light in the liquid using the formula for index of refraction.

𝑐 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣= = = 2.05 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 1.462
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Shallowing Effect

Another interesting effect of refraction is the shallowing effect. Objects submerged in a liquid
always appear to be shallower than they actually are. The light coming from the objects
changes angle at the surface of the liquid, bending towards the liquid. It can be shown
mathematically that the index of refraction is the ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth.

real depth
n=
apparent depth

Sample Problem

A coin at the bottom of a cylinder appears 12.6 cm deep when the cylinder is filled with water.
(a) What is the real depth of the coin? Oil, with an index of refraction of 1.25, is added to the
cylinder. The coin now appears to be 17.6 cm deep.
(b) What is the real depth of the coin this time?

Given: apparent depth in water =12.6 cm

apparent depth in oil and water =17.6 cm
n of water = 1.33
n of oil = 1.25

Solution:

real depth
a. n = apparent depth

real depth
1.33 =
12.6 cm

Solving for the real depth, real depth =16.8 cm.

b. Oil will not mix with water. It will settle at the surface and form a separate layer.

Therefore, added apparent depth =17.6 cm-12.6cm = 5.0cm.

The real depth of the oil layer can be computed from the equation

real depth
n=
apparent depth

real depth = (w) (apparent depth)

= (1.25) (5.0cm)
= 6.25 cm

Thus,
real depth of the coin= 16.8 cm + 6.25 cm
= 23.05 cm.

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What Is the Law of Reflection?
This module will discuss the different rays that you have observed in the previous activity.
The light ray that approached the surface of the mirror is called the incident ray, while the
ray that leaves the surface of the mirror is called the reflected ray. The line that divides the incident
and reflected rays is called the normal line.
The angle between the normal line and the incident ray that you have measured is called
the angle of incidence, while the angle between the normal line and the reflected ray is called the
angle of reflection.
As you have observed, when a light ray strikes off the surface of the mirror, the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This is the law of reflection. In symbols: angle of
incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r) or θi = θr.

Kinds of Reflection
Reflection can be categorized as specular or diffuse.

What Happens When Light Passes through Curved Mirrors?

From the previous activity, how many plane or flat mirrors have you seen? How about curved
mirrors?
Curved or spherical mirrors are either concave or convex. Get a spoon. The inner and outer part
of the spoon are examples of a concave and convex mirror. Face the inner surface of the spoon.
What do you see? The inner surface of the spoon is concave, while the outer part is convex.
When the object faces the curve that bends inward, the mirror is said to be concave. When the
object faces the curve that bends outward, the mirror is said to be convex.

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Parts of Curved Mirrors
The following are the different parts of a curved mirror:
• Center of curvature (C)- the center of the sphere from which the mirror is formed
• Radius of curvature (R)- the distance from the vertex to the center of curvature
• Focal length (f)- the distance from the vertex to the focus
• Principal axis- the line passing through the center of the curvature and perpendicular
to line AB

• Vertex (V) - the point where the principal axis passes through the mirror
• Focus (F) - the point between vertex and center of curvature

Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors

To determine the characteristics (location, size, kind) of images formed by curved mirrors, ray
diagrams are used.
Using the law of reflection, you can locate the image formed by a concave mirror using the steps
below.
1. Ray 1: Draw a ray from the object (point 0) parallel to the principal axis to the mirror
surface. Then, let it reflect and pass through the focus.

2. Ray 2: Draw a ray from the object (point 0) and let it pass and reflect back through the
center of curvature.

3. Ray 3: Draw a ray from the object (point 0) and let it pass through the focus and let it
reflect parallel to the principal axis.

The point of intersection of the reflected rays is the tip of the image (I).

Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors

Still following the law of reflection, you can locate the image formed by a convex mirror using the
steps below:
1. Ray 1: Draw a ray from the object parallel to the principal axis of the mirror surface.
Then, let it reflect and draw an extended reflective ray passing through the focus
behind the mirror.

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2. Ray 2: Draw a ray from the object and let it pass and reflect back through the center of
curvature behind the mirror.

Why does light change direction when passing from one material (medium) to another? It is
because light changes speed when going from one material to another. This behavior is typical
of all waves and is especially easy to apply to light because light waves have very small
wavelengths, and so they can be treated as rays. Before we study the law of refraction, it is useful
to discuss the speed of light and how it varies between different media.

The speed of light is now known to great precision. In fact, the speed of light in a vacuum, c, is so
important, and is so precisely known, that it is accepted as one of the basic physical quantities,
and has the fixed value.

where the approximate value of 3.00x108 m/s is used whenever three-digit precision is sufficient.
The speed of light through matter is less than it is in a vacuum, because light interacts with atoms
in a material. The speed of light depends strongly on the type of material, given that its interaction
with different atoms, crystal lattices, and other substructures varies. We define the index of
refraction, n, of a material to be
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

where v is the observed speed of light in the material. Because the speed of light is always less
than c in matter and equals c only in a vacuum, the index of refraction (plural: indices of refraction)
is always greater than or equal to one.

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 Table 1.1 Indices of Refraction The table lists the indices of refraction for
various materials that are transparent to light. Note, that light travels the slowest in the materials with the
greatest indices of refraction.

Figure 1.1 provides an analogy for and a description of how a ray of light changes direction when
it passes from one medium to another. As in the previous section, the angles are measured
relative to a perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray crosses it. The change in
direction of the light ray depends on how the speed of light changes. The change in the speed of
light is related to the indices of refraction of the media involved. In the situations shown in Figure
1.1, medium 2 has a greater index of refraction than medium 1. This difference in index of
refraction means that the speed of light is less in medium 2 than in medium 1. Note that, in Figure
1.1 (a), the path of the ray moves closer to the perpendicular when the ray slows down.
Conversely, in Figure 1.1 (b), the path of the ray moves away from the perpendicular when the
ray speeds up. The path is exactly reversible. In both cases, you can imagine what happens by
thinking about pushing a lawn mower from a footpath onto grass, and vice versa. Going from the
footpath to grass, the right front wheel is slowed and pulled to the side as shown. This is the same
change in direction for light when it goes from a fast medium to a slow one. When going from the
grass to the footpath, the left front wheel moves faster than the others, and the mower changes
direction as shown. This, too, is the same change in direction as light going from slow to fast.

Figure 1.1 The change in direction of a light ray depends on how the speed of light changes when it
crosses from one medium to another. For the situations shown here, the speed of light is greater in
medium 1 than in medium 2. (a) A ray of light moves closer to the perpendicular when it slows down. This
is analogous to what happens when a lawnmower goes from a footpath (medium 1) to grass (medium 2).
(b) A ray of light moves away from the perpendicular when it speeds up. This is analogous to what
happens when a lawnmower goes from grass (medium 2) to the footpath (medium 1). The paths are
exactly reversible.

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The amount that a light ray changes direction depends both on the incident angle and the amount
that the speed changes. For a ray at a given incident angle, a large change in speed causes a
large change in direction, and thus a large change in the angle of refraction. The exact
mathematical relationship is the law of refraction, or Snell’s law, which is stated in equation form
as

Here, n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction for media 1 and 2, respectively, and θ 1 and θ2 are the
angles between the rays and the perpendicular in the respective media 1 and 2, as shown in
Figure 1.1. The incoming ray is called the incident ray and the outgoing ray is called the refracted
ray. The associated angles are called the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. Later,
we will apply Snell’s law to some practical situations.

Calculations with the Law of Refraction

WORKED EXAMPLE

Calculating Index of Refraction from Speed.

Calculate the index of refraction for a solid medium in which the speed of light is 2.012 x 10 8
m/s, and identify the most likely substance, based on the previous table of indices of refraction.

STRATEGY
We know the speed of light, c, is 3.00x108 m/s, and we are given v. We can simply plug these
values into the equation for index of refraction, n.

This value matches that of polystyrene exactly, according to the table of indices of refraction
(Table 1.1).

Discussion

The three-digit approximation for c is used, which in this case is all that is needed. Many values
in the table are only given to three significant figures. Note that the units for speed cancel to yield
a dimensionless answer, which is correct.

WORKED EXAMPLE

Calculating Index of Refraction from Angles

Suppose you have an unknown, clear solid substance immersed in water and you wish to identify
it by finding its index of refraction. You arrange to have a beam of light enter it at an angle of
45.00°, and you observe the angle of refraction to be 40.30°.

What is the index of refraction of the substance and its likely identity?

STRATEGY

We must use the mathematical expression for the law of refraction to solve this problem because
we are given angle data, not speed data.
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The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to values for water and the unknown, respectively, where 1
represents the medium from which the light is coming and 2 is the new medium it is
entering. We are given the angle values, and the table of indices of refraction gives us n
for water as 1.333. All we have to do before solving the problem is rearrange the equation.

The best match from Table 1.1 is fused quartz, with n = 1.458.

Discussion

Note the relative sizes of the variables involved. For example, a larger angle has a larger sine
value. This checks out for the two angles involved. Note that the smaller value of θ 1 compared
with θ2 indicates the ray has bent toward normal. This result is to be expected if the unknown
substance has a greater n value than that of water. The result shows that this is the case.

WORKED EXAMPLE

A Larger Change in Direction

Suppose that in a situation in which light goes from air to diamond and that the incident angle is
30.0°. Calculate the angle of refraction θ2 in the diamond.

Strategy

Again, the index of refraction for air is taken to be n1 = 1.00, and we are given θ 1 = 30.0°. We can
look up the index of refraction for diamond in Table 1.1, finding n 2 = 2.419. The only unknown in
Snell’s law is θ2, which we wish to determine.

Solution

Significance

For the same 30.0° angle of incidence, the angle of refraction in diamond is significantly smaller
than in water (11.9° rather than 22.0°). This means there is a larger change in direction in
diamond. The cause of a large change in direction is a large change in the index of refraction (or
speed). In general, the larger the change in speed, the greater the effect on the direction of the
ray.

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