STONE

Petrographical properties: structure, chemistry, mineral content (color, crystalline structure and hardness).
Technical parameters; density (true density, bulk density and porosity), strength (compressive, flexural and abrasion resistance),
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, heat resistance, freeze-thaw behavior, water absorption and resistance to chemicals.
Good thermal conductivity is important when stone is used as a floor covering. Stone floors are often perceived as cold because
they conduct heat away from the body. However, their heat storage capacity can be a great advantage, also in conjunction with
underfloor heating.

Plutonic rocks
Named after the god of the underworld, these rocks are formed by the full crystallization of "mobilised magma" in the Earth's
crust. The usually - uniform, non-directional and dense structure is due to the gradual cooling. The varying mineral composition
gives rise to rock types like granite, diorite and gabbro. Almost all plutonic rocks are frost-resistant and are popular in building
owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualities. Some igneous rocks, e.g. granite, can exhibit above-average
natural radioactivity in some circumstances.

Hypabyssal rocks
These types of rock are formed when small amounts of magma solidify within the Earth‘s crust in volcanic vents or fissures. Their
structure is similar to the plutonic rocks but the faster cooling process results in non-uniform crystallization with phenocrysts of
other material. This subdivision includes pegmatites, aplites and lamprophyres.

Extrusive rocks
In contrast to plutonic rocks, rocks of this type, e.g. diabase, basalt or rhyolite, form at the transition between the upper mantle
(crust) and the surface of the Earth. The relatively fast cooling process leaves these rocks with a fine crystalline structure. Partial
melting of neighboring rocks can lead to highly diverse appearances.

Sedimentary rocks
Sediments are mainly formed by the weathering, erosion and deposition of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic)
which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the form of debris, gravel or sand. These rocks
frequently contain animal or plant fossils. The pressure of the overlying strata compresses the individual particles of the sediments
to form a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.g. quartz, calcite, clay) circulating in the remaining voids.
This process of the solidification of sediments is known as diagenesis. Clastic sediments consist of the mechanically disintegrated
parts of the original rock. Depending on the grain size, we distinguish between conglomerates (≥ 2 mm), sandstones (0.02-2 mm)
and siltstones (≤ 0.02 mm). Chemical sediments are "precipitation" from solutions as a result of chemical reactions or biological
processes which subsequently solidify under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and travertine. The properties of
sedimentary rocks that are interesting for building purposes vary considerably and essentially depend on the conditions during
their formation (temperature, pressure) and the respective binder. Chemical sediments (e.g. onyx, petrographic name: calc-sinter)
are particularly suitable for internal finishings owing to their diverse textures.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks and are called orthorocks when formed from igneous rocks or pararocks when
the original material is a sedimentary rock. High pressures, high temperatures or chemical influences transform the original rock or
even form completely new types. They are usually easily recognized by their dense structure free from virtually all voids, their
distinct texture or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical composition, appearance and uses in building vary considerably.
Important metamorphic rock types are slate, marble and gneiss.
Granite
Granite is probably the best known of the plutonic rocks. Its constituents are feldspar (which determines the color), quartz
(responsible for the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather-resistant, is regarded as the most resistant of rocks, can
be used almost without restriction in building work, and is unaffected by airborne pollution. Numerous colors are available: red ,
pink, yellow, white, grey, blue-green.

Basalt
Basalt is a dark, usually dark grey to black, extrusive rock with a dense, non-directional structure consisting mainly of feldspar and
augite. It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely difficult to work, is weather-resistant, and is ideal for external
applications. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is
formed by the chemical disintegration of the mineral constituents (e.g. chlorite, serpentine).

Sandstone
Sandstone belongs to the group of clastic sedimentary rocks and consists primarily of quartz grains in the size 0.02-2 mm
cemented together by a binder. Sandstones are found in many colors: red, yellow, brown, green. The type of binder (quartz,
calcite, clay) determines primarily the strength, water absorption and frost resistance. Sandstone is regarded as easy to work and
is found on many older buildings. However, owing to its low abrasion resistance it is not suitable for heavily trafficked floors.

Limestone
This is a chemical sedimentary rock that was formed during various geological periods, originally in water - proved by the fossils
found in limestone. It consists mainly of calcium carbonate and occurs in various colors, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or
white. Limestone can be used almost universally. Only its use in areas that require frequent cleaning (e.g. entrances, public
buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its low resistance to the chemicals used in cleaning agents. Its abrasion
resistance differs considerably depending on the particular rock deposit.

Marble
Marble, a pararock, is formed by the metamorphosis of calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pure marble is white, crystalline and free
from fossils. The crystal surfaces shine in bright light. This stone is ideal for sculpted work with fine contours, but is also used in
building as a floor finish or wall/facade cladding.

Clay shale or slate

The term shale designates the splitting or cleaving properties of rocks, with the mineral inclusions (clay, chlorite, mica) indicating
the degree of metamorphosis. Clayey shale exhibits a sheet-like, parallel structure. It is a very fine-grained, dense stone and
usually dark grey to black in color. Its good cleaving ability enables the production of thin slabs just 5-7 mm thick. Owing to the
shaley structure, its strength depends on direction. Shales in the form of slates have been used for centuries as roof coverings,
cladding and floor tiles.

Extraction of stone
Stone is usually obtained from open quarries, with only some types of marble, slate and limestone being obtained from
underground mines. When exploring new sources, the extent of the deposit and the properties of the stone are estimated by way
of ultrasound measurements, or samples are obtained from deep boreholes. Hydraulic wedges are driven between the blocks
along natural cleavage planes in order to separate the blocks. Diamond-beaded steel wires and cross-cutters (sort of oversized
chainsaws) have also become common in recent years. The aim of quarrying is to obtain approximately right-angled blocks of a
suitable size and in doing so to generate as little "waste" as possible. Quarrying involves destruction of the landscape, and creates
large quantities of dust and debris. New deposits may therefore only be quarried when certain official stipulations are met. Those
stipulations include restoration of the landscape once the workable deposits have been exhausted.

Cleaving of stones
Cleaving of the stone is usually carried out directly in the quarry especially in the case of paving stones and stone for ashlar
walling. Otherwise, the stone is transported to factories for further processing - it is then that we speak of dressed stone. The use
of regional deposits and hence short distances between quarry and works considerably improves the life cycle assessment for
natural stone. Various methods are used to process the quarried blocks:

• Steel-shot abrasion or diamond saws: for 20-80 mm thick slabs (the time taken to saw through a 1.20 m high block of granite is
about 1-2 days)
• Taglia Siocci saws: for stone tiles or long strips with a thickness of about 15 mm
• Gangsaws with circular blades or steel wires: for the production of coarse slabs> 80 mm thick; steel wires can also create three-
dimensional workpieces.
Application of stones in buildings
Stone in the form of aggregates for concrete and mortar or for producing mineral binders accounts for the largest share of natural
stone in building. In order to establish the suitability of a type of stone for building work, the stone industry classifies stones as
hard (igneous and some metamorphic rocks) or soft (sedimentary rocks). However, owing to the availability of relatively "soft"
igneous rocks and very hard sedimentary rocks, the specific physical properties (compressive strength, frost resistance, abrasion
resistance) should always be checked for the application when choosing a type of stone. Generally, stone is suitable for the
following applications in building:

• Masonry • Gabion walls • Facade cladding • Floor finishes • Internal linings • Roof coverings

GABIONS
Gabions are wire cages filled with crushed rocks or recycled concrete rubble. They are frequently used in civil engineering
applications as retaining walls, and are simply stacked to the required height either vertically or to an appropriate incline.
Compressive loads are transmitted through the stones or concrete rubble, and any spreading movement is restrained by the
tensile forces within the wire cage. Normally, the cages are of heavy gauge woven or welded steel mesh, which may be zinc,
aluminum/zinc alloy, or PVC coated, but for use in load-bearing building applications, such as walls, stainless steel should be used.
Gabions are now being used as significant components in building construction, where the particular rugged aesthetic is required.
Gabions may be delivered on site filled or flat packed for filling and fastening, usually with a helical binder in alloycoated or
stainless steel. A range of sizes is available based mainly on a meter module.

STONE CLADDING
For the majority of large commercial buildings, stone is used as a cladding material mechanically fixed to the structural system.
The standards give a broad outline of the structural requirements, including fixings, back-up material and joints. The strength of
the stone largely determines the appropriate cladding panel thickness. For granites, marbles and slate 40 mm slabs are usual for
external elevations above ground-floor level, but for the softer limestones and sandstones a minimum thickness of 80 mm is
frequently recommended. The standards relate flexural strength, span between fixings and external stone cladding thickness to
high, medium or low wind exposure. Fixings must be manufactured from stainless steel or non-ferrous metal and sized to sustain
the dead load of the cladding together with applied loads from wind and maintenance equipment. Movement joints are required
to accept the differential structural movements of the frame and the thermal and moisture movements of the cladding. Horizontal
compression joints of 15 mm minimum should be located at each floor level; vertical movement joints of 10 mm should be at
approximately 6 m centers. Polysulphides, polyurethanes and silicones are used as joint sealants, although non-staining silicones
should be used on stones which darken by absorption of silicone fluid. Stone-cladding systems should ideally be protected from
impact damage at ground level by the design detailing.

Stone-faced precast concrete cladding systems

An alternative approach to traditional stone cladding is the use of an integral stone veneer on concrete cladding panels. Stone is
fixed to the concrete with a series of non-corroding dowels inclined in opposite directions, creating a mechanical fixing, not
dependent on the bond between stone and cast concrete. With limestone and sandstone a stone veneer of 50 mm is required, but
for granite, slate, quartzite and marble 30 mm is usually appropriate. The concrete should be cast with appropriate reinforcement
and fixings for attachment to the building structure. Technical requirements are detailed in the standards.

Stone-faced masonry blocks

Stone-faced concrete blocks are manufactured to the standard size of 440 x 215 mm, and faced with a 10 mm veneer of polished
marble or granite, fixed with a frost-resistant adhesive. A range of matching special shapes including quoins, end blocks and lintels
is available, formed with mitred-stone corner joints.

Lightweight stone cladding

Thin-section stone (approximately 6 mm) may be bonded to lightweight backing materials to reduce the dead weight of stone
cladding. The reduction in dead load is significant compared to thickstone sections which would require traditional stone cladding
techniques. One such material, originally used in the aerospace industry, is a sandwich panel consisting of a core of honeycomb
aluminum faced with glassfibre-reinforced epoxy resin skins. The polished stone facing is bonded to one face with epoxy resin, to
create a lightweight stone-finished panel, which, if detailed appropriately, has all the visual qualities associated with solid stone
masonry.

Rainscreen stone cladding

Rainscreen cladding systems incorporate stone panels fixed to the backing wall by a durable metal framing system, leaving a
drained void space which may be partially filled with thermal insulation. The stone panels may be solid or a laminate of stone
bonded to lightweight concrete. External and internal corner special units are prefabricated to match the facade. The standards
describe the basis of both drained and ventilated rainscreens and pressure-equalised rainscreen cladding systems.
LOAM
Properties of loam: Mass, good mouldability, robustness and excellent adhesive and bonding forces count as the main properties
of loam. Diverse additions (e.g. whey, soda) plus organic or mineral aggregates are suitable for optimizing the building material
qualities according to the type of application. Loam is odorless, non-toxic and pleasant to work with. Like virtually no other
building material, loam fulfils the criteria of sustainable and resources-sparing construction. It is available in almost all regions of
the world. Energy for transport can be saved by using excavated material. The building of a solid tamped loam wall requires only a
fraction of the primary energy of a comparable wall made from concrete or clay bricks. Loam can be reused an infinite number of
times and returned to the natural product lifecycle without causing any problems. Its good heat storage capacity can help even out
temperature fluctuations. The interior climate is also improved by the material's ability to absorb water vapor and release it again
as required, a property known as sorption capacity. The sorption capacity of loam plasters is 1.5 to 3 times that of conventional
plasters.

Surface finish
We distinguish between architecture employing a decorative loam render and non-rendered, tamped loam structures (pisй -
rammed earth). In Japan the masters of loam building have developed their art to such an extent that you can see your reflection
in the walls. Some of these loam render surfaces are protected by preservation orders: likewise colored surfaces, which enjoy
particular esteem as a sign of their age. At the same time, contemporary architecture in Europe and the USA has rediscovered the
quality of raw, untreated surfaces.

Loam formation
Loam is a product of erosion from rock in the earth’s crust. This erosion occurs mainly through the mechanical grinding of rock via
the movement of glaciers, water and wind, or through thermal expansion and contraction of rock, or through the expansion of
freezing water in the crevices of the rock. Due to organic acids prevalent in plants, moreover, chemical reactions due to water and
oxygen also lead to rock erosion. The composition and varying properties of loam depend on local conditions. Gravelly
mountainous loams, for instance, are more suitable for rammed earth (provided they contain sufficient clay), while riverside loams
are often siltier and are therefore less weather-resistant and weaker in compression.

Loam definition
Loam is a mixture of clay, silt and sand, and sometimes contains larger aggregates like gravel and stones. Engineering science
defines its particles according to diameter: particles with diameters smaller than 0.002 mm are termed clay, those between 0.002
and 0.06 mm are called silt, and those between 0.06 and 2 mm are called sand. Particles of larger diameter are termed gravels and
stones. Like cement in concrete, clay acts as a binder for all larger particles in the loam. Silt, sand and aggregates constitute the
fillers in the loam. Depending on which of the three components is dominant, we speak of a clayey, silty or sandy loam. In
traditional soil mechanics, if the clay content is less than 15% by weight, the soil is termed a lean clayey soil. If it is more than 30%
by weight, it is termed a rich clayey soil. Components that form less than 5% of the total by weight are not mentioned when
naming the soils. Thus, for instance, a rich silty, sandy, lean clayey soil contains more than 30% silt, 15% to 30% sand, and less than
15% clay with less than 5% gravel or rock.
Mountainside loam
In geological terms this type of loam is relatively young and is deposited on the rocks from which it originates. Its granulometric
composition makes it ideal for components requiring a good compressive strength.

Boulder loam
Glacial movements deposit this loam. Its rounded grains and lower clay content give it a reduced tensile and compressive strength.

Marl
Marl is a boulder loam containing lime.

Alluvial loam
This is boulder loam that has been redeposited by water. Most of the lime has been removed to leave a material that is readily
usable for building purposes.

Loess loam
Loess has a very finely-grained mineral structure and often a low clay content. It is easier to use than fatty loams. However, its
higher sensitivity to water calls for special care during construction.

Extraction
If the excavated loam is used directly for building, it must be obtained from an adequate depth free from roots and humus. It is
also possible to obtain loam from excavations for the brick-making industry. Owing to the highly diverse properties and
compositions of loam deposits, the material‘s suitability for the respective application must be checked. Besides laboratory tests,
there are also simple methods that can serve to provide an initial indication of the loam's properties. Such methods are adequate
for low-grade applications, e.g. infill panels, loose fill or mortar. It is not usually necessary to check material that has been milled
after excavation or material that is supplied dry in sacks.