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Pes3701 Study Guide

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# 2007 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the


University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

PST312M/1/2008±2010

98155393

3B2

Karinmod Style
CONTENTS

OVERVIEW (ix)

STUDY UNIT 1
The philosophy of physical education 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The philosophy of physical education 2
1.3 The terminology of physical education 2
1.4 The aims of physical education 3
1.5 The value and place of physical education and sport for learners 4
1.6 Conclusion 5

STUDY UNIT 2
The history, development and value of physical education and sport 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 The development of sport and physical education through the ages 6
2.3 Factors influencing sport in modern times 9
2.4 The fundamental characteristics and particular nature of sport 11
2.5 The value of sport to society 12
2.6 Conclusion 19

STUDY UNIT 3
Anatomy and physiology 20
3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 The structure of the body 20
3.3 Conclusion 33

STUDY UNIT 4
Growth and development 34
4.1 Introduction 34
4.2 Aspects of growth development 35
4.3 Learners and exercise 39
4.4 Social development of the child 42
4.5 Modifying sport to suit learners 44
4.6 Conclusion 46

PST312M/1/2008±2010 (iii)
STUDY UNIT 5
Teaching learners with special educational needs 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 The importance of movement and physical education 48
5.3 General considerations 50
5.4 Sensory disabilities 51
5.5 Intellectual disabilities 52
5.6 Physical disabilities 52
5.7 Teaching learners with health-related conditions 54
5.8 Setting up a physical education programme 56
5.9 Conclusion 57

STUDY UNIT 6
Teaching physical education 58
6.1 Introduction 58
6.2 Development levels 58
6.3 Developing a yearly programme 60
6.4 Organisational details 61
6.5 Effective class organisation 61
6.6 Facilities, equipment and supplies 62
6.7 Conclusion 62

STUDY UNIT 7
Nutrition and fluid replacement in sport 63
7.1 Introduction 63
7.2 Calories 64
7.3 The energy balance 64
7.4 Nutrients 64
7.5 The nutrient balance 67
7.6 A balanced diet 68
7.7 Nutritional neglect 68
7.8 The digestive system 69
7.9 Fluid replacement in sport 70
7.10 Conclusion 71

STUDY UNIT 8
Drugs in sport 72
8.1 Introduction 72
8.2 Reasons why athletes take drugs 73
8.3 Which drugs do sports players take? 74
8.4 What is the solution to the problem? 76
8.5 Conclusion 76

(iv)
STUDY UNIT 9
Sports injuries 77
9.1 Introduction 77
9.2 Prevention of injuries 77
9.3 Injury management 80
9.4 Working with injured athletes/learners 81
9.5 Conclusion 85

STUDY UNIT 10
Legal responsibilities in physical education and sports coaching 86
10.1 Introduction 86
10.2 Legal liability 86
10.3 Elements of negligence 87
10.4 Where negligence may occur 87
10.5 Common sources of negligence 87
10.6 Consent to the risk of harm 88
10.7 Liability insurance 88
10.8 Conclusion 90

STUDY UNIT 11
Codes of behaviour 91
11.1 Introduction 91
11.2 Educators' code of behaviour 91
11.3 Conclusion 92

STUDY UNIT 12
Policies for physical education 93
12.1 Introduction 93
12.2 Teaching strategies 93
12.3 Designing intramural programmes 94
12.4 Conclusion 95

STUDY UNIT 13
Incorporating physical education in the education programme 97
13.1 Introduction 97
13.2 Integration 97
13.3 Adapting physical education activities to the classroom 98
13.4 Conclusion 98

PST312M/1 (v)
STUDY UNIT 14
Evaluation as part of physical education 100
14.1 Introduction 100
14.2 Evaluation processes 100
14.3 Evaluation of learners 101
14.4 Physical education testing 101
14.5 Interpreting the results 103
14.6 Conclusion 104

STUDY UNIT 15
The philosophy of coaching and the role of the coach 105
15.1 Introduction 105
15.2 How well do I know myself? 105
15.3 What do I want to achieve as a coach? 106
15.4 Why do I coach or why do I want to coach? 107
15.5 What outcomes do people expect from sport? 107
15.6 The roles of the coach 108
15.7 The various coaching styles 108
15.7.1 Authoritarian 108
15.7.2 Cooperative 109
15.7.3 Casual 109
15.8 The respected coach 109
15.9 The coach's skills 110
15.10 Setting goals for your sport programme 111
15.11 Working with others 111
15.11.1 Administrators 111
15.11.2 Referees/umpires/judges 112
15.11.3 Parents 112
15.11.4 Players/athletes 112
15.12 Conclusion 114

STUDY UNIT 16
Training theory 115
16.1 Introduction 115
16.2 Physical conditioning 115
16.3 Fitness 116
16.4 Training 118
16.5 Developing physical capabilities 123
16.6 Planning the training session 127
16.6.1 Periodisation 128
16.6.2 Planning the session and the training week 129
16.7 Principles for structuring practice 136

(vi)
16.8 Organising a training session 137
16.9 Conclusion 139

STUDY UNIT 17
Teaching skills 140
17.1 Introduction 140
17.2 Determination of children's movement 140
17.3 Children's basic movements 141
17.4 How to help children learn 142
17.5 Methods of teaching simple skills 143
17.6 Methods of teaching complex skills 144
17.7 Planning a skill unit 145
17.8 Conclusion 147

STUDY UNIT 18
Sport psychology 148
18.1 Introduction 148
18.2 Mental preparation and skills 148
18.3 Personality 149
18.4 Motivation 150
18.5 Goal setting 151
18.6 Emotional control 152
18.7 Dealing with winning and losing 152
18.8 Conclusion 154

STUDY UNIT 19
Team management and stress management 155
19.1 Introduction 155
19.2 Preseason management 155
19.3 In-season management 156
19.4 Postseason management 156
19.5 Managing relationships 156
19.6 Stress management 157
19.7 Time management 157
19.8 Health management 158
19.9 Conclusion 159

STUDY UNIT 20
Parent, community and media involvement 160
20.1 Introduction 160

PST312M/1 (vii)
20.2 Developing better school-community linkages 160
20.3 A parent orientation programme 162
20.4 Contacting the media 165
20.5 Conclusion 167

BIBLIOGRAPHY 168

(viii)
OVERVIEW

Physical education is an integral part of the total education process. It aims to develop
learners as physically, mentally, emotionally and socially competent citizens through the
medium of physical activities. These activities have to be specially selected to produce
these outcomes.
Physical education makes a special contribution to developing attitudes, norms, knowledge,
skills, habits and abilities that help learners become mature, productive, happy and
responsible adults.
Coaching sport is a specific craft that is best learnt by practical experience, developing
effective about relationships with coaching colleagues, sportsmen and women, and through
application of knowledge. Knowledge about coaching is the foundation for the beginner
coach or for the already practicing coach who seeks improvement.
The information that we provide in the following units will not make you a coach, but it does
provide a basis for sound coaching practice. The main focus in this course is: WHAT DO
YOU AS A COACH HAVE TO KNOW? We are going to address various coaching related
aspects in this course to answer this question.

COURSE PRESENTATION
The study guide offers a number of features designed to help you easily grasp and
understand the material provided. This guide consists of study units. We have arranged
these study units into manageable study sessions that should help you to understand the
content. Each study unit contains objectives and evaluation exercises that you need to
master for examination purposes.

THE USE OF ICONS


We often use the following icons to draw your attention to certain points. Familiarise
yourself with them and their meanings.

f This icon means that we want you to think about something. It may indicate a simple
question. (Try to answer the question before you read any further.)

g This icon highlights the OUTCOME or what you should be able to do when you have
completed the study unit.

e This icon means that you must take special note of something. It may be an instruction to
read a certain passage in a recommended book.

PST312M/1 (ix)
b This icon means you must complete a written activity. We may ask you to answer a
question, compile a table or draw a diagram.

c This icon means that you must take special note of something.

Adapted by the Australian Confederation of Sport from a


Bill of Rights for Young Athletes (American Alliance for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance).

(x)
STUDY UNIT 1

THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL


EDUCATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

f Why does the subject of physical education exist at all?

Children love to run and move for sheer enjoyment. In play they display an endless reserve
of energy which constantly amazes adults. Human beings are designed for a variety of
motor responses using large and small muscles. Learners should be made aware of the
satisfaction that they can derive from physical activity at a very early age.
All learning is expressed in some form of motor response. Machines and modern technology
have taken over most physical labour tasks formerly carried out by human beings,
diminishing the primitive skills that we have required for survival. Therefore opportunities
for the natural development of motor skills have been greatly limited. Children do not climb
trees, ride bicycles or jump puddles and streams as much as they did in earlier times.
This is a major reason why we must see physical education as a major component of the
school curriculum. It forms a necessary segment of the total learning process. Physical
education is concerned with growth, development and proper physical maintenance
throughout life. Each learner should have the opportunity for the optimum growth he or
she is capable of, physically, mentally and emotionally.
Other elements related to a well-developed physical education programme are self-
confidence, safe use of apparatus and playground equipment, self-control, psychological
development, learning to follow rules, a good nutrition programme and ways to cope with
emotional stress.

1.1.1 DEFINING PHYSICAL EDUCATION


Physical education is one of the most ancient arts of the humanities. The very first physical
educator was the father who taught his sons how to hunt, provide food and build shelters,
and engaged them in various physical tasks round the family home.
Physical education has a unique but not exclusive role to play in the education of learners.
Its role is twofold Ð to enhance learners' physical fitness and well-being and to teach them
a wide variety of motor skills. Physical education can and must contribute to the shared
goals of education through its activities and experience. This means improving self-
direction, self-esteem and cooperative behaviour.
Physical educators are interested in all human movement. They should work toward making
physical education an enjoyable and satisfying experience for every learner. To do this all

PST312M/1 1
learners must have the chance of some success every time they are involved in a movement
experience.

f Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:

. define physical education


. list the aims of physical education
. explain the value of physical education for learners

1.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION


Many researchers have tried to define the term ``physical education''. This has not been an
easy task! At the beginning of the 19th century the terms ``sport'' and ``physical education''
meant the same thing. Changes came after World War I, with the introduction of
cooperative games and extracurricular ``games days'' at schools; in Britain sports activities
were introduced in schools during the mid-1900s. Physical education in schools eventually
spread all over the world. Physical education, like all subjects in the school curriculum,
mainly concerns itself with the general education of learners and their development
towards maturity.

Physical education is a programme in which skills used in sport, dance and exercise are
taught and practised. This programme in the total process of education focuses on
developing and utilising the individual's voluntary, purposeful movement capabilities and
directly related mental, emotional and social responses.

The physical education school programme takes place in a specialised learning environment.
It incorporates many planned conditions and stimuli specifically intended to encourage or
provide opportunities for physical, social, emotional and intellectual responses through
which the learner may be changed, modified or educated in desirable ways. The quality of
physical education learning outcomes in any school depends on the responses and attitudes
induced in learners. Physical education is concerned with growth, development and proper
maintenance throughout life.

To summarise, physical education is a method of education, a method of educating the


youth through experience acquired during motor activities, and a way of teaching about
their bodies and their physical potential.

f In your own words, how would you define physical education?

1.3 THE TERMINOLOGY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION


To understand the relationship between physical education and its various activities you
have to distinguish between various terms.

2
1.3.1 SPORT
Sport is international: most nations all over the world practise sport. It is practised in
various forms, from recreation sport to highly competitive sport. As a human activity, sport
involves specific administrative organisation and its rules have a historical background. It
involves competition or challenge and an outcome primarily determined by physical skill.
Sport is characterised by certain rules, common goals, the formation of two teams (or
participation of an individual) who compete against each other to win, by giving their best
possible performance.

1.3.2 PLAY
The word ``play'' is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word plega meaning a game or sport, fight
or battle. It entails an enjoyable activity that individuals engage in for its own sake, in a
free and spontaneous way.
Play is far less structured than sport. Play is an enjoyable experience which is derived from
behaviour which is self-initiated in accordance with personal goals or expressive impulses.
Its rules are spontaneous; it has a temporal sequence but no predetermined ending.
Play is a biological and cultural function that is indispensable to the development of the
young learner. It is a natural activity for all learners.

1.3.3 RECREATION
The word ``recreation'' is derived from the Latin word recreare which means ``to invigorate''
or ``to renew''.
People's activities during their leisure or free time are classified as recreation. These are
all voluntary activities and can range from hiking, swimming, skiing, reading or sewing to just
watching television. Recreation is unlike work in that it is not compulsory or obligatory.
Recreational activities are beneficial to the participant because the satisfaction gained is
primarily from the quality of the experience.

1.4 THE AIMS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION


Organised physical education programmes aim to create an environment that stimulates
selected movement experiences, encouraging optimal development of all phases of the
individual's life.
The aim generally states the purpose and forms the basis of objectives.
We can define the objectives of physical education as follows:
(The remarks in brackets refer to points highlighted by Kirchner [1992:7±10].)
(1) To develop the movement potentialities of each individual to an optimal level. We
emphasise developing selected neuromuscular skills and refining fundamental
movement patterns of these specific skills. The physical educator should begin with
the fundamental motor skills, which lead to specific sport skills, and then finally
emphasise lifetime sports. (Kirchner refers to body management and useful physical
skills.)
(2) To develop a basic understanding and appreciation of human movement. We should
create an appreciation of movement as an essential nonverbal human expression.
Physical education also helps individuals to develop a positive self-concept and body
image through appropriate movement experiences. (Kirchner refers to understanding
and appreciation of human movement.)

PST312M/1 3
(3) To develop skills, knowledge and attitudes, basic to voluntary participation in
satisfying and enjoyable physical recreation experiences. Instructors should teach
learners the importance of physical education. (Kirchner refers to the fostering of
intellectual growth and creative talent.)
(4) To develop personally rewarding and socially acceptable behaviours through
participation in enjoyable movement activities. Normal mental, physical and
emotional health is enhanced by participation in voluntary physical recreation.
(Kirchner refers to self-image.)
(5) To develop and maintain optimal individual muscular strength, muscular endurance and
cardiovascular endurance. In this case we refer to health-related physical fitness. It
involves stability, flexibility, balance, agility and power. (Kirchner refers to personal
and social development, growth and development, and physical fitness and health.)

1.5 THE VALUE AND PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND


SPORT FOR LEARNERS

f Have you considered the value of physical education for learners?

As a physical educator you must focus on the value of physical education. Physical education
holds various values for the learner.
Participating in physical activities gives learners a means of self-expression. They develop
awareness of their bodies and the space around them by participating in physical activity, in
other words by learning about:
. shapes the body can make (twisted, wide and narrow, balancing, transferring of body
weight, and flight [balance] of the body through the air)
. where the body moves (direction, pathways and levels)
. how the body moves (speed, force and flow)

They learn to explore the environment and express their feelings through creative
movement. Physical activities help to reduce tension and promote relaxation. Learners
become aware of how to reduce muscular tension themselves and realise the value of rest
and sleep.
Learners understand the value of socialising better when we offer them a variety of
activities. They learn why children play together, how they play together, when they play
together and where they play together. They learn to be contributing group members (to
listen to and follow directions, and to cooperate). They also learn to be courteous and
thoughtful toward their playmates and peers. You must also teach them to be ``good sports''.
Physical activities provide learners with the opportunity to develop physically. Developing
physical fitness means improving muscle strength, endurance and flexibility, and skills and
abilities.
A well-planned education programme leads to understanding of how to play games and
sports. Learners get to know the terminology, rules and regulations of each game. They get
to know the various objectives and strategies of the activity presented. This process aids
cognitive development. If you allow learners to design their own games, they develop their
creative abilities.

4
Successful performance in a variety of game situations teaches the learner to enjoy
physical activities. Learners develop more positive attitudes if they achieve success in any
assigned task. They then learn to relax and enjoy participation. Continued participation in
sport and games after school is an important outcome of the physical education programme.
The learner may also acquire an enjoyment of games and sports as a spectator and
appreciate high-level athletic performance.
Well-managed physical education programmes are an opportunity for you to teach a learner
the meaning of being sporting, or of being ``a good sport''. Learners can be taught the
ability (1) to cooperate and take turns, and (2) to win and lose gracefully. You can also
teach them to respect the differences in their opponents' abilities. This respect enhances
an individual's development and maturity. It can also help learners develop emotional self-
control in times of physical and mental stress. However, being ``a good sport'' is not inherent
in physical education activities; therefore, because it is not learnt automatically, you need
to actively encourage learners to develop a sporting spirit.

1.6 CONCLUSION
Now you should have an idea of the value of physical education. Later, in study unit 4, we will
focus more on the value of physical education for the learner in the various stages of
development.

PST312M/1 5
STUDY UNIT 2

THE HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT


AND VALUE OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION AND SPORT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous study unit focused on the philosophy, objectives and values of physical
education.

f Can we say that these values have existed since primitive times? To answer this question
we have to look at the history of sport and physical education.

Sport and physical education have developed side by side. We can give reasons why physical
education and sport should form part of the educational curriculum by studying the history
of sport and physical education (movement education). A study of history also provides you
with cultural insight and an analysis of a society. You should gain insight into how sport and
physical education have developed to their present status and the various changes that
have occurred over the centuries.

Not all societies practise sport and physical education in the same way. Each society
attaches different importance to physical education and sport and therefore has a
different approach.

g Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:

. discuss the development of sport and physical education through the ages
. explain the link between sport, physical education and education
. list various factors that influence the state of sport and physical education today
. explain the value of sport

2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL


EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGES
First we shall look very briefly at the various periods of development.

6
2.2.1 IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY
To seek the origins of physical education, we have to go as far back in time as we can to
examine the actions of primitive human beings. At that time, we shall assume that there
was very little organised education, as we know it. Education was a by-product of daily
experiences and activities and of religious and social ceremonies. People spent their
daylight hours making bows, arrows, spears, knives, utensils, carrying burdens, building huts
and constructing boats. Another activity was the daily search for food. People climbed
trees in search of fruit and nuts. They went hunting. The various methods they used to
acquire food developed a superior physique. The parents were the first physical educators
because they taught their children survival skills.
Dancing was a profoundly religious activity. Tribal groups engaged in war dances, which were
often linked to the exorcising of evil spirits. Most of the childhood years were spent
outdoors. Children learnt many games (tag, hide-and-seek and a variety of ball games). They
had a natural urge to play games and kept themselves busy in creative ways. Life was lived in
a physical manner.
The fundamental elements of a physical education programme were established during this
period and have continued unchallenged to this day.

f What is the difference between sport in primitive society and sport today?

2.2.2 ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS

f How would you characterise the physical education and sport of ancient civilisations?

We note the contributions of the Romans and the Greeks during this period. Aristotle, the
famous Greek philosopher, described leisure as a productive part of life through which the
highest good attainable by human action could be achieved. The games played were based on
mythology and religious beliefs.
The Greeks believed strongly that physical education assisted the development of the
mind, body and soul. Their concepts and practices were to have a significant and lasting
impact on physical education theories, programmes and practices around the world.
The Romans focused on tolerance, a desire for peace, a sense of duty and a sense of
personal worth. Their education system was directed to a military goal, focusing on manly
conduct with considerable attention to physical ability. The first Ancient Games were held
in 776 BCE. Modern sport activities practised then were boxing, wrestling, archery and
acrobatics. These early games were later known as the Olympic Games.
The goal of physical education was established during this period. Aristotle and Plato,
another noted Greek philosopher, both believed that physical education contributed to
children's intellectual development. Plato emphasised the moral value of physical education.
Education focused on developing the ideal athlete who was seen to embody physical beauty,

PST312M/1 7
peak condition, irresistible strength, daring and rivalry. Sport was also intended to prepare
citizens for war.

2.2.3 THE MIDDLE AGES

f What was sport and physical education like in the Middle Ages?

During the Middle Ages, sport and all its facets came under the influence of the Roman
Catholic Church. The attainment of Christian morals was the primary ideal of education.
The religious activities of the church dominated the choice of recreation activities.
Physical games and contests did not feature, because religious activities took preference.
With the rise of the feudal system, however, men had to be trained as knights. They were
trained in activities such as horsemanship, fighting on horseback and other areas of self-
defence, archery, use of the crossbow, swimming and wrestling. Physical education was the
main element of knights' training.
The dramatic development of sport in England during this period was to have a significant
influence on physical education across the world.

2.2.4 FROM THE REFORMATION TO MODERN TIMES

f What do you know about sport and physical education during the Reformation?

The Reformation in 16th century Europe occurred during the period of the Renaissance,
which lasted an indefinite number of years between the Middle Ages and modern times. The
Renaissance was a time of discovery and of rediscovery, marked by dramatic technological
development (eg the invention of the printing press). As a result people had more time for
leisure and sport took on a useful social role.
The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of sport
at all levels of society, which paved the way for the modern Olympic Games, also called the
Olympics. The founder of the Olympics, Pierre de Courbertin, was deeply interested in
promoting the educational value of sport.
In Europe sport was now part of daily life. The various developments in the technical,
economic, political, social and recreational fields encouraged the need for sport. (The
Greek ideal of the harmonious development of the mind and the body had regained
popularity during the Reformation.)
Fencing, dancing, archery, bowling and tennis were some of the popular activities during the
18th and 19th centuries. Women and girls were encouraged to take part in physical
education, but only watched sporting games.

8
b Now that you have studied the previous text, explain why you think there was a need for
sport from the period of the Reformation up to modern times.

2.2.5 THE MODERN ERA

f How is sport during the modern era best depicted?

During the modern era sport has been characterised by the increasing number of clubs and
organisations round the world. Sport is taken seriously, as shown by numerous outlets and
opportunities for sporting activity. Sport is seen as a means of education. Many changes
have taken place in sport. Sport is used as a tool for changing behaviour, adapting
character, building unity and cooperation in a diverse population, and as a tool for creating
national loyalty. Sports coaching has become more and more specialised.

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SPORT IN MODERN TIMES


The following have been significant influences on the development of sport since the
beginning of the 19th century:
. Secularism. Sport is far less linked to religious beliefs and religious rituals than it was in
earlier times. Material values play a more important role.
. Equality for all. Now there is a need for all to take part in sport. Men and women and
people of all classes have equal opportunities to participate.
. Specialisation. Increasingly specialised sporting equipment and training methods are
being introduced. Athletes start to specialise at a very early age.
. Rationalisation and rules. Sport is controlled and regulated by rules and strategies.
Unfortunately children's games are dominated by the rules for adults.
. Bureaucratisation. Modern sport has become a complex structure with formal
organisations at three levels: national, regional and local.
. Qualifications. Measurements and statistics are common aspects related to modern
sport. All events are recorded according to time, distance and score.
. Records. Considerable emphasis is placed on setting up and breaking records. The over-
emphasis on winning has caused many athletes to stop participating at an early age.

Other factors with a major influence on the development of sport and physical education
are:
(1) The rapid and widespread development of technology. Machines have taken over
human work to such as extent that people have more free time. Human beings have
become less active, so there is a growing need for physical activity. Children spend
more time indoors, playing on computers and watching television. Bad posture and
physical defects are becoming more common.
(2) Long working hours. In various countries the poor economy has forced many parents to
take up a second job to keep food on the table. Less time is available for sport. Parents
spend less time playing games and teaching their children basic physical skills.

PST312M/1 9
(3) The school timetable. Schools have to cram in a great number of subjects.
Unfortunately physical education is often the first subject to be left out, which
impedes the total development of the learner. The heavy workload of educators makes
it difficult for them to coach sport in the afternoons. Moreover, because many
educators lack the basic skills and knowledge, their coaching may do more harm than
good. There is also a lack of sports equipment.
(4) Community and club involvement. Basic training to develop community and club
involvement in sport is lacking. Not all countries have the finances to provide centres,
programmes and personnel to train the community to get involved in sport.
(5) The use of drugs in sport. The need to achieve gold (at the Olympics) has lured many
athletes into finding other ways to improve performance. Performance-enhancing
drugs are prohibited; their use has led to many deaths. All physical education
programmes must explain the risks of drug abuse.
(6) The Development of media technology. Technology has expanded to such an extent
that now billions of people can watch the greatest sporting event: the Olympic Games.
As a result many have been inspired to take up sport. Written sports reports also
attract billions of readers.
(7) Material values. Money has come to play an ever more important role in sport, with
both advantages and disadvantages. Better financing has made it possible to develop
better equipment, centres, sports products, opportunities for setting up training
programmes and development programmes, and to obtain better resources and training
personnel. Athletes are now paid for their performances. A disadvantage is that the
drive to earn more in sport has caused athletes, trainers and administrators to forget
the enjoyment of sport.

The changes in physical demands and human needs during modern times have influenced
sport and physical education. Take a look at the following information:
. Middle 19th century
Ð Sport and physical education has a medical orientation.
Ð Both are regarded as very important during the period of the Reformation.

. Late 19th century


Ð The accent is on the physical body.
Ð Physical preparedness becomes desirable.
Ð The body is seen as a machine.
Ð The physical educator is considered a biological engineer.
Ð Physical training is considered to be important.

. Early 20th century


Ð The parts of the body are clinically studied.
Ð Hygiene is important.
Ð Physical education becomes a matter of formal education.
Ð Education through the body gains popularity.

. Middle 20th century


Ð Healthy diet becomes fashionable.
Ð Health clubs and health farms become widespread.
Ð Businesses take an interest in their employees' fitness.
Ð Weight control and methods of weight loss become popular.
Ð Various strategies are developed to combat instant stress, such as aromatherapy,
massage, and calming remedies and tonics.
Ð Physical education at school level reaches a low, because of an inability to reach goals.

10
Ð New Age ideas gain popularity.
Ð Sports people seek to enhance performance (use of steroids).

. Late 20th century


Ð People feel guilty about their bodies, appearance and diet, etcetera.
Ð The media promote the importance of social surroundings and fitness.
Ð People are living longer.
Ð Promotion of recreational activities takes off.
Ð Quality of life becomes more and more important.
Ð Adventurous sports innovations are on the increase.

f Before continuing think about the following questions:

. What other factors can you identify as major influences on development of sport?
. What are the implications for the physical educator?

The status of physical education is directly influenced by these previously mentioned


factors: what happens in sport determines the status of physical education.
The need to win at all costs has placed more emphasis on early specialisation. Sport has
gained more attention at a time when the focus should be on improving physical education.
Physical education has to do with improving the skills that can then be practised and used in
sport. However the physical education lesson is used to coach a sport, instead of teaching
these important basic skills. Can you think of other implications?

2.4 THE FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS AND


PARTICULAR NATURE OF SPORT

f What do you regard as the particular nature of sport?

Games and sports have evolved because human beings are active, playful beings. Sport is a
human phenomenon. Children, adults and the elderly can all take part in some sort of sport.
Sport promotes worthwhile and good relationships, good sporting qualities, endurance and
other fine qualities. However, sport can also promote corruption, violate individual dignity
and create false heroes, for example.
The original meaning of sport has undergone a change in emphasis. Today sport is associated
with practising, competition, specialisation, coaching, administration and champions. Sport
is now a significant component of societies and cultures across the world: it has become a
global phenomenon.
The important effects of sport can no longer escape the attention of educators,
economists, politicians, sociologists and psychologists. It is a powerful social force with
wide application in our adult community and in education; it has become a matter of common
interest and immense public appeal. Of all organised activities, sport probably has the
greatest impact on society.
We can summarise the particular nature of sport as follows:

PST312M/1 11
(1) Sport is universal and enjoys worldwide recognition. Sport plays a significant role in
the lives of millions of people throughout the world. Many men and women participate
regularly in sport and still more are spectators, fans, critics and occasional
participants.
(2) Playing games is a prominent part of sport. The desire to play games has fulfilled an
inborn need since primitive and prehistoric times.
(3) Sport captures the attention of billions of people. The wide reach of the mass media
means millions across the world can follow international sporting events. Every four
years 183 countries get together for the greatest spectacle on earth, the Olympics.
An estimated 4,5-billion people watched television during the 1992 Barcelona Olympic
Games.
(4) Sport is a distinctly human activity. Since prehistoric times human beings have engaged
in sporting activities. Sport and physical activities have served to develop skills,
physical exercises, techniques for hunting, as a socialising technique, and they have
reinforced cultural norms and values.
(5) The concept of sport is very complex. For example it provides entertainment,
compensates for social problems, enhances prestige, and relieves stress and other
problems. Sport has its own integral system and tasks.
(6) Sport contributes to building human character. Sport benefits the biological and
psychological development and the personality of a human being.
(7) Sport is a socialising force. It lends itself to being a socialising force in the community
and society at large, irrespective of whether people participate as individuals or
members of a team. Participants are never alone because somehow they always
represent the community.
(8) Sport represents a particular method of expression within different cultures. It gives
a nation its heroes, its most accessible myths and rituals.
(9) Sport contains an element of competition. Human beings have always needed to defend
themselves, their groups and tribes Ð and later their nations. In times of fear they
learnt to escape danger by running, jumping and swimming. Human beings invented
archery, judo and karate to avoid defeat by enemies. Human beings have also developed
the need to compete against their own bodies and energy limits, and their surroundings.

2.5 THE VALUE OF SPORT TO SOCIETY


Sport reflects important values within a society. It is a microcosm of society. The nature,
organisation, goals, functions and structure of sport reflect the society in which sport
takes place. Its primary function is to disseminate and reinforce the values regulating
behaviour and goal attainment, and it helps to determine acceptable solutions to problems
in the secular sphere of life.
Sport also affects and helps to regulate perceptions of life in general. It makes a particular
contribution to education, constructive recreation, national fitness, youth preparedness,
international prestige and communication. Sport has a special place in the very centre of
the community. It provided an antidote during the industrial era and has become a very
important element in the life of every individual, irrespective of race, tradition, climate and
preference.
Sport is a social institution that transmits values to participants. Sport contributes to
society; elements of society such as the family, community and nation, and education itself,
are all closely involved.
In ancient Greece education included physical development because its ideal was to develop
the total person, striving to balance body, mind and soul. Today we have returned to the
same ideal (in spite of tendencies to use sport as preparation for war and to emphasise

12
intellectual development). Today the emphasis is again placed on the value of sport for the
total person. We will now look at an explanation of the most important values of sport for
human beings.

2.5.1 THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF SPORT

f Does sport have an educational value?

Sport is an integral part of many lives. Physical education provides an opportunity to take
part in sport and exercises within the education system. We should guide the learner to
self-confidence within this working sphere. We should provide opportunities for learners to
develop their body power, suppleness and endurance. There is also a need to create
enjoyment for the learner.
A playful atmosphere is a relaxed opportunity for educator and learner to communicate, for
a learner to open up. Sport teaches young learners valuable lessons about life and society in
general. Sport is an instrument in the hands of education that helps to develop characters
and personalities.
Diem (1960:7) states that the educational value of sport is governed by its own laws. He
describes the essential educational value of sport as follows:
Sport was created out of the instinct of modern man, out of the spiritual interests of
our time, out of the appreciation of the measurable, the increasable, and the speed of
our modern life. In its obedience to the needs of the body, in its encouragement of the
mind in governing the body, and in its own peculiar social life lies its essential
educational value.

The educational value of sport rests on the possibility of transferring qualities such as
honesty, fairness and self-discipline.

2.5.2 THE SOCIAL VALUE OF SPORT FOR PEOPLE

f How do human beings benefit socially from sport?

People are naturally communal beings with a strong desire to be part of a group. Social
grouping has more influence on people than the family, education institutions, coaches and
mass communication methods. People's thinking is influenced by the attitudes and actions of
their particular society. Sport is an activity that attracts community involvement. Play and
sport can fulfil human beings' inherent need for group membership and identification.
Sport enables individuals and groups to mix freely with others across a broad spectrum.
Sport integrates members into society and strengthens the social relations necessary for
people to be able to work together. It helps people build a sense of togetherness.

. Sport as a fundamental human need


Sport is a vital force that influences our lives. It is the heritage of all human living and

PST312M/1 13
provides enjoyment in and for life. Sport is enjoyable in its manifold forms. Children spend
many hours playing games and they view games differently to adults. Play is therefore an
important part of childhood for two reasons:
Ð It promotes and enhances growth, experience and knowledge.
Ð It allows children to lose themselves in games and enjoy their activities.

. Sport and its other contributions to society


The benefits of sport for society are the promotion of health and other social
improvements. Without a doubt, sport and physical activity are central to the life of the
whole community. Many countries round the world have adopted a ``sport for all'' strategy
for this very reason. Sport offers the community the basis for national identity and
national competence.
The former USSR used sport as a tool to bring about social change. After the Russian
Revolution, the state used sport to improve health and uplift morality, promote fitness and
discipline in the army, and provide a source of recreation to a society experiencing rapid
changes and sacrifices.
Sport can be used to counter juvenile delinquency. Young people today need benchmarks for
right and wrong conduct; when sports activities attract their attention and energy they are
less likely to engage in antisocial activities Ð and sport is also an opportunity for self-
expression.
Sport helps to develop individual traits and fosters growth and development of social
relationships. Further it promotes a range of values: respect for the rules of the game,
honest play, courage, unselfishness, respect for the group, sporting spirit and leadership.
Many countries support mass participation because sport supports national solidarity.
Sports activities among national groups can go a long way to resolving conflict or relieving
religious or political tension, for example.
It is important to note that the state, community, church, private sector, school and family
are all involved in sport.

2.5.3 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT

f What are the psychological benefits of sport?

Sport promotes the following three values relating to psychological development:


(1) a spirit of cooperation in the playing of a team sport
(2) free participation among individuals and groups
(3) submission to authority and discipline of the law (abiding by the rules of the game)

It is the task of the coach and the learner to arrange sporting activities that develop
learners' self-confidence. Many coaches are unaware of sport's psychological value for
personality development. Mass participation has a major influence on people as groups and
as individuals, and public attendance of sport events is generally a lively and entertaining
experience Ð unless spectators get out of hand and aggressive. Mass sporting events
sometimes give rise to irresponsible behaviour: for example the spectator violence that
mars soccer events.
We cannot ignore our deep, personal interactions: sport puts body and soul, or body and

14
mind, in motion. Because of the interdependence of body and soul/mind, an overdeveloped
body may inhibit spiritual development, which may in turn cause physical problems Ð these
then leading back to psychological problems.
Child psychologists have proved that weak motor abilities may cause psychological
problems. Stress is an ever-increasing social problem. Sport can help relieve stress, for
example its therapeutical value that helps people to ``switch off'' and relax.

2.5.4 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUE OF SPORT

f Does sport have physiological value?

It is universally recognised that general well-being of a society is closely related to its


physical well-being. People may rely on certain medications to improve their physical health
and help prevent psychological problems.
Physical activity is necessary to organic growth. Everyone needs physical activity; it
stimulates the body's normal functioning. Movement stimulates growth and strengthens the
organs. Physical performance improves as the body is used; when not used, degeneration is
inevitable.
Numerous research projects have proved the benefits of sport. With learners generally
following a physically passive lifestyle, schools need to promote these benefits. Physical
activity is vital for the correct functioning of our motor abilities (eg perceptual motor,
balance, speed, power, endurance, coordination and flexibility).
Physical exercise is also vital to national welfare. An unfit population could even lead to
national disaster or downfall, which is why the former USSR focused on mental and physical
education of its citizenry in preparation for combat.
People seldom fully realise the value of physical activity. It is a fundamental need, as
Tempelhoff (1983:26) concludes: ``Sports can indeed contribute to mankind's physical
vitality through modern physiology: In the development and maintenance of muscle tone,
organic, and vitality of body functioning.''

2.5.5 THE ETHICAL VALUE OF SPORT

f Which ethical values do we learn from sport?

There is a long and respected belief that a healthy relationship exists between our physical
lives and the development and formation of character. In ancient Greece Plato condemned
an education that was either exclusively academic or purely physical. He emphasised the
education of a strong, civilised mind, as opposed to a weak, uncivilised mind.
As in today's sporting arena, in English schools of the Middle Ages team sports were highly
valued for cultivating qualities of bravery, loyalty and cooperation. Qualities developed by
sport include those of daring, endurance and Ð better still Ð even temper, self-restraint,
fairness and honour, and unreserved praise for another's success.

PST312M/1 15
Competitive sport offers the opportunity for participants to cultivate sound ethical
practices. Sport allows one to develop a good sporting spirit and attitude, loyalty and
discipline, respect for others, modesty and dignity. For insight into the ethical value of
sport, you need to understand the terms ``sportsmanship'' or ``being a good sport'', and
``fairness'' and ``discipline''. Sportsmanship, being ``a good sport'' or having a sporting spirit,
implies playing an honest game that requires qualities such as courage, endurance, self-
control, self-respect, mutual trust, politeness and fairness. Fairness is seen as one of the
most important ingredients of a sporting spirit. Fairness also relates to the application of
the rules: what applies to one player should apply to the rest of the team. Team members
meet before the game to decide on the rules and no player is entitled to special treatment.
Fair play consists of friendship, respect for others and always playing in the right spirit. It
eliminates cheating, gamesmanship, the use of drugs, violence (physical and verbal),
exploitation, inequality, corruption and excessive commercialisation.
Discipline is another quality that sport develops. Strict discipline is required for regular
practising, participation and obedience of rules, especially in highly competitive events.
As we have already suggested, sporting events may however present a completely different
scenario in which players regard opponents as enemies, and dishonesty, intimidation and
provocative behaviour are rife. But we should not allow negative elements to overshadow
sport's benefits for moral development. Often the sport as a whole is blamed, when it is
generally the individual participant who is guilty of the misconduct.
Sport today faces numerous social pressures. The impact of politics on sport, obsession
with success, public craving for heroes and stars, need for financial backing, and mass
media exposure: all intensify pressure on both society and the sporting world.
As already noted, sometimes the spotlight falls on competitive sport as a source of
undesirable behaviour, for example arguments with umpires, bending of the rules,
deliberate fouls, generally antisocial or violent behaviour, and swearing. Sports players
are often fined, even banned or suspended, for offences.
Do not let the negative elements detract from the true nature of sport. We need stricter
measures to rid sport of bad language, foul play and interference with umpires or referees.
We need players, officials, administrators, spectators, the media, sponsors, learners and
parents to respect the sporting codes of behaviour.

2.5.6 SPORT AS A POLITICAL VALUE AND WEAPON FOR SOCIETY


AND THE STATE

f Is sport influenced by politics?

Sports values are interwoven with the society's values. Because top sporting performances
are seen to demonstrate national and international prestige, politics and foreign policy have
marked influence on sport.
As discussed, in ancient Greece sport was used to prepare citizens for war and the Roman
civilisation was one of the first to use sport for military purposes and later to control the
masses. To return to the more recent example of the former USSR: sport was a vital part
of preparation for war; sport was a means to physical fitness, psychological awareness,
proficiency in military skills (shooting and skiing), and developing stamina, endurance,
fighting spirit and enterprise.

16
Sport and politics are strongly bound by nationalism. The founder of the Olympic
movement, Pierre de Courbertin (Stolyarov & Sanadze 1984:38), describes his rationale for
the movement as follows:

The Olympics unites as in one brush stroke of sunny rays all those principles
which promote the perfection of a man.

The Olympic Games were meant to promote peace and collaboration Ð sport open to all
nations and free of politics. This is the Olympic ideal, but today it is not always achievable.
The former USSR used sport as for social control, allowing the Soviet regime to exploit
genuine enthusiasm for Party-inspired goals. Party-inspired goals were also clearly
expressed in South African sport between 1948 and 1967 when the National Party's
policy of racial segregation in sport resulted in discrimination against non-white
participants. These are two examples of the potential to manipulate sport for political
aims. Finally, top athletic performance serves as national and international propaganda.
In the same sense, sport is an important nation builder. Australian sport, for example, is a
``super-religion'' with a passionate following. We may say much the same of sport in South
Africa Ð rugby was a nation builder following the Springbok victory in the 1995 World Cup.
In Canada, ice hockey unites the nation. In Africa people are passionate about soccer.
South Africa experienced party-political interference, and internal and outside political
interference in sport: sustained political onslaught from within the nation to isolate sports
governing bodies, with widespread political infighting (before readmittance to the
international arena), and media exposure of politically charged incidents in school sport.
The best-known method of withholding participation is the boycott: boycotts by the
Olympic Games occurred back in 1920 and as recently as 1984. Activists, in and outside the
country, fought South Africa's racial policy using sport as a political weapon. The continual
pressure on government brought about many changes, to the benefit of all. In 1979 the
government called for the depoliticising of all sport to speed up South Africa's re-entry
into the international arena.
All this political tension and interference would certainly have disappointed the founder of
the International Olympic Committee (IOC). His aim was to improve and promote the values
of English sport, the English private school system and character building.

f Now think about the following question:

. Should politics and politicians be involved in sport?

2.5.7 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SPORT FOR THE COMMUNITY


Does sport have an economic value? Nowadays we cannot disregard the huge sums of money
involved in sport, in the forms of prize money, expensive facilities, high salaries or
specialised equipment. Major technological developments have changed sport into big
business.
But the close relationship between sport and finance is not new: building planners worked
out costs of the stadium at Olympia in ancient Greece, and provided for athletes' training
and housing needs all of which involved financial considerations. Even though the Greeks

PST312M/1 17
claimed that participation was for the glory of winning the crown, various athletes
expected to be substantially and materially rewarded by their communities for bringing
success to their city. In fact, the athletes' search for more lucrative prizes led to the
collapse of the old Olympian Games.
Today the massive economic enterprise of sport benefits many industries round the world:
sport is now a public commodity on the commercial market. When a country stages an
international sporting event it stands to benefit economically. For example tourism has
major benefits for a national economy. Tourists stimulate the local economy, especially bars
and restaurants, taxis, hotels and other retail businesses. South Africa's hosting of the
Rugby World Cup in 1995 led to an influx of visitors, resulting in a boom in the hotel and
transport industries.
Building and maintenance of sport facilities are million-dollar industries. South Africa's
need for basic sport facilities should provide much-needed jobs in the construction
industry. If SA had won the bid for the 2004 Olympics, this would have been a major boost
for the construction industry.
The number of professional athletes increases by the day. Their status as participants is
demonstrated by their salaries Ð they often earn more than people in other top
professions.
Sport offers careers in sports medicine, sport law, sport psychology, sports administration
and stadium management.
Sponsorships offered to sport, gate earnings and expenditure are other examples of sport
as a big money-making business. Companies spend millions on advertising so they can
associate their products with sport.
The former USSR recognised the economic value of sport for its workers Ð the culture of
promoting a physically fit workforce in the interests of national productivity. The People's
Republic of China has much the same culture.
Other economic implications of sport are that not everybody can afford to participate
because of rising costs of sports equipment, for example. Nor are entry fees, membership
fees and coaching fees affordable to all. Also, big prize money with a ``win-at-all-costs''
mentality has caused many athletes to turn to alternative methods (stimulants and
steroids) to get to the top.
South Africa's renewed involvement in international sport after 30 years of isolation gave
prominence to broadcast rights. The international world was conditioned to believe that
unless you beat the South African teams you could not claim to be the champions. Media
coverage, especially television coverage, is a top priority: broadcasters have to be highly
selective because broadcasting rights are expensive and air time is limited. High-profile
sports like soccer, rugby, cricket, motor sport and golf get preference over less popular
sports. Sponsorship of teams is therefore highly selective.
The current South African state lottery can help the sport trust fund (``Lotto thata ma
chance'') to support various sports ventures. Other economic sectors, like housing, health
and education will also benefit from the fund. Offering tax rebates to companies
sponsoring sporting events is an incentive to be reconsidered.
Clearly, sport has both economic advantages and disadvantages. Many questions need
answers: Should players be paid for performances? Should learners have to pay to
participate in sport? Should learners be paid for coaching? What is the financial
responsibility of the state towards sport?

18
b Now give examples of how a nation benefits economically from sport.

2.6 CONCLUSION
Sport has played an uplifting, recreational and reconstructive role from the earliest times.
No one since has emphasised physical education as much as the ancient Greeks. Sport
played an important part in education and was included in the daily school programme. Today
we need regular exercise to compensate for the loss of physical activity imposed on us by
modern civilisation.
Physiologically, there is no doubt that sport participation is an opportunity to improve
general health. Sport promotes and stimulates physical growth and develops motor skills.
Never underestimate the educational value of sport. It inspires us to perform better. Its
discipline improves our ability to concentrate. The link between sport participation and
good academic performance is long established:
``mens sana in corpore sano'' Ð a healthy mind in a healthy body.

Sport brings people into regular contact with one another, which stimulates and develops
social growth. Team and individual sporting experiences strengthen the bonds of
friendship. Social problems can be resolved by participation in sport. People all over the
world are brought together to share a common interest Ð sport Ð by international events.
Well-established research has clarified sport's contribution to healthy human psychology
and emotional development. Sport has untold value for the handicapped to promote self-
knowledge and self-esteem. Development of individual character is rooted in sport as it
helps develop a positive attitude, endurance and sporting spirit.
From an ethical point of view, we see that sport teaches us to prove ourselves through
participation. Honour and reputation come before greed and materialism. True sports
heroes and heroines will be remembered in future generations.
Economically and politically, spectator sport has significant value for the nation, the
community and the individual. Sport provides job opportunities for millions across the
world. Although sport can be politically inspired to bring about change in the society, the
nation and the world, sport should be kept out of the hands of politicians. Finally, we note
that involvement in sport is a personal matter: it differs from person to person.

PST312M/1 19
STUDY UNIT 3

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

f Do you know how the body is structured and how it functions?

The human body is probably one of the most highly complex living ``machines''. Anatomy
involves learning about the structure of the body. Once you know how the body is built you
will understand how the learner's body responds to exercise and training. As a physical
educator you do not need a medical doctor's detailed and complex knowledge, but you do
need to know the basic structures of the body and how they work together.

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. discuss the structure of the body
. explain the functioning of various body systems

3.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY


3.2.1 CELLS Ð THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
The human body is made up of millions of tiny, living cells. All living organisms are made up of
one or more cells. A cell is therefore a unit of living material and it is the basic building
block of life. Each type of cell or group of cells carries out a different job. That is why cells
do not look the same. Cells are designed for the following different reasons:
. to carry messages (nerve cells carry electrical messages)
. to carry chemicals (red cells in the blood carry oxygen around the body)
. to support the body (bone cells make up the skeleton)
. to move the body (muscle cells can create force)

Each cell has its own task; yet all cells live, grow and finally die. New cells then replace
them.

20
3.2.2 THE SKELETON

f Can you describe the function of the skeleton?

THE HUMAN SKELETON

Neck vertebra
Bekken
Clavicle (collar bone)
Scapula (shoulder bone)

Sternum (breast bone)

Rib

Humerus
Lumbar vertebra
Radius
Pelvis
Bekken

Ulna

Carpals (wrist)
Metacarpals

Femur (thigh bone)

Patella (knee cap)

Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals (ankle)
Metatarsals

A skeleton is a system of bones and other supporting material that is found inside our
bodies. It has three main functions:
(1) Support. The skeleton supports the rest of the body, like the framework of a building.
Without this a human being would be a shapeless lump.
(2) Protection. The skeleton protects important and delicate organs of the body; for
example the skull protects the brain.
(3) Movement. The skeleton provides anchorage for muscles. Muscles that are fixed to

PST312M/1 21
the skeleton can operate joints. We can move the body as a whole and also move parts
of the body with a high degree of precision and control.

The human skeleton consists of over 200 bones. They appear in all shapes and sizes (long,
short, round, flat). All bones have the same basic structure, despite their different sizes.
Bones are very hard and strong. They have to stand up to strong forces.

3.2.3 BONES
Bones consist of living and nonliving parts. The living parts make the bone slightly flexible
and let it absorb sudden shocks. The nonliving part of a bone makes it rigid and gives it
strength. Bones act as a system of levers. Bones are not actually joined; instead they fit
closely together, forming joints.

KNEE AND HIP JOINTS

Kneecap

This is a hinge joint; This is a ball-and-socket


the bones can move joint; the bones can move
in one direction only in almost any direction

KNEE JOINT HIP JOINT

3.2.4 JOINTS
Joints form the junctions between bones. The bones at each joint are linked by tough,
flexible ligaments. Ligaments are strong fibrous straps that will not return to their original
shape once they have been damaged or stretched. The different joints between the bones
allow you to move in different ways. Each joint therefore allows a different sort of
movement. Some joints permit a wide range of movement (eg the shoulder). Other joints,
such as the knee, permit restricted movement.

22
3.2.5 MUSCLE AND TENDONS

f When do we use muscles?

Bones are moved at the joints by the contraction and relaxation of muscles attached to
them. There are over 600 muscles in your body, which make up approximately 40 percent of
your mass. We use muscles to breathe, to move and even to stand still.

The muscle used to control movements consists of bundles of long, thin cells called muscle
fibres. Each bundle of fibre is held together by a tough sheath. A similar sheath round the
outside holds the whole muscle together. All the connecting sheaths join together at the
end of each muscle, forming the tendons which anchor the muscle to the bone. Tendons are
made up of strong tissue.

Tendons attach muscles to bones on either side of the joint. Most of the muscles in your
body control one joint of the body. Some control two joints, such as the hamstrings, which
work across the hip and the knee joints.

The illustration below shows how a muscle is made up of bundles of fibres.

MUSCLE FIBRE

Tendon

Muscle

Bundle of fibres

Fibre

INSIDE A MUSCLE

When muscles pull on a bone, movement occurs. Muscles can only pull; they cannot push.
Muscles are arranged in opposing pairs for this reason. When one muscle tenses and
contracts, its partner relaxes and stretches to allow movement. There would be no
movement if both muscle groups contracted at the same time. A good example of the action
of opposing muscle groups is the elbow joint. The biceps bends the arm at the elbow, and it
is opposed by the triceps which straightens the arm.

PST312M/1 23
MUSCLE IN UPPER ARM

When the biceps One end of the biceps


contracts, your muscle is attached to
arm bends the shoulder blade

When the triceps


contracts, your
arm straightens

One bend of the


biceps muscle is
attached to the
bones of the
lower arm

Movement consists of a contraction of various muscle groups, seldom just one. The
contribution of each muscle group varies according to the action and effort required.

f What are the implications for you as an educator?

All physical activity programmes should provide a balanced development of a muscle and its
opposing muscle. You should provide for the development of both the left side and the right
side of the body. An unequal development leads to injury of the weaker muscle.

. Types of muscle fibre


The muscle fibre of each muscle consists of two types:
Ð fast twitch fibres
Ð slow twitch fibres

We all have a mixture of fast twitch fibres and slow twitch fibres in our muscles. The
different percentages are determined by heredity and cannot be changed by any sort of
training.
The fast twitch muscle fibre is like the engine of a racing car. It produces high-speed
movement for short periods of time. The chemical reactions involved in this fast movement
produce large amounts of waste product in the form of lactic acid. This high level of lactic
acid means that the athlete cannot use the fast twitch fibres for very long. An example is
the lactic acid that builds up and slows the athlete down in the final 60 to 80 metres of a
400 metre sprint.
The slow twitch fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for much longer
periods. It produces waste products that are easily disposed of. That is why slow twitch
fibres are important for endurance events.

24
THE SKELETAL MUSCLES Ð FRONT VIEW

FACIAL muscles are


involved in varying facial
expressions, speech,
chewing
The deep muscle of the
THORAX, linking the ribs,
contract and relax in
respiration

PECTORAL brings the


arm to the side and
across the chest
BICEPS bends the elbow

The muscles of
the ABDOMEN
are arranged in
sheets and protect FLEXORS bend the
delicate abdominal wrist and fingers
organs

RECTUS FEMORIS bends


the hip joint and
straightens the knee ADDUCTORS of thigh

SARTORIUS bends the


knee and hip joints and
turns the thigh outwards

EXTENSORS turn the foot


and toes upwards

In the LEGS are found the


most powerful muscles of
the body, especially those
acting on the hip joint

PST312M/1 25
THE SKELETAL MUSCLES Ð BACK VIEW

The muscles of the BACK


play a large part in maintaining
erect posture

EXTENSORS straighten
the wrist and fingers

TRICEPS straightens the


elbow

DELTOID raises
the arm
TRAPEZIUS raises the
shoulder and pulls the
head back
LATISSIMUS DORSI
draws arm backwards
and turns it inwards;
it also draws an
upstretched arm
downwards

GLUTEALS move the hip joint;


also move the leg outwards

HAMSTRINGS bend
the knee and straighten
the hip joint

GASTROCHEMIUS bends
the knee and turns the
foot downwards

ACHILLES TENDON

FLEXORS turn the foot


and toes downwards

26
Athletes with predominantly slow twitch fibres can do sprint training to improve their
speed. The highest speed attainable will however still be far less than for an athlete who
has a greater percentage of fast twitch fibres. Athletes with predominantly fast twitch
fibres can similarly improve their endurance by doing endurance training. The level will still
not be as good as the athlete who has a higher percentage of slow twitch fibres to begin
with.

3.2.6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain
Brain
Bones
(vertebrae)
to protect
spinal cord Spinal cord

Spinal cord
Spinal Nerves
nerves
Nerve fibres
to and from
all parts of
the body

Muscles pull when they receive signals from the brain telling them to do so. The signals are
carried by nerves made up of special nerve cells. The actual contraction process of a muscle
fibre starts when it receives a nervous impulse. The nervous impulse is an electrical signal
carried by the nerve cells.
The nervous system is a whole network that includes the brain, spinal cord and the many
nerves that branch off the spinal cord to all parts of the body. The signal from the nervous
system determines the number of individual fibres that contract. If a light load is placed on
a muscle, only a few fibres of the entire muscle need to contract. More and more fibres are
signalled to contract when the load is increased.

3.2.7 THE HEART AND LUNGS (THE CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM)


The heart and lungs provide a steady supply of oxygen for all the various functions of the
body. The heart is about the size of your fist and is situated in the centre and to the left of
your chest. The one side of the heart receives blood fresh with oxygen that is then
delivered to the rest of the body by the arteries. The blood then returns to the heart
through the veins and is pumped back to the lungs.
The heart benefits from regular exercise. The heart beats more quickly and more
powerfully during exercise. Blood consists of a mixture of water, cells and dissolved

PST312M/1 27
THE CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Oxygen-poor blood

Oxygen-rich blood
Ar
te

in s
rie

Ve
s
Oxygen-poor blood
Hart

Oxygen-rich blood
s
rie
te
Ve

Ar
ins

Oxygen is taken from the blood


in the capillaries and used in
the muscles

nutrients. It forms the body's internal transport system. Blood is important for the
following reasons:
. Blood carries oxygen from the lungs and food from the digestive system to the cells of
the body. (Red cells in the blood transport oxygen.)
. Blood carries carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs, where it is removed by being
breathed out of the body.
. Blood carries waste materials from body tissues to the kidneys, where they are
excreted.
. Blood prevents infection by healing wounds and fighting germs.

Lungs have a very large surface (the size of a badminton court) to assist in the exchange of
oxygen and other gases.

3.2.8 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

f What type of body build do you have?

Studies of top sportsmen and sportswomen show that sport not only selects those with

28
outstanding natural ability but also those with particular body types. The method of body
typing is called somatotyping. People come in all shapes and sizes. However three main body
types are found in men and women:
(1) Endomorph. These persons tend to have a less well-defined body outline and can
become fat easily.
(2) Mesomorph. These persons are well proportioned and muscular.
(3) Ectomorph. These are thin individuals who tend to be tall.

SOMATOTYPING: THE THREE EXTREMES OF BODY TYPE

Extreme mesomorph
mesomorphy

Extreme endomorph endomorphy ectomorphy Extreme ectomorph

e Now read chapter 2 in Thomas et al (1988) on their ideas about the influence of body size
on a learner's motor performance.

THE SKETCH BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE


DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATHLETE

decathletes
weight lifters
gymnasts
canoeists
weight boxers
modern pentathletes
divers
water polo rowers
players sprinters
cyclists
wrestlers
swimmer
distance runners
reference group race walkers
basketball players
jumpers

PST312M/1 29
People are normally a combination of the various body types. The type of sport practised
and the position of the player often require a certain body type. For example, a high jumper
tends to be of the ectomorph type. Forwards playing in the scrum tend to be of the
endomorph type.

3.2.9 POSTURE
Educators have always been concerned about learners' posture. Various attempts have been
made to help learners develop good posture. Desktops are slanted, blackboards adjusted
and schoolbags altered. However, chronic television viewing has led to inadequate daily
exercise and numerous postural problems. If we detect these problems at an early stage
they can be corrected by means of vigorous exercise.

Most of the typical posture deviations of young learners can be observed and corrected
with proper exercise. The following deviations can be observed when the learner is standing
beside a plumb line.

Round upper back (kyphosis)


Round upper back, or kyphosis, is a marked increase in the curve of the back. The head and
shoulders are usually held in a forward position, and the backward curve of the upper body
causes the pelvis to tilt forward slightly and the knees to bend somewhat. This condition
increases the strain on the upper back muscles and shifts the weight of the body to the
front of the foot.

Hollow back (lordosis)


Hollow back, or lordosis, is an exaggerated forward curve of the lower back. The most
common signs are a protruding abdomen, a swayback, and hyperextension of the knees.

Lateral curvature (scoliosis)


Lateral curvature, or scoliosis, can be C-shaped, extending the length of the spinal column,
or S-shaped, with a small curve on the upper back and a compensating curve on the lower
back. The C-shaped curve is normally toward the left, since most learners are right-handed
and tend to lean to the weaker side. This comes from the constant elevation of the right
arm and the learner's tendency to lean toward the left side of the desk while writing and
performing other sitting activities.

Methods of assessing posture


The educator in the classroom is usually in the best position to assess his of her students'
postures. Most educators are genuinely concerned about how learners sit at their desks and
how they move during their daily activities. For most educators, the evaluation of posture is
primarily one of continual subjective observation. If there is a major change in a learner's
posture, the educator brings in the school nurse or parent to determine whether the
change is due to a muscular weakness or to other factors (eg poor nutrition, defective
eyesight, or emotional problems).

When using a simple screening test, an educator should consider the side-view and rear-
view plumb line test and the posture chart. The chart can be used in various ways, depending
on the educator's interests, the learner's age, and the time available. Most educators can
complete the test in the classroom.

30
Methods of improving posture
The plumb-line test is designed as a basic screening device. It can detect major postural
problems and, perhaps more importantly, make the learner more conscious of his or her
posture when standing, sitting, or moving through a variety of movement patterns. The
foundation of good posture, however, is the possession of optimum levels of muscular
strength, endurance, flexibility, and efficient motor skill patterns. If special programmes
are warranted, the following exercises will help to correct functional postural defects and
improve general muscular strength, endurance and flexibility.

(1) Exercises for the head and neck position:


. head pull
. head turns
. heck flattener
. head lift

(2) Exercise for round shoulders:


. hanging
. pull-ups
. push-ups
. arm rotators
. wall push
. head and arm raisers

(3) Exercises for the lower back:


. cat stretcher
. trunk stretcher
. back arch

(4) Exercises for abdominal muscles:


. curl-ups
. elbow-knee touch
. hip raisers

(5) Exercises for functional scoliosis:


. hanging
. side stretch

The following are guidelines on improving each position and methods of improving posture in
general (see Kirchner 1992:167):

. Use the plumb line test as a basic screening device.


. Make learners more conscious of their posture when standing, sitting or carrying out a
variety of movement patterns.
. Correct functional postural defects by using a special programme to improve overall
muscular strength, endurance and flexibility.
. Exercise to improve head and neck position (head pulls, head turns, neck flatteners).
. Exercise to improve round shoulders (hanging, pull-ups, push-ups, arm rotators, wall
pushes, head and arm raisers).
. Exercise to help lower back problems.
. Exercise to strengthen abdominal muscles.
. Exercise to improve functional scoliosis.

PST312M/1 31
f Which test is used to evaluate the learner's posture?

The side and rear view plumb-line test and posture charts are used to evaluate posture.
Both serve as basic screening devices. The physical educator can pick up any major changes
in a learner's posture.
Take a view from the side: take a line through the middle of the ear and shoulder joint,
slightly in front of the anklebone.
Take a back view: take a line through the middle of the head, the vertebra and the middle
of the buttocks, and equidistant between the heels. See the following posture chart.

32
b Now try answering the following questions:
(1) State whether these statements are true or false:
(a)
(b)
The human body is made up of millions of tiny, living cells.
There are approximately 60 bones in the human skeleton.
(c) The different joints between the bones allow you to move in different ways.
(d) Bones are moved at the joints by the contraction and relaxation of muscles
attached to them.
(e) Each person has either all fast twitch or all slow twitch muscle fibres.
(f) Muscles can both pull and push bones to move the body.
(g) A slow twitch muscle fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for
much longer periods than a fast twitch fibre.
(h) Your muscles pull when they receive signals from the brain telling them to do so.
(i) The nervous system works one way only, sending messages from the brain to the
muscles.
(j) Bad posture can be corrected if readily detected.
(k) Lordosis refers to a posture characterised by a rounded back.

(2) Discuss the following systems of the body referring to their major function:
(a) joints
(b) nerves
(c) bones
(d) muscles
(e) heart and lungs

(3) Discuss somatotyping briefly and state what it means for learners.
(4) What is the function of the skeleton?
(5) Discuss the meaning of posture and the most common posture problems. Which
methods can be used to improve posture?

3.3 CONCLUSION
Knowledge about the structure and function of the human body gives the physical educator
insight into how the body works. Report any defects you detect in posture and growth to
the parents as soon as possible. You should now fully appreciate the relevance of knowledge
about the body to physical education.

PST312M/1 33
STUDY UNIT 4

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION

f How do children grow and develop?

It is important to realise that children are not just smaller versions of adults. Each child
has a particular need and certain capabilities. Educators, coaches and parents currently
lack knowledge about how children grow and develop, which has a serious impact on learners'
sport activities. This ignorance results in unrealistic expectations; as a result many learners
abandon sport at an early age.
You need to know the various stages that the child passes through from birth to adulthood.
The stages are the same for boys and girls, but girls generally mature before boys. The
following diagram illustrates the stages in growth and development.

THE STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT FROM BIRTH TO ADULTHOOD


Female

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Babyhood Childhood Puberty Adolescence Adulthood

Babyhood Childhood Puberty Adolescence Adulthood

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Male

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. discuss the various stages of growth and the development of the child
. explain the implications of growth and development for the educator
. analyse the possible effects of exercise on learners

34
4.2 ASPECTS OF GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

f Why is knowledge about growth and development so important to you as an educator?

Understanding growth and development is very important because, first, you are
responsible for monitoring learners' growth and development. If any unusual deviations
occur, you should notify the principal and parents. Secondly, your choice of physical
activities depends on the growth and development of the learner. Before we continue, let us
look at various definitions.
Growth refers to the change in body size that results from more Ð and bigger Ð body cells
and more intercellular material. We see the increase in body size, the changes in body
proportions and composition during childhood and adolescence. Functional complexity also
increases.
Development refers to the change in a learner's level of functioning. This term refers
generally to the changes in the functional level in a behavioural sense. Physiologically it
refers to the differentiation and specialisation of cells into functional units.
Maturation refers to the changes which occur in the body over a period of time. The
nervous system does not fully mature until early adulthood. This system includes the brain
and all the nerves that pass messages around the body. This is why educators need to
understand that young learners are not as good at remembering or selecting important cues
as older learners. Muscular control of movement is not as quick or precise at an early age.
The stage of development limits the young learner's skills level.
Experience refers to the vast number of opportunities a learner has to learn to move. The
greater the range of movement and skills learners can practise, the greater the range of
experience they are likely to pick up. This experience is later put into a specific event skill.
For example, research has shown that learners who had little opportunity to throw a ball in
early childhood probably have difficulties throwing a javelin later on, because they did not
learn the skills involved. We teach children the basic skills of running, catching, jumping and
throwing, so that they have a better chance of becoming skilful athletes.
In the following text we divide the period of childhood to adolescence into categories
based on certain age groups:
. Infancy is from birth to one year.
. Childhood is from one year to adolescence and is divided into early childhood (the
preschool years) and middle childhood (the elementary school years).
. Adolescence starts at sexual maturity. For girls this is between ages 8 and 19, most
commonly around 11 and 12. For boys, the age is from 10 to 22 years, but most commonly
around 13 and 14 years.

4.2.1 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT


Physical growth plays the key role in performance. Physical educators need to take note of
the various body changes during development. Various important changes in body size and
proportions affect learners' ability to perform different skills and activities.

PST312M/1 35
. Body size (height and mass)
Children grow in size at a very fast rate. At birth infants are only about a quarter of their
adult height. The final adult height is usually reached at about 20 years of age. The four
characteristic stages of growth from birth to adulthood are as follows:
Ð rapid growth in infancy and early childhood
Ð slow, steady growth in middle childhood
Ð rapid growth during puberty
Ð gradual slowing down of growth in adolescence until adult height is reached

RATE OF HEIGHT INCREASE

Boys
Girls
Centimetres per year

Peak

Inches per year


Age

THE INCREASE IN BODY SIZE FROM BIRTH TO ADULT

36
Girls and boys have comparable development in shape and size during infancy and childhood.
The rapid increase in growth is known as a growth spurt. The most important growth spurt
during puberty occurs in mass and height. Girls reach their peak at about 12 years old and
boys at the age of 14. Children use most of their energy for growing during this growth
spurt and usually tire more quickly than at other stages. We recommend lighter training
during this time.

AREAS OF RAPID GROWTH


Growth

Birth to 1 year 1 year to puberty Adolescence


growth of trunk growth of legs growth of trunk

Areas of growth

EXTENT OF GROWTH FROM BIRTH TO ADULTHOOD

Head x 2

Arms x 4

Trunk x 3

Legs x 5

PST312M/1 37
. Body proportions
Let us compare the physical body proportions at birth to those at adulthood and see what
differences we find.
The infant's head is proportionally large and the legs proportionally short during childhood.
At birth the head is one quarter of the length of the body compared to about one sixth in
an adult. The legs are about one third of the length of the body at birth and one half in an
adult. The body proportions change and not all segments grow by the same amount.

THE CHANGES IN PROPORTIONS FROM BIRTH TO ADULTHOOD

f What are the implications of the changes in body proportions for the way that learners
perform skills?
. The relative size of the head in childhood affects the balance of the body during
movement.
. The relatively short legs of the very young limit running ability.
. At the beginning of puberty, children's long arms and legs help them to run better.
However the rapid growth at this stage causes clumsiness and coordination difficulties.

4.2.2 SKELETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT


The most obvious signs of development are the changes in size and proportion. These are a
result of the changes in the skeleton. The child's skeleton is mostly cartilage, which is
softer than bone and can bend. Bones can easily be injured by a sudden or repeated force
during the growth period. Physical educators should avoid rebounding exercises, repeated
vigorous throwing and the use of heavy weights during this time. Once the body stops
growing, the growth regions become bone and these areas are no longer weak.

e READ page 22 in Kirchner (1992) and then summarise the important points on skeletal
growth and development.

38
4.2.3 MUSCULAR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Muscular growth occurs from the stage of the embryo. Muscle growth takes place for a
brief period after birth. Initial rapid growth takes place in muscle tissue between the ages
of five and six. The growth of muscle mass is relatively gradual and continuous from the
ages of seven to 11 or 12. The average 12-year-old learner has nearly double the muscle
tissue of a six-year-old child. The period between the ages of 9 and 12 is a time of physical
restlessness for children.

4.2.4 CARDIO-RESPIRATORY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT


The heart grows and develops in the same way as skeletal muscle tissue. The growth of the
heart muscle and the lungs is almost proportional to the growth of bones and muscles during
the primary school years.

f What are the implications of the learner's growth and development for the physical
educator?

. Note growth stage because it is more important than age.


. Note changes in physical proportions as they will affect performance.
. Help learners to understand the changes taking place in their bodies.
. Set standards of performance according to developmental age, not according to
chronological age.
. Emphasise skill development, because late developers may be very successful in the
future.
. Group learners according to physical development, using height and mass as a guide.
. Avoid exercises that place excessive force on the bones during periods of maximum
growth.
. Avoid using weights before adolescence.

4.3 LEARNERS AND EXERCISE

f How do learners respond to exercise?

Various changes take place in the development of the learner as a result of exercise.
Changes occur in the following areas, which are easy to monitor: cardiovascular system,
muscular strength and endurance, growth, injuries and their causes, development and
maintenance of flexibility, and physical fitness.

SDSGC0-D/1 39
THE MOVEMENT PYRAMID

-
Specialised
movement skills
(high school to
adulthood)
(14 to ? years)

Specific skills
(Gr 6 to 7)
(11 yrs to 13 yrs)

General movement skills


(Gr 3 to 5)
(8 yrs to 10 yrs)

Fundamental movements
(Pre-school to Grade 2)
(2 yrs to 7 yrs)

4.3.1 THE SIX PHASES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT


Gallahue (1975:6) identifies the following six phases of motor development:
. Phase 1. Reflexive behaviour takes place from utero-infancy to between five months and
one year. It refers to the involuntary movements of the body that are subcortically
controlled. Many of these postural reflexes resemble later voluntary movements. Other
`'primitive reflexes'' resemble movements performed by animals. Primitive reflexes such
as the rooting and sucking reflexes are believed to be survival mechanisms for the
newborn to obtain nourishment.
. Phase 2. Rudimentary movement abilities are the first voluntary movements of the
infant from birth to about two years. The development of efficient and effective forms
of these rudimentary movements during infancy helps to establish the basic structures
for the development of more difficult movement tasks as influenced by maturation and
development.
. Phase 3. Fundamental movement patterns are established between two to seven years of
age. These patterns develop from the rudimentary movement abilities during the years in
which young children explore and experiment with the movement potential of their body
as they run, jump, throw, catch and balance their bodies. Movement is general rather
than specific, and movement patterns are characterised by the ability to move in various
ways to a given stimulus. Fundamental movement patterns allow for wide variety and
adaptability, without high degrees of accuracy and precision. To encourage the
development of these patterns, the environment is structured to maximise
opportunities for success, inclusion and achievement.
. Phase 4. General movement skills develop from the age of eight to ten. These skills
consist of the same elements seen in the fundamental movement patterns, but with more
stress on accuracy, form and skilled performance. Learners become more involved in a
wide variety of sport skills that are important for individual, dual and team activities.
Although these sport skills are more complex and specific forms of fundamental
movements, they are aimed at exposure to, and development of, a reasonable degree of
competence.

40
. Phase 5. Specific movement skills, from about 11 to 13 years, are an extension of general
movement skills, but with increased emphasis on form, skill and accuracy. The more
complex sport skills are refined to perform in advanced lead-up activities and the
official sport itself, which calls for sharper refining of a wide variety of sport skills. If
this process becomes too product-oriented there is a danger of promoting failure rather
than success. Skills are learnt by modelling, and feelings of failure or success, or degrees
of these, may stem from comparisons with the model offered. Although specific skill
development is an important stage in this phase of development, the most important aim
is to develop and refine fundamental and general movement abilities.
. Phase 6. Specialised skill development begins at about the 14th year and continues into
adulthood. It is similar to specific skill development, but now isolates a limited number of
specific skills to be developed for high levels of performance and involves a range from
leisure-time activities to Olympic-standard activities. If this specialisation process
begins too early, it may be at the expense of developing general and specific movement
skills. Advanced specialisation should be extracurricular and should not interfere with
intracurricular physical education. The emphasis should rather be on learning to move
effectively and efficiently through the environment in a variety of ways.

e READ pages 9 to 11 in Schembri, McCallum and Woodman (1992). Then answer the
following questions:
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
(1) Puberty is the stage of development for boys and girls that comes before
adolescence.
(2) There is a very rapid growth in size in infancy.
(3) Boys and girls should play separately during childhood.
(4) The proportions of the body at birth are the same as the proportions of the adult
body.
(5) At the beginning of puberty children have relatively long arms and legs.
(6) Heavy weights training should be carried out during the growth spurt at puberty.
(7) All young athletes should be grouped according to age.
(8) The growth areas of bones can take heavy forces.
(9) Educators should help learners to understand the changes taking place in their
bodies.

Choose the correct description from the first list and write the appropriate letter next
to growth stages 1 to 5 in the second list.
(A) begins when adolescence ends
(B) lasts from birth to two years of age
(C) is the period for learning basic movements
(D) is the stage of sexual development
(E) is the period for developing skills specific to athletic events

(1) childhood
(2) adolescence
(3) infancy
(4) adulthood
(5) puberty

PST312M/1 41
4.4 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD
The way in which learners develop relationships with others is also an important aspect of
physical activities. Educators, parents and coaches are aware of the fact that some
learners get on easily with adults and other learners. Others do not. Knowledge about the
learner's social development is therefore of utmost importance.

4.4.1 SELF-IMAGE
The world around the child forms the way in which children see themselves. Learners use
the things they can or cannot do and the opinions of others to build their self-images. The
self-image is further shaped by what the learner wants to achieve, achievements in
practice and competition, achievements of other learners and the feedback from the
educator and other adults.

. The influence of others


Different groups of people become more or less important to the child as he or she grows
up. Parents, educators, other learners and coaches form the group of significant others
that have an important influence on the learner's self-image. Learners develop the need to
fit in with the people around them. As they grow up, however, they understand how to get
on with people much better.

. The influence of parents


Parents have the greatest influence over their children's lives, particularly in the early
years. Children move from being very dependent to being independent of their parents.
Their peers become more important later. However, their parents remain the most
important part of their lives and their participation in sport.

. The influence of other learners


The influence of other learners becomes more important as the learner reaches
adolescence. The learner's relationship with others goes through various stages of
development:

42
THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIONSHIPS AT DIFFERENT AGES

Infancy & early childhood 0±5 years

Children are self-centred


and expect others to adapt
to and meet their needs.
Cooperative play is absent.
Children play alongside one
another rather than together.

Middle childhood 6±9 years

Friendship groups become


bigger, but are still quite
small. Other children
become more important
and they learn to compare
themselves with others
``to see who's the best''.

Late childhood 10±13 years

Friends become more important.


A greater range of social contacts
are built and children may do
sport because their friends do.
They work well together but
become more aware of
differences in ability.

Adolescence 13±20 years

Period of transition from


childhood to adulthood.
Peer groups can become the
dominant influence. This
frequently causes conflict
between adolescents and
adults. Group members may
work together very effectively.

PST312M/1 43
. The influence of the physical educator
The physical educator lays the basis of the learner's physical development. Encouragement
from the educator will help the learner develop a positive attitude towards physical
activity. The physical educator knows the learner's attitude and abilities in physical activity
best. Girls are more likely to approach the physical educator with certain personal
problems; in other words boys are less likely to be influenced by their physical educators.
The more understanding you as a physical educator have for the total child, the better
equipped you will be to meet the challenge of educating children.

. The influence of the coach


Coaches often develop very close relationships with young athletes and become an
important pillar in their lives. Coaches teach new, exciting activities and reveal new
abilities; therefore assume a significant role. They are in a position to build or destroy the
learner's confidence.

e Answer the following questions:

Describe the characteristics of the child and indicate the implications for the physical
educator under the following headings:

. Social characteristics
. Children's level of understanding

4.5 MODIFYING SPORT TO SUIT CHILDREN

f What are the implications of adapting sport for the physical educator and the child?
Physical educators in the elementary school phase must introduce learners to suitable
rules for games. Children cannot play games according to adult rules and with adult
equipment because children differ from adults in many ways.

Learners of the same age may also be at very different stages of physical development.
Their physical size and proportions are changing all the time. That is why you should change
the techniques and equipment to suit the child. Modification also means decreasing the
playing area (smaller), the goals (smaller or lower), the time played (less), other rules
associated with team sizes (smaller teams) and interchanges of players.
Look at the following possible modifications in basketball and soccer.

4.5.1 BASKETBALL
(1) Use a smaller ball.
(2) Eliminate zone defences.
(3) Use a shorter distance to the basket from the foul line.
(4) Eliminate the concept of five members per team.
(5) Lower the basket's height.
(6) Eliminate certain violations (eg 3-second count, 5-second jump ball).

44
4.5.2 SOCCER
(1) Use a smaller ball, perhaps a number two or three.
(2) Use a smaller playing area so that learners have the opportunity to touch the ball more
often during play.
(3) Use smaller goals and scrap the position of goalkeeper.
(4) Reduce the number of players in a team in order to emphasise teamwork.
(5) Eliminate the off-side rule.

SMALL CHILD AND LARGE EQUIPMENT

Very early in their lives, children will decide how much they enjoy sport and whether or not
they want to continue. Modified sport can be very successful in encouraging learners to
take up sport. Participation in modified sport offers learners a great deal of enjoyment. A
lot still has to be done in this particular field in South Africa.

f Do you know of sporting codes that have been modified for children? Jot down the ones
you know of!

The following adaptions are made to suit the needs of the child:
. Modify techniques. Children differ a great deal from adults. That is why the techniques
used by champions or top athletes are usually unsuitable for children. When you teach
progressions and lead-up drills, always take into account the learner's stage of
development.
. Adapt and use equipment and tools of suitable size and weight. Children must learn the
correct basic techniques from the beginning. Equipment that is too heavy will cause
problems. This point is particularly applicable to throwing events in track and field. For
example, let children use smaller cricket bats and hockey sticks.
. Modify rules to help learning and performance. Change rules to fit children's skill levels
and their learning situation. You will see a marked improvement in learning and
enjoyment. For example, use fewer hurdles and set them lower. This modification will
allow everyone to finish the race and be part of the action.

PST312M/1 45
c What are the implications of modified sport for the coach?
.
.
.
Keep the rules to the minimum.
Keep competitions informal until the age of 12 years.
Avoid involving children in adult competitiveness before they are ready.
. Refrain from putting pressure on the learner to win at all costs.
. Reward learners for their efforts.
. Adapt the sport to suit the child.
. Use equipment of appropriate weight and size.
. Modify rules to improve learning.
. Use smaller groups when possible.
. Try to be creative when solving problems.

4.6 CONCLUSION
The physical educator needs to take note of the physical and social development of each
child, because this development determines the abilities of learners at various stages in
their lives. The emphasis should be on the total development of the learner during early
childhood. First teach basic skills (from seven years). Only later teach specialisation (from
16 years) as the main part of the programme, when the skills take the form of sport-
specific skills.

46
STUDY UNIT 5

TEACHING LEARNERS WITH


SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Educators have different experiences of dealing with learners with special educational
needs. Not everybody is aware of what the category of special educational needs
encompasses. One may think of a disabled person as someone in a wheelchair. However,
there is a wide range of physical, sensory and intellectual disabilities.
The following learners have special educational needs: deaf learners, learners with physical
disabilities, intellectually gifted learners with disabilities, learners with visual disability
and learners with behaviour problems.

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Physical activity has therapeutic benefits for people with disabilities in the early stages
of sports participation, because it can improve muscle control, flexibility, coordination,
balance and posture. Successful participation in physical activities and sporting
endeavours improves people's self-esteem, independence, confidence and ability to
cope with frustration. This often applies to the person with learning and behavioural
problems.
People with disabilities therefore need to participate in physical activity and sport for the
same reasons as their able-bodied peers. We all want to improve fitness, develop new skills,
increase social contacts, for our personal enjoyment and challenge. The thrill of
competition and the chance to achieve and gain recognition in a chosen activity provides
the necessary motivation for those not intellectually as developed as their peers.

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. recognise the importance of movement and physical education
. effectively teach learners with special educational needs
. include learners with special educational needs in your physical education programme

5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF MOVEMENT AND PHYSICAL


EDUCATION

f Why is movement and physical education so important?

Both able-bodied learners and learners with disabilities need opportunities for physical
activity, to develop independence, as well as gross motor and fine motor skills. The
limitations imposed by the various conditions make this need an even more important factor
in programmes for the disabled. Educators, peers and parents often restrict learners with
disabilities from doing tasks that they can perform; as a result, dependence on an able-
bodied person may become a habit.
Learners with disabilities need to move around with able-bodied persons where possible.
They need to test their competence and become more independent by developing physical
fitness and motor skills.
Developing self-confidence, leadership, and social interaction are equally important to able-
bodied learners and learners with disabilities.
How do disabilities affect motor skills and fitness? Give a very brief description of the
following:
. physical growth
. exercises
. motor skills

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f How to include learners with disabilities.

Physical educators do not need to protect learners with disabilities from failure, give
unearned praise or lower their expectations and standards of performance. A learner with
a disability is likely to be as adventurous and resourceful as any other learner who wants to
work hard to achieve a goal. Learners with disabilities have to accept the risks, challenges,
discipline, repetition and frustration which are part of physical education and sports
participation.
Learners with disabilities can compete on all levels in a wide range of activities. In spite of
certain conditions and concerning rules, equipment and sometimes technique, generally
educators need not treat these learners differently from their able-bodied peers.
Learners with disabilities have to cope with the following disadvantages:
. a lack of opportunity to develop the basic movement skills in early childhood
. poor socialisation skills, which make appropriate interaction difficult
. a poor body image, which expresses itself in a lack of confidence and motivation to try
new skills
. communication difficulties

It is necessary to integrate learners with disabilities in normal everyday events.


Integration is a process of normalisation; these learners need to participate and enjoy
experiences with their peers. They need to become part of the group, subject to the same
rules and regulations as the other learners. However, inclusion does not mean:
. that learners with disabilities should just be ``dumped'' into the physical education class
. that all learners should work towards the same educational goals
. that all learners should receive the same instructions

Inclusion of learners with disabilities gives them the opportunity to take risks, make
mistakes, make choices, and win and lose. But they should not be placed in the mainstream
without the necessary support: they need an environment that allows for their participation
in mainstream schools. This means a recognition and acceptance of differences by
educators and peers.

f What are the benefits of an inclusive programme?

. It is an opportunity to learn social skills in more `'natural'' environments, for example


appropriate greeting, learning nonstigmatising behaviour.
. It offers contact with age-appropriate, able-bodied role models.
. Learners without disabilities learn to appreciate individual differences better, and
develop more positive attitudes with adult guidance.
. Special educators learn what is appropriate for learners without disabilities.
. Higher educators' expectations of learners with disabilities are incorporated in
inclusive programmes.
. Learners without disabilities get a broader perspective on life and their own abilities
(eg by having contact with learners who may struggle to manage an action most of us
take for granted, like keeping one's head upright).

PST312M/1 49
. It gives learners opportunities to upgrade their skills and confidence in a wide range of
modified games that can be tuned to match their physical, intellectual and emotional
development.
. It supports learners as they grow in dignity, self-confidence and self-esteem, through
enjoyable and rewarding physical activity.
. It encourages parent and community involvement in the physical education programme,
whether at school, in a community centre or a local sports club.
. It involves learners in the same programme at the same school as their siblings and
peers.
. It can be fun for all learners.

f Generally the teaching approach, presentation or session content need only a few
changes. The principles remain the same, regardless of whether the learner is able-
bodied or disabled. Learners using wheelchairs may need some help in the form of
modified equipment. For example, in bat and ball games they may be more comfortable
with a larger ball and a smaller and lighter bat, which will also minimise the risk of injury.

Make allowances for natural energy combined with a shorter attention span: for example
let them catch a ball after two bounces instead of one bounce. You may scale down the
playing field as a way of increasing the amount of activity in the time available. These
adjustments will also help able-bodied learners with coordination difficulties. Normally
educators expect too little of learners with disabilities Ð physically, emotionally or socially.
So do not make unnecessary allowances or lower your standards: let the learner guide you.
Progress is measured by the improvement in a learner's responses, skills level, and in
participation and enjoyment.
Your role as an educator is very important to the success of the process of integration. The
educator must assess whether the learner's level of ability and skills matches the activity's
demands and expectations. Educators must therefore consider:
. type of activity (group/individual; degree of interaction required)
. degree of proficiency required
. type and degree of disability

Inappropriate attempts at integration will only frustrate, embarrass and humiliate a


learner. As a result the learner will probably come to dislike physical education and lose
self-esteem.

5.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

f Does the educator need to know about medical conditions and medication?

The educator needs to be familiar with the learner's medical condition. Some learners with
disabilities are on regular medication, but educators do not administer any medication
because this is monitored by their doctors and parents. Allow learners the dignity of

50
independence and its risks; do not dwell on unrealistic fears and medical matters to the
point of interfering with the learner's opportunities to participate.

5.3.1 MEDICATION
Learners who exhibit a pattern of fidgety, restless and distractive behaviour, and who have
been diagnosed as hyperactive, are prescribed medication to relieve the condition. This
medication enhances the attention span and concentration, and reduces motor activity.
Possible side effects are excessive suppression of motor activity, sedation and occasionally
depression. Learners with an intellectual disability, brain damage and severe behaviour
disorder are prescribed tranquillisers to help them with self-control.

5.4 SENSORY DISABILITIES

f Which factors are important to educating learners with sensory disabilities?

5.4.1 DEAF AND HEARING IMPAIRED


The differences between deaf, hearing impaired and hearing people are often very minor.
Individuals with hearing impairment may experience balance problems. However the main
problem is with communication. Initially learning is slow because of the communication
difficulty, but there is no lack of intelligence. Once the idea or concept has been grasped,
the rate of learning is generally normal.
Educators use demonstrations and develop key signals and cues during sports training and
competition. You may need to use a flag, or a tap on the shoulder, if an athlete cannot hear
the whistle or starter gun.

5.4.2 BLIND AND VISUALLY IMPAIRED


There are degrees of visual impairment. These range from perception of light and shadow,
and colour, with some peripheral vision, to total blindness. The following pointers will help
you coach a blind or visually impaired athlete:
. Identify yourself and introduce the athletes to others present.
. Tell them when you are leaving. No one likes talking to thin air.
. Familiarise them with obstacles in the training and the competition areas.
. Describe technique and correct technique in an articulate and imaginative way.
. Visually impaired people are not deaf Ð do not shout.
. Demonstrate all techniques individually; if necessary break down complex movements
into manageable parts.
. Always correct style manually. But do not push or prod, or grab them unexpectedly.
. A buddy system may be helpful for exercising.
. Give constant feedback on progress in any activity or game.
. Some games or sports may require acoustic signalling to communicate direction or
distance.
. Educators must develop and use keywords, for example communicating direction by
referring to the hands on the clock (eg ``three o'clock'').

PST312M/1 51
5.5 INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

f What is important to remember when teaching learners with intellectual disabilities?

Not everyone has the same level of intelligence and capacity to learn. Despite these
differences most individuals will generally respond to logical, sequential physical activity
programmes. The following important requirements apply to the education of learners with
intellectual disabilities:
. Give instructions slowly and sequentially and express them in a concrete, physical form.
. Use simple, familiar imagery to get your message across.
. Be prepared to teach basic movement patterns and skills, in the event of developmental
delays.
. Keep practice time on specific activities brief to prevent loss of concentration and
boredom.
. Divide skills training into smaller manageable parts.
. Review and repeat skills training, drills and games in many different ways.
. Move the learner through the desired motion when teaching new skills.
. Demonstrate in a way that the learner can follow.
. Praise good efforts immediately and spontaneously.
. Motivate with the appropriate devices Ð for example use award schemes or present
medals.
. Encourage learners to compete against themselves.

5.6 PHYSICAL DISABILITIES

f Why do you the educator need to understand physical disabilities?

You need to understand the basic principles of coaching learners with a physical disability,
such as learners who are amputees, wheelchair-bound or cerebral palsied.
The same warm-up, stretching and similar activity programmes and cool-down exercises as
used for able-bodied learners are required. Activities should maximise the learner's
functional potential.

5.6.1 AMPUTEES
These learners require the least attention of the major disabled groups. They will already
be well adjusted to their condition and able to suggest how activities can be modified to
suit their circumstances.

X Hints for the educator


. Be prepared to modify skills and techniques to accommodate individual strengths.

52
. Consider the learner's starting balance and the need to transfer weight during
movement.
. Keep all landing areas safe.
. Identify safe methods for landing and spreading weight load.
. Adopt a ``whole body'' approach to activities and exercising. Imbalances may lead
to poor biomechanics and increase risk of injury.

5.6.2 LEARNERS USING WHEELCHAIRS


Many injuries require the use of a wheelchair, especially those due to injury to the spinal
cord through trauma, polio or spinal bifida.

X Hints for the educator


. Check on easy wheelchair access to your venue.
. Know which muscle groups are useable for specific movements.
. Strengthen muscles wherever possible. Paraplegics need very strong arms, so
focus on developing these muscles.
. Find ways to build fitness and drilling skills but do not over-use the upper body.

PST312M/1 53
. Severe spinal cord injury impairs ability to regulate body temperature. So be
sure that affected learners get enough to drink and can cool down in hot
conditions. You may need to take breaks during a lesson.
. In learners with spinal cord injury in the neck area the heart rate does not rise
with intensified activity. So log time and distance to monitor improvements in
fitness.
. Ensure that learners maintain their wheelchairs in top condition.

5.6.3 CEREBRAL-PALSIED LEARNERS


Cerebral palsy (CP) is a congenital neuromuscular condition caused by injury to the brain
before, during or immediately after birth. This condition is characterised by a lack of
coordination in certain parts of the body. Cerebral-palsied learners will have abnormal
reflex activity and muscle tone, perceptual-motor problems, visual dysfunction, learning
disabilities, and other soft signs of neurological damage.

X Guidelines for teaching cerebral-palsied learners


. Warm-up, stretching and cool-down exercises are essential.
. Temperature, body position, type of movement, emotions and fatigue will all
influence muscle tone.
. Guard against any permanent muscle shortening due to muscle spasticity or
paralysis when developing a flexibility programme.
. Avoid sudden and ballistic stretching for learners with spasticity, as it may
trigger a strong muscle contraction.
. Cognitive ability may be less developed than in their able-bodied peers. Explain
and express yourself clearly.
. Repetitive learning drills seem to be the most successful way of teaching CP
learners.
. Keep lessons short and regular, because of learners' short attention span.

5.7 TEACHING LEARNERS WITH HEALTH-RELATED


CONDITIONS

f How would you treat a learner suffering from epilepsy, diabetes or asthma?

There is no reason why people suffering from epilepsy, diabetes, asthma and heart disease
cannot participate in any physical education lesson or activity. Being physically fit can
improve one's resistance against asthma, diabetes and heart disease. The key fact is that
the individual has to learn to cope with physical stress.

5.7.1 LEARNERS WITH EPILEPSY


Learners suffering from epilepsy can participate in physical education. Seizures may be a
fact of life for these learners even though they are under medical supervision. Educators
need to know how to deal with seizures and how to assist a learner after a seizure.

54
In the event of a seizure, take the following steps:
. Apply no restraints and allow the seizure to take its course.
. Make sure the environment is safe by removing all obstacles, thereby minimising risk of
injury.
. As soon as possible, move the learner into a lateral recovery position. This keeps the
tongue out of the way, maintains an open airway and allows free drainage of secretions
and vomit.
. Once the seizure has stopped, check that the tongue is not blocking the airway.
. Keep the learner in the lateral recovery position. Make sure the learner is warm and
comfortable, and feels secure.
. Send for medical assistance.

5.7.2 LEARNERS WITH ASTHMA


Asthma is a lung disease that is characterised by the swelling of the mucous membrane
lining, excessive secretion of mucus, and spasms of the bronchial tubes. General symptoms
are coughing, heavy wheezing and a constriction, or tightening, of the chest. This is a
common respiratory condition that still permits a learner to participate in a wide range of
physical activities and sport.
Asthma attacks often start either during or after physical activity. The intensity and

PST312M/1 55
duration of exercise are both important factors in triggering an attack. Weather
conditions also play a major role. Prophylactic medication should be taken when the
learner exercises in cold and/or dry air because this atmosphere is extremely irritating to
the condition. On the other hand, swimming in a warm humid atmosphere has been found to
be very beneficial to learners with asthma.
Asthma sufferers benefit considerably from physical fitness. Exercise improves lung
capacity and decreases body fat. Less fat around the thorax means improved air flow into
the lungs.

5.7.3 LEARNERS WITH DIABETES


Diabetes is caused by a deficiency of insulin Ð the hormone which helps regulate the level
of sugar (glucose) in the blood. The most common way of treating it involves injection of
insulin. The control of diabetes depends largely on education of diabetic learners and their
parents.
The control of diabetes requires a balance between diet, medication and exercise. If any
one of the variables changes, adjustments need to be made Ð usually to the level of
medication. Diabetic learners will tell you when they need to rest, thus avoiding over-
exertion.

5.7.4 LEARNERS WITH HEART DISEASE


Heart disease is the most limiting of all conditions as regards participation in sport.
Learners affected need frequent rest periods and should be encouraged to participate at a
level suited to their capacity.

5.8 SETTING UP A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME

f What should you know to set up a physical education programme?

When setting up the physical education programme, you first need to decide on specific
objectives. These will depend on the types and degrees of disabilities and whether the
learners are in a separate group or in a group with able-bodied learners.
Objectives to consider:
. Develop physical fitness to maintain long-term health.
. Develop motor skill proficiency for worthwhile use of leisure time.
. Develop alertness, self-control, confidence and a positive sense of self-esteem.
. Stimulate less active learners to be more active.
. Give learners with multiple and severe disabilities opportunities for movement and
activity.
. Facilitate integration into the community by offering access to physical activities and
sport.
. Develop the will and ability to play games and sport, to be a good loser or winner, to
cooperate with others and to accept that allowances need only be made when valid.
. Establish a happy environment.

56
Once you have decided on your objectives, answer the following questions:
(1) Do you know each learner's physical and intellectual abilities, likes and dislikes?
(2) How many learners with disabilities will you have in your group?
(3) Are there any activities that you need to avoid or modify because of the nature of the
disability or disabilities?
(4) Which facilities are available? Are they indoor or outdoor? What size is the playing
area? Will you need a hard surface because you have a learner in a wheelchair?
(5) Are there hazards you need to note, for example bushes where one can lose balls, or
trees, posts or fences that learners might run into?
(6) Does the area need to be marked or prepared in any way?
(7) Will some learners in the group need special equipment?
(8) What equipment is available, and is it safe and in good order?
(9) Do you need help? Are there parents, volunteers of staff available to help?
(10) If outside volunteers are involved, are they aware of the needs of learners with
disabilities?
(11) How long will it take you to set up the lesson and pack away after the session?
(12) Do you need assistance in this regard?
(13) Do you know what to do if a learner has an epileptic seizure or an asthma attack, for
example?

Now try answering the following questions:


. Are you familiar with the implications for the educator regarding epilepsy sufferers?
List them.
. Jot down guidelines on handling learners with asthma and those with diabetes.
. Mention five important objectives when you plan an activity for learners with disabilities.

5.9 CONCLUSION
Disabled people are well able to get involved in physical education and will tell the educator
what they can and cannot do. Challenge them in the same way as you would an able-bodied
learner. Apply the same principles of exercising to teaching a disabled athlete. However
learners with disabilities have different strengths, needs and weaknesses. Therefore the
educator needs to know each learner's circumstances and seek advice from the parents and
doctor. Above all, set realistic and challenging goals for these learners.

PST312M/1 57
STUDY UNIT 6

TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
A physical educator must be well organised. You have to decide about content (what to
teach), how to organise learners, how to organise the content and how to give feedback.
The instructional programme involves more than the physical activities taught. It is the
total experience of activities, methods and teaching strategies. Through physical activities
learners gain fundamental locomotor and nonlocomotor skills, and grasp the basic skills and
concepts involved in games and dance, for example. They are helped to maintain an optimum
level of physical fitness, to move their bodies easily and efficiently, and to express
themselves creatively. Moreover, the medium gives them access to other valuable lessons
of life.

g Learning outcomes

After you have worked through this study unit, you will be able to:

. describe a physical education programme based on developmental principles


. describe teaching progressions to suit the development levels of various learners

6.2 DEVELOPMENT LEVELS


The most effective physical education programme is one that meets learners' needs as they
progress through the different levels of development. A stage of development does not
refer to a rigid or fixed set of academic, motor and social skills that a learner must acquire
before advancing to the next. Development stages are seen as approximate time periods
from early childhood in which learners assimilate psychomotor, cognitive and affective
concepts, and gain certain skills and understandings.

c STUDY the diagram on page 79 in Thomas et al (1988) on developmental motor skill


acquisition. Then try to define this area of developmental physical education, using
examples.

The levels of development provide a general framework in which you can plan a physical
education programme. The levels of development are as follows.

. Level I: Early childhood


Characteristics of learners in the early primary school grades have a very strong influence
on selection of appropriate physical activities. Characteristics are physical immaturity,

58
short attention span and lack of experience in games, dance and gymnastic activities. So
learners need broad exposure to these activities. They need to explore and discover how
their bodies work. Therefore emphasise movement concepts and skills.
In Grades 1 and 2 educators must concentrate on creative and exploratory ways of learning
the skills involved in game and gymnastic activities, and in locomotor and nonlocomotor skills
and movement patterns. Dance activities should involve creativity, developing rhythmic
skills with singing games and imaginative movements. Each activity should allow time
appropriate to learners' level of maturity and ability.

. Level II: Middle childhood


The middle childhood period is a transitional period in a physical education programme. Less
time is devoted to movement concepts and skills and fundamental skills. Learners develop an
understanding of how their bodies work, they learn complex skills and strategies, and now
they are more group oriented.
Learners need more opportunities to develop their skill and understanding in a wide variety
of physical activities. You need creative and exploratory teaching strategies to enhance
their creative expression in games, gymnastics and dance.

. Level III: Late childhood (pre-adolescence)


At this level learners start to refine many fundamental motor skills and develop a fairly
proficient level of performance in the more complex skills of sports, dance and gymnastics.
This is why more time is allocated to instruction in sports skills. Slightly less time is spent
on gymnastic activities. Skills specific to certain sport activities can be included in the
curriculum, for example soccer, rugby, cricket, swimming, baseball, basketball and tennis.
Everything depends on availability of facilities and equipment at schools.

. Level IV: Adolescence


Please note: Because there is no recommended book for the secondary school phase we shall
go into more detail here.
Adolescent learners are keen participants in physical education and sport. You should give
more time to instruction in sports skills, not only to meet their immediate needs but also to
equip them with the appropriate postschool (life) skills. The challenge is to promote ``fitness
for now'' and ``fitness for life''. Secondary school learners need to develop their own health-
related living patterns and learn how to plan their own exercise programmes. So they need
informed guidance on the principles of basic exercise physiology and sufficient knowledge
of valid life skills.
The following are the four domains of physical education in the secondary school phase:
(1) Physical and psychomotor development Ð with focus on:
. stimulating growth in a variety of vigorous activities
. acquiring basic physical fitness
. mastering selected physical skills through movement experiences
. maintaining good health and combat the degenerative effects of modern living

(2) Cognitive development with focus on:


. acquiring knowledge about the body, its growth, health and fitness, the individual's
potential, kinetic principles of human movement, cultural aspects of physical
education, sport and recreation

PST312M/1 59
. getting experience in problem solving, in a largely physical context, as an individual
and with others
. developing an aesthetic sense, appreciation of quality of movement and recognition
of skilled performance, rhythm timing and efficiency of movement

(3) Emotional development with focus on:


. having fun, relaxing from stress and attaining mental health and self-confidence,
and having scope for self-expression
. controlling and expressing emotional behaviour, becoming self-disciplined and able to
cope with stress situations
. developing positive attitudes towards the self, to others and to healthy physical
activity, with a view to adopting a healthy lifestyle

(4) Social development with focus on:


. learning social skills, especially in cooperation with others and in competition with
others
. developing leadership potential
. developing a good sporting spirit
. developing sound character and a code of ethics

6.3 DEVELOPING A YEARLY PROGRAMME


The class educator has the task of developing a yearly programme. The ideal situation is 30
to 40 minutes of physical education a day with adequate facilities and equipment. Based on
this programme, time allocations could be made for specific activities in each class.
However this is not always possible, because various factors determine the quality of the
physical education programme:
. The climate (season and region) has a bearing on which activity to choose.
. Cultural factors have to be considered.
. Circumstances at the school apply, such as time allocations and class size.
. The educator's background and competence in physical education has a direct bearing on
the nature and direction of every aspect of the programme.
. Availability of equipment and facilities is a consideration.

The following steps will help you develop your own programme.
. Step 1: Establish the basic outcomes of the programme
The three domains Ð psychomotor, cognitive and affective (emotional) Ð are used as a
framework to state the basic outcomes. (See Kirchner [1992:100] for more details.)

. Step 2: Select general activity areas


It is very difficult to allocate the right proportion of time to game, dance and gymnastic
activities. This is because of differences in learners' abilities and experience, educators'
competence, and availability of equipment.

c STUDY the example of a yearly planning sheet on page 102 in Kirchner (1992).

60
. Step 3: Develop an instructional unit
The instructional unit is only a segment of the yearly programme. There is no standard
format for a unit plan, but it usually includes the following elements:
Ð list of outcomes
Ð sequential list of concepts and skills to be learnt
Ð list of activities
Ð list of organisation and teaching strategies
Ð list of equipment and facilities
Ð written evaluation
Ð list of resources (see Kirchner [1992:103-104] for more detail)

. Step 4: Develop flexible lesson plans


This is the most important aspect of teaching. Good lessons set the direction and tone,
establish the main focus, minimise confusion and lost time, and help keep the educator and
class on track.
The lesson plan should include brief notes and suggestions on outcomes, equipment and
content, organisational procedures and teaching cues. The lesson involves the following
activities:
Ð setting up equipment
Ð entry activities
Ð part 1: introductory activities
Ð part 2: skill development
Ð part 3: concluding activity
Ð evaluation

. Step 5: Conduct learner and programme evaluations


The final step is to assess learners' progress. It is an ongoing process of determining
whether programme units, or lesson plan outcomes are being met. Study unit 14 discusses
this step in detail.

6.4 ORGANISATIONAL DETAILS


Having designed the physical education programme and allocated the necessary staff, you
need to deal with some organisational details:
. class size
. time allocation
. scheduling
. assistance

6.5 EFFECTIVE CLASS ORGANISATION


Having decided on the basic approach and methods, several important teaching patterns
and procedures will help you create an informal and efficient learning environment:
. how to make the most of time before lessons start
. individualised teaching patterns

PST312M/1 61
. grouping procedures
. routine procedures

e Answer the following questions:


. How is time best spent before a lesson starts?
. Name three individualised teaching methods.
. Briefly explain the grouping procedures. You may use sketches to indicate which
groupings can be used.
. Indicate how you would deal with the following routine procedures:
checking physical education attire, taking roll call and excuses from class

6.6 FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES


Developing a comprehensive physical education programme depends largely on adequate
facilities, equipment and supplies. There are national standards on the size of swimming pools,
tennis courts, soccer fields, rugby fields and so on. However, not all schools can afford to
provide for these facilities. Schools make use of outdoor facilities (open areas, hard surface
areas and playgrounds) and indoor facilities (school hall, gymnasium, classrooms or hallways).
Economic conditions will determine the type of equipment a school can buy. Kirchner (1992)
has guidelines on the proper type of equipment as well as how to make one's own. Physical
educators should see if they can make their own inexpensive equipment and supplies if the
school has limited funds. (See Kirchner [1992:120-122] for further detail.)

6.7 CONCLUSION
A number of different formats can be used to teach physical education. You organise and
conduct a class for optimum learning and skill development is optimised by goal setting,
feedback and increased complexity. You need written outcomes for all units of instruction
and for daily lesson plans. The unit plan must define the skills to be learnt, the
organisational plan, the time schedule, the equipment needed, and the plan for evaluation.
The daily lesson plan must identify the procedures for introducing learning activities and
the organisational format.

f Now try answering the following question:


. Write down the steps necessary to planning a year programme.

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STUDY UNIT 7

NUTRITION AND FLUID


REPLACEMENT IN SPORT

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Nutrition refers to all that a person consumes in the form of food and drink. The human
body relies on food and drink to produce its energy. They act as fuel, providing energy and
chemicals for movement and growth, and to keep the body healthy. The amount of nutrition
we need is determined by our age, sex, body build (physical form), level of physical activity
and state of health.

PST312M/1 63
g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. distinguish between the various groups of nutrients
. advise your athletes on better nutritional priorities
. prevent heat injury in your athletes

7.2 CALORIES
Food supplies the body with energy. The energy is measured in the form of calories.
Different foods provide different amounts of energy and therefore we have different
values of calories.
Examples of different foods and their calorie content:
Types of food Calories
bar of chocolate 300
glass of milk 100
piece of bread 75
apple 50
cup of tea 5

Each person needs a different amount of calories, depending on how big and active he or
she is. It also depends on how efficiently the body uses food. Some people eat a lot and
never get fat. Their bodies use up the food far more quickly than other bodies do. The rate
at which a person converts food to energy is known as the metabolic rate. People have
different rates but everyone's metabolic rate increases during exercise.
Between the ages of 12 and 17 young children need more basic energy than during later life.

7.3 THE ENERGY BALANCE


The average person has basic energy requirements plus the energy to train and compete.
The typical growing adolescent needs about 2 500 calories of energy per day for basic
energy requirements. He or she may need an additional 500 calories for a training session.
This totals around 3 000 calories. Of course calories come in the form of food and drink.
An athlete's diet that does not include sufficient calories will cause a reduction in
performance. If the calorie supply is constantly low, the athlete will lose weight because
the body uses up the energy stored in the body. An excess intake of calories will be stored
in the body as fatty tissue.
There has to be an energy balance to ensure successful training and competition.

7.4 NUTRIENTS
Food is made up of different things which are essential to the body's functioning. We call
them nutrients. Nutrients have different jobs to perform in the body and consist of the
following:
. protein
. carbohydrate

64
. fat
. vitamins
. minerals
. water
. fibre

7.4.1 PROTEINS
Growth and repair food
Until the age of 18 the body makes new cells in order to grow. Throughout a person's life,
cells wear out and are replaced again. All the material for cells comes from food. Proteins
are the main body-building nutrients. They are needed to repair any damaged tissue, and
also for a regular protein intake.
Proteins consist of building blocks called amino acids. There is a total number of 21 types of
amino acid which combine in different ways to make up proteins. Proteins are broken up into
amino acids. All but eight of the 21 amino acids are made up inside the human body. These
eight, called essential amino acids, come from food.
High-quality proteins are generally animal proteins such as egg protein, milk protein, fish
and meat protein. Lower-quality protein is food in plants such as nuts, lentils and beans.
Those who do not eat animal proteins need to take extra plant protein to obtain all the
amino acids necessary for health.
Athletes in training need extra protein to create muscle tissue. An increased need for
extra calories and extra protein can be supplied by simply eating more food. Any extra
amount eaten, which the body does not use, will be converted for use as an energy source or
stored as body fat.

7.4.2 CARBOHYDRATES
Energy food
The body gets the major part of its energy from carbohydrates. These are broken down
quickly and easily in the digestive system to form the basic fuel of glucose.
Carbohydrates are obtained from natural sources such as rice, corn, potatoes, beans and
fruit, and have a balance of other nutrients.
Concentrations of refined carbohydrates such as white sugar, honey, soft drinks and
chocolate bars are poor sources of carbohydrates. These poor sources of carbohydrates
are low in nutrition, high in calories, and cause the body to produce large quantities of the
hormone insulin, which very quickly take the glucose out of the blood. This makes the
athlete feel low in energy.
Natural carbohydrates enter the blood more slowly and increase the amount of energy
available. Carbohydrates should be the main part of any person's diet.

7.4.3 FAT
Slow energy food
Fat is found in many animal and vegetable foods. There are two basic types of fat: visible
and invisible. Visible or saturated fats are those which are solid or hard at room
temperature, such as margarine, plant oils, fish oils, fat on meat and even cream. Invisible
fats, or polyunsaturated fats, are found in fish, cheese, nuts and certain vegetables.

PST312M/1 65
Fats are a very concentrated source of energy. They provide twice as much energy as
carbohydrates, but fat is not as good a source of energy as are carbohydrates. Fat is the
main source of fuel to the muscles while we are resting or asleep.
Fat is stored under the skin and inside the muscle. It is reserve energy and is essential to
carry the fat-soluble vitamins around the body.
Diets containing large amounts of fat can lead to obesity, heart disease and cancer. People
only need a small amount of fat in foods.

7.4.4 VITAMINS
Vitamins are needed daily in very small amounts. They are important for the various
chemical processes that take place in the body. A low vitamin level can reduce performance,
while an absence could cause illness. Enough of the right food will supply the vitamin level
required for good health.
Vitamins consist of fat-soluble (stored in the body and ready for use) and water-soluble
vitamins (cannot be stored; have to be taken in daily food intakes). The human diet requires
13 vitamins. We need small but regular dosages of vitamins. Any water-soluble vitamins not
used are passed out of the body. Therefore it is no use taking more extra vitamins than the
body can absorb.

Vitamin B

The content of both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins is determined by the way food
is stored and cooked. The longer food is stored the more vitamins are lost. Cooking also
removes vitamins. The best is to eat as many raw, uncooked vegetables as possible.

66
7.4.5 MINERALS
Minerals are the basic elements which are to be found in the soil and in the air. Only small
amounts are needed daily. They include calcium, sodium, potassium, iron and iodine. Minerals
are essential for the proper functioning of nerves and muscles and to help build the body
(bones, teeth, skin and muscle).

Iron is essential for the transportation of oxygen in the body. Women in particular need
more iron in their diet. Red meats are rich in iron. Other sources of iron include dates,
prunes, apricots, raisins and most beans.

Iodine helps to control the rate at which energy is released from the blood. A shortage
causes the thyroid gland in the neck to swell up. Fish and seafood are major sources of
iodine.

7.4.6 WATER
Water is essential in any diet. It is the most important nutrient required by the body.
About two-thirds of the body consists of water. Each cell contains water. Your blood is
water with minerals, vitamins, proteins and blood cell floating in it.

The average person should drink one litre of water a day. If you exercise, you need more
water, particularly in hot climates. Water is lost in the form of sweat.

Dehydration is what occurs when not enough water has been taken in to replace what has
been lost from the body. Small amounts should be taken in before, during and after
competitions or training. Diluted fruit juices are better than fizzy drinks. Salt tablets are
not recommended as normal diets contain plenty of salt to replace sweat.

7.4.7 FIBRE
Fibre is a very important part of the diet. Fibre is found in every plant cell. Fibre is found in
grains of wheat, oats and rice. It forms a natural laxative in food. Plants are high in fibre.
White flour, white rice and white pastas are not so healthy to eat because their fibre
content is removed in manufacturing.

7.5 THE NUTRIENT BALANCE


Nutrient balance is like energy balance. All the nutrients taken in the correct amounts will
ensure a balance in the energy level.

7.5.1 RECOMMENDED HIGH PERFORMANCE DIET


Protein 15±20%
Carbohydrates 60±65%
Fat 20%

7.5.2 WEIGHT CONTROL


Coaches should pay attention to their athletes' weight. This can be controlled by regulating
food and drink intake: by cutting out high calorie foods, for example.

PST312M/1 67
7.6 A BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet maintains the individual's energy balance and nutrient balance.

XGuidelines for maintaining a balanced diet


(1) Eat lots of different kinds of food, vegetables, fruits, fish, meats, dairy produce and
grains.
(2) Eat fresh food rather than frozen or canned.
(3) Eat high proportions of carbohydrate-rich foods.
(4) Grill, steam or bake foods. Avoid boiling and frying.
(5) Avoid fatty meals and sweet or salty snacks.
(6) Check your fibre intake. Eat wholemeal breads, cereals and pasta. Avoid eating refined
foods.
(7) Flavour foods with herbs and spices rather than salt.
(8) Drink small amounts of water and fruit juices often.

7.7 NUTRITIONAL NEGLECT


Children and adolescents are possibly the most nutritionally neglected groups participating
in modern sport. The accepted practice at sports meetings is to supply sweets, chips and
cool drinks. Ironically, the nutritional needs of children and adolescents are among the
highest of any group, because of the combined demands of sport and of growth and
development. The influences of bad eating habits often go unnoticed by parents, coaches
and educators. Poor concentration, falling asleep in class, irritability, short-temper or
declining sports performance are often dismissed as simply part of a busy learners'
lifestyle. Yet these symptoms can often be attributed, at least in part, to a poor diet.
With all the encouragement given to learners to improve their sporting skill as well as to
enjoy sport and competition, it is remarkable how few people seem at all concerned about
their eating behaviours. Proper planning is needed to avoid poor eating habits at sports
venues. Instead of bringing healthy refreshments and food from home, parents and
learners take whatever is on offer at the venues.

7.7.1 PLANNING FOR NUTRITION AT SPORTS EVENTS


Planning for snacks and meals at sports events is particularly important. Many learners do
not perform at their absolute physical best because of the junk they eat and drink while
playing sport. Carbohydrate foods are the most effective to fuel muscle work and should be
the focus of any athlete's diet. These foods are used to make glycogen and are particularly
important following sport, since this is when the body is best equipped to replace the
glycogen fuel stores that have been used during the event. There is no other time that this
glycogen replacement occurs so efficiently. Incomplete replacement of glycogen increases
the risk of premature fatigue or training burnout.

b Is it both practical and achievable to expect and encourage learners engaging in sport to
eat ``sport-friendly'' foods?

68
Better nutrition at sports events starts at home. It just takes a little planning. Parents,
educators and coaches should encourage the following practices:

Make nutritious snack foods and drinks a part of the sport equipment
Organisers of sports events should provide nutritious foods at these events. Wholesome
meat and salad rolls, warm soups and bread, pasta dishes, fruit juices, home-made muffins
and fresh fruit are available and easy to prepare.

Reinforce good eating habits


Coaches and physical education educators can be instrumental in promoting the ``good
sports food'' message by reinforcing it in the change rooms, during training, on the sidelines
or following the sports events.

Change habits
Parents can be asked to organise weekly food stands to sell home-made, nutritious foods to
team members. A suggestion list of nutritious foods must be supplied to the parents. It is
also a good idea to ask for suggestions.

7.8 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM


Food Ð after chewing Ð consists of large chemical units which cannot be used by the body.
Digestion is the breaking down of food into small chemical units so that it can be absorbed.
The absorption of chemical units into the blood takes place in the stomach and small
intestine. Food not used is passed out as solid waste.

PST312M/1 69
7.8.1 PRE-COMPETITION NUTRITION: EATING TO WIN
Energy levels in the body should be high before training and competition. What Ð and how
much Ð should one eat and drink before a competition?
(1) Eat a small, easily digested meal, usually less that 500 calories.
(2) Eat about two-and-a-half to four hours before competing.
(3) Restrict fats and proteins since they are slowly digested.
(4) Avoid foods which form gas in the digestive system.
(5) Drink small amounts of water often: before, during and after competition.

7.9 FLUID REPLACEMENT IN SPORT


Ability to control body temperature is crucial to health. Coaches should be aware that an
increase in the core body temperature (internal body temperature) can significantly reduce
performance levels. The body has two defence mechanisms against an increase in core
temperature:
. The sweating response. Athletes have to sweat profusely in order to effectively control
their body temperature. Large quantities of water are lost on hot days. Between four and
five litres can be lost during a two-hour period. Sweating cools the body.

. The vasodilation response. This response refers to the altering of the blood flow
through the skin. On a hot day, the blood in the body takes the heat to the surface.
This is why people become red in the face. It is better to start sweating, because an
increase of blood supply to the skin means that less blood is available to the working
muscles.

f Which guidelines can coaches/physical educators follow?

70
X Guidelines for the educator
(1) Arrange practice sessions for the cooler parts of the day.
(2) Refrain from training sessions if the humidity is too high.
(3) Insist that athletes take water breaks.
(4) Keep an eye on heavier and unfit athletes.
(5) Make sure athletes are wearing loose-fitting clothes.
(6) Arrange that fluid replacement takes place over a period of time, not in one ``drinking
bout''.

A sharp drop in the fluid level can seriously interfere with body functioning. This is because
water makes up approximately 60 percent of total body weight. Coaches and physical
education educators have to make learners aware of the necessity of fluid replacement.

7.10 CONCLUSION
The bottom line is that eating more nutritious foods while at sport is essential to learners'
overall health as well as their sports performance. Nutritious food can also be fun and
makes children feel better than ``treat foods''. Adequate planning must be done and the
example must be set. We know what boys and girls are made of, but one thing is certain:
sporting greats are not made of chips, sweets and cool drinks!
Fluid replacement should also be handled in the correct way. Both coach and physical
educator need to recognise the importance of fluid replacement. Learners should be
encouraged to adopt the correct drinking habits. The best fluid replacement still remains
fresh water.

b Analyse the diet of each member of your athletics or physical education class.
(1) What are your nutritional recommendations?
(a) Foods to add: .............................................................................................................................

(b) Foods to reduce: .......................................................................................................................

(c) Changes in storage: ..................................................................................................................

(d) Changes in cooking: ...................................................................................................................

(2) Which two physiological responses occur in the body to protect it against increases in
core temperature?

PST312M/1 71
STUDY UNIT 8

DRUGS IN SPORT

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Today drugs form part of everyone's life. They are used not only to treat a variety of
illnesses ranging from influenza to heart disease, but generally also for the following
purposes:
. to relieve pain
. to bring on sleep
. to fend off sleep
. to put on weight
. to alleviate anxiety

The use of drugs is not exclusive to the modern era. Back in ancient Greece athletes used
an extract from mushrooms to enhance performance. Today, however, many more
substances are available and may have a devastating effect on an athlete's personal well-
being.
There are numerous reports of athletes using alcohol, cocaine and marijuana to enhance
performance. Athletes are experimenting with substances to improve their performance.

g Learning outcomes
After working through this study unit you will be able to:
. identify the various types of drugs
. suggest ideas on how to stop the use of drugs in sport

72
f Should athletes be allowed to take drugs?

The argument against the use of drugs involves the following points:
(1) Drug taking in sport undermines the whole idea of sport, which promotes honesty and
fair play.
(2) Inexperienced young athletes, who are particularly vulnerable to pressure from school,
coaches, parents, teachers and sponsors, need to be protected.
(3) Drugs stimulate aggressive responses, with possible antisocial effects Ð both on and
off the field.
(4) Sport is known to promote a healthy lifestyle. Drug taking which is not medically
prescribed definitely undermines this value.
(5) Sports personalities should set an example for their admirers. Social drug taking may
encourage youngsters to do the same.

8.2 REASONS WHY ATHLETES TAKE DRUGS


Top athletes have become victims of their own success. They can earn huge sums of money
from advertisers, sponsors or governments. The media has played a role in emphasising the
importance of sport and intensifying pressure on the participants. The tremendous physical
strain of training has driven athletes to look for additional help.
Nowadays athletes train longer and harder. Athletes feel they have to resort to various
methods to help them recover from competition and training more quickly. It has become
tempting for athletes to take drugs, and ever more tempting for coaches, doctors and
trainers to suggest drug taking.
To some, sport has become a full-time career. Athletes move to warmer countries to train
and also go to high altitudes in an effort to improve their performance. Many would say
athletes have no choice but to look at other means. It is up to each individual to decide.

f What is your opinion on drug taking?

We do not know how many athletes turn to drugs. The last 25 years have seen a few
spectacular cases, especially during Olympic Games events.
In the past, many testing schemes were inconsistent and unreliable. Not all countries
tested for drug taking; some countries considered testing unnecessary because they
believed drug taking was not practised in their countries. Drug taking may occur out of
season; however, athletes were tested during competition (in season), by which time the
athlete would be more or less ``clean''. The British Sports Council then suggested the best
way to test: at random.

PST312M/1 73
8.3 WHICH DRUGS DO SPORTS PLAYERS TAKE?
8.3.1 STIMULANTS
The best-known stimulants are amphetamines. They are used to increase alertness and
physical endurance. They are often called ``pep pills''. Stimulants increase the heart rate,
respiration and blood pressure and stimulate the brain. They therefore have a direct,
stimulating effect on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. The most important
effect of stimulants is that they help athletes continue working at high levels for prolonged
periods of time.
Stimulants suppress the feeling of fatigue. Once an athlete reaches the limits of
endurance, pain steps in to warn the body to stop before any damage occurs. If the pain is
suppressed in any way and stress is continued, the muscles pull, and cramps and strains
occur. The body temperature rises, and dehydration and heatstroke may occur. This
condition could result in death. The more often athletes use a stimulant the more they
become accustomed to it. It has less of an effect on the body. Then the only way to benefit
is to increase the intake.

8.3.2 NARCOTIC ANALGESICS


This group of drugs includes morphine, heroin, methadone and even codeine which is often
taken as a medication. Narcotic drugs put people to sleep, while analgesics are used as
painkillers. These drugs are highly addictive and persons found with them in their
possession face serious criminal charges.
The use of morphine is known to cause an initially powerful stimulating effect which is then
followed by a longer sedating effect. Athletes using this drug could fall asleep and could be
seriously injured.

8.3.3 ANABOLIC STEROIDS


Anabolic steroids were developed after World War II and were mostly used by doctors to
aid growth in patients after a serious illness.
Anabolic steroids are chemicals related to the male hormone testosterone. Some of these
drugs are used mainly during the training seasons prior to competitions. Their purpose is to
help build power and reduce the recovery rate after training.
The effects of steroids on the human body fall into two main categories:
. Androgenic effects. These effects are related to the development and maintenance of
the male sex organs and the male secondary sex characteristics.
Use of these drugs has various side effects: in women, growth of facial hair, acne,
deepening of the voice and disappearance of breasts; in men, impotence, infertility and
prostate cancer. High and regular doses of steroids may cause death.
. Anabolic effects. Steroids are used to accelerate the healing of body tissues and to
make athletes more aggressive and competitive. Side effects include liver damage,
personality changes, gastric ulcers, fluid retention and prematurely completed bone
growth if taken during adolescence.
The drugs do not make athletes stronger and more powerful within days. They actually
enable the highly motivated athlete to train harder with less fatigue and shorter
recovery time.

74
8.3.4 DIURETICS
These drugs are used mainly for rapid weight loss, especially in sports where weight
categories are involved. They are also used to dilute the concentration of drugs in urine by
producing more rapid excretion in an attempt to reduce the possibility of detecting banned
substances in the urine.
Diuretics attempt both to deliberately reduce weight artificially to get a participant into a
lower weight category, and to dilute forbidden substances in the urine. Using diuretics
definitely manipulates the rules and compromises sporting ethics.

8.3.5 SOCIAL DRUGS


Some people take drugs in the form of alcohol or tobacco. These are social drugs; yet their
side effects are far from socially desirable.
Cigarette smoke contains tar which is the major cause of cancer. It collects in the smoker's
lungs and, because it contains nicotine, is very harmful to the heart, blood vessels and
nervous system. The gases in tobacco smoke damage the small hairs lining the bronchial
tubes, which prevents them from removing the dust and other particles from the lungs. The
result is that the air cells in the lungs become clogged and prevent efficient breathing.
People have used alcohol for thousands of years. It is fairly harmless if taken in reasonable
quantities. However the danger arises when an individual becomes dependent on it. Drinking
and sport are often linked: players discuss a game over a drink; some use alcohol to calm
their nerves. In moderation, alcohol is not harmful. Nonetheless, drink and top sports
performance do not go together.

PST312M/1 75
8.4 WHAT IS THE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM?
It is clear that there is no simple solution to the problem of drugs in sport. However there
are three areas in which we can fight drugs in sport.

8.4.1 TESTING AND CONTROLS


Testing for drugs does seem to pay off. It deters some and exposes others. Testing should
be random and at any time of the year. The cooperation of all organisations at international
level is vital, so that no sports player anywhere feels at a disadvantage. Testing is very
costly but is a burden that modern sport must bear.

8.4.2 PUNISHMENT
Sporting organisations and governments around the world have to cooperate and agree
about an international standard on the banning of athletes. This banning has to be
internationally ratified if administrators are to stop the use of drugs in sport.

8.4.3 EDUCATION
Education is a very important part of the campaign against drugs in sport, so athletes
should be educated about drugs from an early age. Fair competition should be encouraged
and foul play ruled out. It is also important to educate the public. All countries should be
urged to ban drug taking in sport and work for true sporting ideals.

b
Now that you have studied the material above, please answer the following questions:
(1) Have you any other ideas on how to curb the use of drugs in sport?
(2) How would you go about informing your athletes about the dangers of taking drugs?

8.5 CONCLUSION
Physical educators should not encourage the use of anti-inflammatory or other prescribed
drugs. The dangers of smoking and alcohol must also be made known to learners.
Your healthy lifestyle is an example to learners. More emphasis should be placed on the
enjoyment of sport for its own sake.

76
STUDY UNIT 9

SPORTS INJURIES

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The most frustrating part of participation in sport is what happens when an athlete is
injured. Even though a coach or physical education teacher uses good training methods and
coaching methods, injuries still occur. The golden rule, ``prevention is better than cure'',
should always be followed.

g Learning outcomes
By the time you have worked through this study unit you will be better prepared to
. prevent injuries to your athletes or students
. implement immediate care for any injuries your athletes or students suffer
. assist in the rehabilitation of your athletes or students after injury

9.2 PREVENTION OF INJURIES


The following are key aspects that can be followed to prevent injuries in sport:

PST312M/1 77
(1) Warm ups. Warming up is the most essential part of the training session. It improves
flexibility and prepares the mind, heart, muscles, and joints for participation, thus
reducing the likelihood of injury. A warm-up session should take place and last for
between five and ten minutes before stretching sessions.
(2) Stretching. Stretching is also a vital factor in the prevention of injury. If an athlete
does not stretch, the muscles lose their flexibility and may fail to respond when used.
The following rules should be followed when stretching:
. Warm up prior to stretching.
. Stretch before and after exercising.
. Stretch alternate muscle groups.
. Never bounce to stretch rapidly.
. Stretches go the point of tension or discomfort, never pain (hold for about 10 seconds).
. Athletes must not hold their breath when stretching: they should breath slowly and
easy.

(3) ``Cool-downs''. It is important for the athlete to cool-down, because this prevents the
pooling of the blood in the limbs. This can cause fainting or dizziness. Cool-downs also
help the muscles, heart and other tissues to recover after exercise. Cool-downs consist
of a gradual reduction in activity levels. A cool-down should last about 5 to 10 minutes.
(4) Fitness. Athletes who are very unfit and fatigued are prone to injury. This means that
a good level of fitness for a particular sport is of the utmost importance.
(5) Obedience to the rules. Many of the rules of sport are designed to create a safe
playing environment. Athletes should be encouraged to learn written as well as
unwritten rules. Fair play and good sportsmanship should also be taught by coaches.
(6) Playing areas and facilities. Badly designed equipment or faulty, poor playing surfaces
and inappropriate areas for participation may endanger the athlete, other players and
the public. Playing areas should be
. level
. free of obstructions, such as sprinklers
. safe-permanent features such as goal posts should be padded

78
(7) Spectators. Spectators should keep well away from the playing area.
(8) Protective devices. Players should wear protective devices that are specially designed
to reduce injuries (mouthguards, pads, eye goggles/glasses, helmets, gloves, shin
guards, life jackets, wetsuits, etc). It is important that if worn, protective equipment
be worn in the correct way.
(9) Environmental conditions. Fluid replacement is very important and you should keep the
following in mind:
. Thirst is a poor indicator of fluid replacement.
. Plain water is the best fluid replacement.
. Players should wear loose, light-coloured clothing.
. Activity in hot or humid conditions must be avoided.

Sunshine
Sunburn is a major problem in South Africa. The harsh conditions require the players
to take precautions. It is advisable to use a sun screen and a hat. Players should also
wear shirts with collars.

Cold
Cold weather can also cause injuries. It is however the cooling down of warm muscles
that commonly causes injuries. Players are advised to wear adequate warm clothing
such as tracksuits, and take shorter breaks between sessions.
(10) Proper management of injuries. If athletes, students or learners return to sport too
soon after an injury, they are likely to be susceptible to further injury. The advice of
physiotherapists should be sought.
(11) Illness and participation. Athletes should never participate in sport if they are ill.
They risk damaging the body tissue and other organs.
(12) Medical conditions and participation: There are a number of conditions that prevent
participation, either permanently or temporarily. These conditions include
. musculo-skeletal problems (active joint disorders, arthritis)
. cardiovascular abnormalities (valve disorders)
. chronic infections
. medical conditions (diabetes, epilepsy, asthma)

There is adequate medication available on the market to help players to participate.


(14) Balanced competitions. It is important that you keep the competitions balanced in
order to prevent injuries. You have to consider age, sex, size, strength and the skill of
the players to ensure balanced competitions.
(15) Common sense. ``Prevention is always better than cure''.

PST312M/1 79
9.3 INJURY MANAGEMENT

It is important to manage injuries correctly so that further damage is prevented, and we


advise you to have a basic knowledge of first aid.
In any injury it is important to follow a set procedure. The STOP (Stop, Talk, Observe and
Prevent) procedure enables you to assess the severity of the injury and determine whether
the player should continue or not. By using the RICER (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation,
Referral) procedure, you can treat minor injuries properly.

Stop Talk Observe Prevent

STOP the athlete TALK to the injured OBSERVE whilst talk- PREVENT
from participating athlete ing
. Can you talk? . PERSONALITY FURTHER
STOP the game if . What did you feel? Ð Is it normal?
necessary . Where does it hurt? Ð Is the athlete INJURY
. Is the pain sharp, distressed?
DON'T panic ... STAY dull, aching or . INJURY SITE 3 OPTIONS
COOL throbbing? Ð Is there swelling?
. Did you hear any Ð Is it red?
sounds? Ð Is there any
difference when
PROVIDE A FEW compared to the
WORDS OF other side/limb?
ENCOURAGEMENT Ð Is there any
deformity?

If the answer to any


of the above questions
is YES, seek trained
first-aid support.

80
SERVERE INJURY LESS SEVERE INJURY MINOR INJURY

1 2 3

GET HELP REGIME PLAY ON

Get professional help ... The first 48 hours are FOR BUMPS AND
don't move the athlete vital in the effective BRUISES, A FEW
. Keep onlookers away management of any soft WORDS OF SUPPORT
. For suspected spinal tissue injury AND ENCOURAGE-
injury or broken bone: . Rest MENT WILL HELP
comfort the athlete . Ice
until professional help . Compression . Monitor any such minor
arrives . Elevation injuries
. Diagnosis

9.4 WORKING WITH INJURED ATHLETES


As a coach you not only have to know how to treat an athlete once an injury has occurred
but also deal with athletes recovering from injury. The recovery process can be fairly
lengthy if the necessary precautions are not taken to avoid further damage.

b Then answer the following:


. Which steps should be taken when treating an injured athlete or student?
. Design a well-structured warm-up routine for your sports or physical education class.
Ensure that your routine meets all the requirements for an effective warm-up.
. Why is it necessary to cool down?

HOW WHY

REST Place the athletes in a Activity will promote


comfortable position, pre- bleeding by increasing
ferably lying down. The in- blood flow.
jured part should be
immobilised and supported.

ICE The conventional methods Ice reduces


are:
. swelling
. crushed ice in a wet . pain
towel or plastic bag . muscle spasm
. immersion in icy water . secondary damage to the
. commercial cold packs injured area
wrapped in wet towel
. cold water from the tap
(better than nothing)
COMPRESSION Apply a firm wide elastic Compression
bandage over a large area
. reduces bleeding and
covering the injured parts,
swelling
as well as above and below . provides support for the
the injured part. injured part

PST312M/1 81
HOW WHY

ELEVATION Raise injured area above Elevation


the level of the heart at all . reduces bleeding and
possible times. swelling
. reduces pain

REFERRAL Refer to a suitable quali- Early referral for a defini-


fied professional such as a tive diagnosis is essential
doctor for ongoing care. to ascertain the exact
nature of the injury and to
gain expert advice on the
rehabilitation program re-
quired.

Remember with injuries of this kind, you should avoid the HARM factors:
Heat Ð increases bleeding
Alcohol Ð increases swelling
Running Ð or exercising too soon can make the injury worse
Massage Ð in the first 48±72 hours increases swelling and bleeding

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC SPORTS INJURIES


1 LIFE-THREATENING INJURIES

INJURY SYMPTOMS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES MANAGEMENT


SIGNS

Head injuries Unconscious Blow to head DRABC


Concussion Confused Seek medical help
Brain damage Call ambulance
Fractured skull

Neck injuries Pain in neck Scrum collapse Stop the activity


Loss of power or High/spear tackle Ensure victim's safety
sensation in arms Diving accident Do not move if con-
and/or legs Fall scious
Collision Call ambulance

Abdominal injuries Pain Collision Stop the activity


Spleen Pallor Blow to abdomen Ensure victim's safety
Liver Fainting Fall Seek medical help
Kidney Breathing difficulty Call ambulance
Lungs Blood in urine Rest in pain free posi-
tion

82
2 SERIOUS INJURIES

INJURY SYMPTOMS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES MANAGEMENT


SIGNS

Head and facial Pain Cover both eyes


injuries Swelling Seek medical help
Eye injury Impaired vision
Bleeding

Broken jaw Deformity Victim supports jaw


Swelling with hand
RICER
Broken nose Bleeding Hit by ball/player Seek medical help
Pain Fall
Swelling Scrum RICER
Deformity Maul Do not blow nose
Collision Seek medical help

Teeth injuries Loose/lost tooth Rinse in milk or water.


Bleeding Reinsert if possible. If
Swelling not, transport to den-
tist in milk or cling
wrap. Seek dental help
within 4 hours.

Broken bones Pain Blow Stop game


Swelling Collision Ensure victim's safety
Local tenderness Heavy fall Seek medical help
Deformity

Soft tissue injury Pain Blow RICER


Tendon or muscle Swelling Collision Seek medical help
tears Restricted movement Uncontrolled movement Physiotherapy
Joint injury

PST312M/1 83
3 LESS SERIOUS INJURIES

INJURY SYMPTOMS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES MANAGEMENT


SIGNS

Soft tissue injury Pain Blow RICER


Bumps Swelling Collision Physiotherapy
Strains Reduced movement Overstretching
Sprains Tenderness Uncontrolled move-
ment

Bruises Tenderness RICER


Pain
Discolouration Fall Control bleeding. Clean,
Knock compress. Seek medical
Cuts Bleeding Blow help if deep. If stitch-
Pain ing is required, this
Distress should be done within 2
hours.

Blisters Local pocket of fluid Friction from shoes, Clean, relieve pressure
Pain clothing, equipment and friction with ap-
Tenderness Pressure propriate padding

Cramps and Involuntary muscle Dehydration Fluid intake


stitches spasm Low fitness Stretching programme
Muscle fatigue Gradual conditioning

Winded player Pain Blow to abdomen Rest in comfortable


Breathing difficulty position
Unable to straighten Do not push knees to
chest

Bleeding nose Bleeding Blow Sit with head forward


Heat Pinch soft part of nose
Spontaneous Seek medical help if
bleeding persists for
more than 20 minutes

84
4 OVERUSE INJURIES

INJURY SYMPTOMS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES MANAGEMENT


SIGNS

Shin soreness Tenderness Increased activity Decreased painful ac-


Pains in shins Postural imbalance tivity
Pain increases by run- Poor footwear RICER
ning, jumping Muscle imbalance Physiotherapy
Swelling Correct footwear
Orthotic control

Knee pain Pain around knee Increased activity Decreased activity


Pain increases by sport, Postural imbalance RICER
stairs, sitting, hills Poor footwear Physiotherapy
Swelling Muscle imbalance Tape
Discolouration Growth spurt Correct footwear
Orthotic control

Heel pain Tenderness over heel Tight calf muscle Decreased activity
Pain increased by Growth spurt RICER
running, jumping Poor footwear Physiotherapy
Stretching programme
Correct footwear
Orthotic control

Shoulder pain Pain on certain move- Increased activity, Decreased activity


ments eg swimming RICER
Reduced movement Poor technique, Physiotherapy
Local tenderness eg swimming, pitching, Stretching programme
serving Exercises
Modify activity

Elbow pain Pain in or around elbow Jarring, increased aci- Decreased activity
Pain increased by cer- tivity, eg golf, tennis RICER
tain activities, eg Muscle imbalance Physiotherapy
shaking hands, lifting, Poor technique Stretching programme
gripping Change of grip Elbow brace
Lack of control Modify technique

9.5 CONCLUSION
The management of sport injuries requires planning by the coach. A proper fitness
programme will help to prevent injuries. Children should be taught not to risk doing an
activity if they are going to get injured. Proper warming up and cooling down should be made
an essential part of the training programme. Methods of preventing injuries should be
clearly displayed in appropriate places.

PST312M/1 85
STUDY UNIT 10

LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
SPORTS COACHING

10.1 INTRODUCTION

f When can the physical educator/coach be found guilty of negligence?

The juridical aspect of education is as important as any other aspect of education.


Educators should be aware of the legal implications of their involvement in education.
Knowledge of the law will also help them to avoid pitfalls or unnecessary stress. If
educators are ignorant of the law they may unknowingly contravene some legal provision in
the honest performance of their duty or they may omit to carry out the requirements of
such a provision.
As an educator you aim to do your work in as competent and efficient a manner as possible;
moreover, you do not want to get into any legal disputes. Therefore you need to know your
responsibilities, duties and powers, and to know when you may risk being held responsible
for negligence and other offences.
In physical education, the educator is responsible for planning and conducting the lessons
and activities in a safe environment. Physical education activities are such that the chances
of injury are far greater than in other areas of the curriculum. Therefore physical
educators need to be more aware of safety factors and know all they should about legal
liability. A physical educator with knowledge of legal liability and sound judgment should be
able to avoid lawsuits. An educator's legal responsibility concerns the issue of negligence.

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. realise your legal responsibilities as a physical educator
. identify and take precautions to prevent injuries during the physical education lesson

10.2 LEGAL LIABILITY


All educators have a duty of care when learners are placed in their care: they are
responsible for their learners' well-being. The educator acts in loco parentis and is
therefore expected to act like a diligent and sensible parent. Whether on the playground or

86
on a school trip, in the classroom or gymnasium, an educator should act in a reasonable and
responsible manner with respect for the learner's welfare and safety.

10.3 ELEMENTS OF NEGLIGENCE


Negligence is considered the failure to act as a reasonably careful and prudent person
would act under the circumstances involved in a specific situation. Negligence may also
occur as a result of failure to act when there is a duty to act. It may also occur by acting,
but in an improper manner.
The following four areas are relevant to the issue of negligence:
(1) any action inappropriate to the line of duty
(2) breach of duty
(3) any action or event causing injury
(4) proximate cause

e READ pages 150 and 151 in Kirchner (1992).


. Briefly explain each of the above issues.

10.4 WHERE NEGLIGENCE MAY OCCUR


Various areas of the physical education programme lend themselves to a possibility of
negligence:
. the instructional programme
. supervision
. facilities and equipment
. emergency care
. transportation

e . Briefly discuss how each area lends itself to negligence.


. Suggest preventive guidelines in the case of each area.

10.5 COMMON SOURCES OF NEGLIGENCE

f Think about the following points:


Physical educators may be found guilty of negligence when they fail to provide proper
supervision by:
. neglecting to assist injured learners
. permitting learners to play unsafe games
. not giving adequate instruction
. taking unreasonable risks
. not organising field trips properly

PST312M/1 87
10.6 CONSENT TO THE RISK OF HARM
Educators must make it known that participating in any physical activity involves a certain
amount of risk. Of course this fact does not excuse the educator's responsibility to ensure
the safety of participants. However learners must be made fully aware of and understand
the risk involved in certain activities.
The ``assumption of risk'' provides a defence against liability in certain dangerous activities,
for example in contact sport such as rugby, karate, hockey and boxing. Persons who
understand the danger involved in a sport, and voluntarily engage in it, willingly expose
themselves to predictable risks within the rules of the game.

10.7 LIABILITY INSURANCE


Local school districts, educator associations, or even individual educators normally take out
policies to insure themselves against liability. It is very important for educators to
establish the extent of their coverage.

X A few practical hints for the physical educator


. Physical education is a compulsory school subject
No learner should be excused from physical education unless for medical reasons. A
note from the parent stating the child is ill has to be accepted. If no letter is
handed in, the learner should be excused, following which the educator must
contact the parents requesting more information. A medical certificates can be
requested. It is the duty of the educator to take particular care since learners
have a right to the protection of their mental and physical integrity.

. Learners should wear the correct attire


Learners participating in physical education should wear the correct clothes. No
learner should be allowed to take part in physical activities wearing potentially
dangerous accessories for example, or jewellery such as rings, earrings and
bracelets. Make sure learners are informed when protective wear (eg special
shoes) is required.

. Provide a safe environment


Physical educators have to check that facilities and equipment are always kept safe
for everyone involved in physical education and sport. Apparatus and equipment
must be secure, and checked and repaired when necessary (eg climbing ropes must
be secure and gym apparatus must be safe). Most important, no class should be left
unattended at any stage of a physical education lesson.

. Plan activities properly


Participation in an unplanned physical education lesson could lead to impaired
learning and injury. Use the appropriate progressions to teach new skills, especially
potentially dangerous skills (eg in gymnastics).

. Evaluate learners for injury and incapacity


A learner with an injury or incapacity should not be expected to participate in any
potentially harmful activity. Recognise the individual differences in learners.

88
. Do not mismatch learners
Learners should be matched according to sex, size, height and weight. Age should
not be the only criterion. Primary and secondary school learners should not be
grouped in one lesson.

. Know first aid


Basic knowledge of emergency procedures is critically important. Educators should
know STOP (Stop, Talk, Observe, Prevent further injury).

. Closely supervise activities


All the necessary steps must be taken to ensure the instruction environment is as
safe as possible. Requirements will vary according to the lesson.

. Warn learners about the inherent risks of certain activities


Learners can only accept the inherent risks of participating in a lesson if they know,
understand and appreciate those risks.

. Provide safe and proper equipment


Educators must ensure that the existing codes and standards for equipment are
met and that all equipment is kept in good order.

. Develop clear, written rules for physical education and general conduct
Your school must develop clear physical education safety policy and rules. Rules
should cover general conduct and behaviour in all situations.

. Keep adequate records


Adequate records are useful aids to planning and are essential for reference in all
cases of injury. Records should be kept on all learners, including relevant general
and medical information and progress reports. Accident reports have to be filled in
as soon as possible after an injury occurs.

Regardless of the legal duty, the above procedures are good physical education practice.
Study the diagram below which sets out the educator's risk of legal liability for negligence
in incidents related to physical education.

PST312M/1 89
RISK OF NEGLIGENCE

DID YOU HAVE A DUTY TO THE YOU ARE PROBABLY


INJURED PARTY? No OK

Yes

DID YOU EXERCISE THIS DUTY YOU ARE PROBABLY


IN A REASONABLY PRUDENT Yes OK
MANNER?

No

DID YOUR ACTION OR YOU ARE PROBABLY


INACTION RESULT IN THE No OK
INJURY?

Yes

DID THE INJURED PARTY YOU ARE PROBABLY


SUFFER ACTUAL DAMAGE OR No OK
LOSS?

Yes

YOU ARE POTENTIALLY AT RISK OF BEING


FOUND LEGALLY LIABLE FOR NEGLIGENCE

b Now try answering the following questions:


(1) How would you go about ensuring the safest possible environment for your physical
education lessons, to avoid litigation?
(2) Should the physical educator be held liable in a claim that is made under the following
circumstances? Answer ``yes'' or `'no'' in each case.
(a) You allow a learner to walk across the athletic field during a lesson on javelin
skills and the learner is struck by a javelin.
(b) You are called out of the class during a gymnastics lesson. A learner is hurt while
doing a routine on the parallel bars.
(c) A learner twists his ankle during a volley ball warm up.

10.8 CONCLUSION
It is the task of the school and physical educator to provide and maintain a safe
environment for the learners. Further they should provide adequate instruction and design
a plan for emergency situations. Physical educators should aim to carry out their task as
well and as efficiently as possible, taking all possible precautions to prevent negligence.

90
STUDY UNIT 11

CODES OF BEHAVIOUR

f What is the code of behaviour for physical educators?

11.1 INTRODUCTION
The physical educator is in a strong position to teach learners the most important codes of
behaviour in physical education and sport. One way of doing this is by setting an example for
the learners.

g Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this study unit you should be well aware of your priorities
as a physical educator.

11.2 EDUCATORS' CODE OF BEHAVIOUR


The following are guidelines on a code of behaviour for physical educators:
. Encourage learners to develop basic skills in a variety of sports and discourage over-
specialisation in one sport or in one playing position. Physical education forms the basis of
sport-specific skills development.
. Concentrate on the overall development of the learner. Include body awareness, gross
motor and fine motor development.
. Create opportunities to teach appropriate basic skills as well as sports behaviour.
. Ensure that skill learning and appropriate sports behaviour have priority over highly
structured competitions for young learners in primary school. Highly structured
competitions are suitable for secondary school learners.
. Encourage learners to concentrate on enjoying physical activity. Help them to discover
their bodies and the potential and benefits of movement. Enjoyment and correct
instruction at an early age will ensure continuous participation in physical education
throughout a learner's schooling years.
. Prepare learners for interhouse and interschool competitions by first providing
instruction in the basic sport skills.
. Make learners aware of the physical fitness values of physical education and sport and
their lifelong recreational value.
. Make a personal commitment to keep informed of sound teaching principles and the
principles of physical growth and development.
. Help learners to understand the fundamental differences between junior games, their
school competitions and professional sport.

PST312M/1 91
. Help learners understand the responsibility and significance of their freedom to choose
between fair and unfair play.
. Teach learners to adopt a healthy lifestyle.

c . Do you have a code of behaviour for the physical education class? If not, see if your
learners will help you design one Ð which you should then display on the noticeboard.
. Why do you and your learners believe a code of behaviour is so important?

11.3 CONCLUSION
Codes of behaviour provide guidelines for behaviour. Because of the high impact of sport on
the youth, educators have to work together to keep codes of behaviour up to date and
ready to use in physical education programmes. Codes of behaviour urge all those
associated with physical education to understand and accept their responsibilities.
It is the task of the school and physical educator to provide and maintain a safe
environment for the learners. Further they should provide adequate instruction and design
a plan for emergency situations. Physical educators should aim to carry out their task as
well and as efficiently as possible, taking all possible precautions to prevent negligence.

92
STUDY UNIT 12

POLICIES FOR PHYSICAL


EDUCATION

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The physical educator needs knowledge of certain policies about management, organisation
of intramural programmes, teaching strategies and techniques. You have to provide a
positive learning environment that enhances learning and relationships. An informal learning
atmosphere, in which educator and learner share responsibility for learning, is essential to
helping learners achieve their full intellectual, physical and creative potential. A healthy
learning atmosphere can be created by good management, appropriate teaching style,
effective classroom control and constructive learner behaviour. So certain rules and
regulations must be clearly stipulated, to avoid or eliminate negative, unconducive elements.

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. improve your teaching strategy and technique
. manage your physical education classes more effectively
. set up a policy for rules and regulations in physical education

12.2 TEACHING STRATEGIES


12.2.1 INDIVIDUALISED AND PERSONALISED LEARNING
In recent years the learner, not the subject area, has become the focus of the curriculum.
Educators no longer teach the same material to all learners. Knowledge of differences
among learners' abilities, maturation and interests has resulted in a more individualised and
personalised approach to learning. Physical education policy must be aimed at the overall
development of each learner.

e Briefly explain what each of the following strategies means:


. individualised learning
. personalised learning

12.2.2 STYLES OF TEACHING


There is not set policy on which style of teaching an educator should choose. It is up to you
to decide how to guide and control learning experiences. Any of the following styles and
methods can guide you to help learners develop to their full potential:

PST312M/1 93
. direct teaching style
. command method
. task method
. combined teaching style
. indirect teaching
. guided discovery
. free exploration method

12.2.3 TECHNIQUES OF GOOD TEACHING


Regardless of the style of teaching, you must demonstrate effective teaching techniques in
every lesson. Your first focus is the subject area. The second is to hold the learner's
interest in the lesson. Third is your competence to cope with each learner's level of ability.
Then comes your ability to develop a warm and positive learning environment. Finally, you
need to design a series of class structures and routines to keep learners committed to
their work while still promoting a warm and friendly classroom climate. All these techniques
can be developed by means of effective communication, sound role models, and effective
class management.
Adding to these techniques, you have to develop a policy on how to effectively manage your
class. Guidelines to help you perform your teaching task more effectively may include ways
of getting and holding learners' attention, dividing learners into groups, arranging
equipment, how to start the class and change activities. (See Thomas et al [1988:126±
128] for more detail.)
Rules and regulations for learners must be included in the physical education policy. You
need to monitor learners' behaviour as well: reinforcing and endorsing good behaviour
promotes a healthy atmosphere in class. This is especially true of the primary school phase.
You may even consider setting up a contract with learners about behaviour. Of course you
will also need punishments appropriate to various causes of misbehaviour and kinds of
discipline problems. For example learners in the secondary school phase, especially girls,
are often opposed to physical education. Knowing how to improve classroom control and
handle misbehaviour will help deal with problems more effectively. (See Thomas et al
[1988:128±129] and Kirchner [1992:133±134] for more detail.)

12.3 DESIGNING INTRAMURAL PROGRAMMES


The school needs a policy on intramural activities and the physical educator must be
involved in planning and coordinating the intramural programme. The following guidelines are
important to planning a school policy on intramural activities.

12.3.1 GUIDELINES
. All learners, including those with special needs, should be allowed to participate in the
intramural programme.
. Boys and girls in the primary and secondary school phase should have equal access to the
programme's facilities and activities.
. With the intramural programme established, learners should take responsibility to plan,
organise and run their own activities. Secondary school learners could also get involved in
coaching a primary school team, which would help them develop leadership qualities as
well as interest in physical fitness and sport. You need parents' consent to learners'
participation in an intramural programme. The school must also clearly state its legal
responsibilities towards parents and learners.

94
. All competitions should promote continuous participation rather than sudden death or
rapid elimination tournaments. Noncompetitive activities should also be included in the
intramural programme.
. Award systems should emphasise group effort and participation. Mass participation
should be rewarded.

12.3.2 PARTICIPATION SCHEDULES


The time scheduled for intramural activities usually depends on the school population and
facilities available. The general trend is to organise intramural activities for after school.

12.3.3 SUPERVISION OF PROGRAMME


Support, encouragement and effective supervision by educators, other staff members, and
parents will assure a successful intramural programme. The physical educator must take
the leading role to coordinate. Learners should be encouraged to take responsibility for
their own activities; your role should be more advisory, so that learners can organise their
own activities. It is vital for class educators to get as involved as possible in the intramural
programme: to get to know learners better, which will strengthen the educator-learner
relationship. If there is a shortage of educators, parents or secondary school learners can
volunteer to coach. Of course these volunteers will need some training.

12.3.4 WAYS TO GROUP LEARNERS


All learners need equal opportunities for participation in physical education. Most schools
group learners according to age and in the secondary school phase learners are also grouped
according to ability. Educators often play a role in grouping learners. Teams are chosen
according to the level of skill needed for the intramural activity.

12.3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION


The organisational system chosen depends mainly on the size of the school. The interhouse
system provides the opportunity for mass participation. One method is to divide learners
into different houses or teams according to their surnames. Leaders can be chosen for
each house to help with running and organisation.

12.3.6 TYPES OF TOURNAMENTS


Teams or individuals can compete in many different ways. Which type of tournament to
choose will depend on the activity, space and time available, and number of competitors.
Single or double elimination and round-robin tournaments may be used for a variety of team
and individual sports. Ladder tournaments are useful for individual activities. Organisers
should assess strengths and weaknesses of each type of tournament, considering time,
space, and number of competitors.

12.4 CONCLUSION
All learners need access to a clear policy on organisation of intramural programmes and
physical education classes. A major focus is teaching learners to manage their own physical
fitness and intramural programme properly. With a little planning the techniques applied in
the physical education classes and intramural programme can be incorporated in the entire
school programme. The school policy must therefore incorporate the necessary

PST312M/1 95
management guidelines for educators, so that physical educators and all educators involved
in the intramural programme can supervise more effectively.

b Now try answering the following questions:


(1) Why is a policy on rules and regulations so important for physical education?
(2) Should an intramural programme be incorporated in the school programme? Give
reasons for your answer.

96
STUDY UNIT 13

INCORPORATING PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN THE EDUCATION
PROGRAMME

13.1 INTRODUCTION

f How can physical education be incorporated in the school curriculum?

Physical education makes a unique contribution to the total development of the learner.
Children learn about self-control and cooperative behaviour if they are given an opportunity
to express themselves in physical activities. Physical education must be included in school
curriculums, because of its benefits and advantages. Once included, it must be integrated
with other subjects in the curriculum.

13.2 INTEGRATION
Research has shown that children tend to learn certain academic concepts better through
the motor activity medium than through the traditional medium. Integration can be applied
in mathematics and in all the school subjects. Once a well-balanced physical education
programme is established, the class educator should modify activities in each lesson unit to
reinforce academic skills and concepts concurrently taught in the classroom.
Mathematical principles and concepts can be reinforced when included in a game as part of
the physical education lesson. The mathematics curriculum involves the acquisition of skills,
principles, and concepts relating to whole numbers, mathematical sentences, sets, the
metric system, field properties, geometry, measurements and graphs. Games can help teach
the particular concept or skill.
Language is not an isolated subject because it involves teaching a learner to listen, speak,
read and write. The subject area of language teaches these skills in a systematic way, but
they can be reinforced in other subject areas.
Teaching social studies at primary school is much the same as teaching a language. History
and geography are no longer seen as separate subjects, emphasising facts and events of
past or present cultures, and studying the physical environment. Both are now integrated
subject areas that help learners understand and appreciate the similarities and
differences among social groups, for example. In this regard, physical education
recognises and explores the diversity of people's games, dances and customs.
Every educator needs to take every opportunity to focus on health and safety issues.
Physical education and health have a very close relationship: for example learners find out

PST312M/1 97
how to measure heartbeat and breathing rate in health programmes. It is easy to include
teaching correct diet, exercise and health rules in the school programme.
Art and music can be incorporated in physical education in many ways. Combining these
three subject areas allows learners to express ideas and feelings about themselves and
their environment.
Physical education can be used to develop understanding of numerous scientific concepts
and principles. We need insight into gravity, force and levers to understand our natural and
technological environment. You can relate extremely important scientific principles and
concepts to physical education activities. For example you can explain the necessity of a
wide base to support a low centre of gravity, you can show learners how important Newton's
law of motion is to such actions as starting to move a ball or pushing a player, and
demonstrate how force should be dispersed over the widest surface and the greatest
distance.

13.3 ADAPTING PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITIES TO


THE CLASSROOM
In this section we discuss the adaptability of physical education activities to the classroom
environment. To combine physical education with other academic subjects, you need a few
minor adjustments and some basic rules and safety procedures in place. You would make
similar adjustments if your school had no gymnasium or other space for physical education.
Classroom games can be quiet! Designating teams (for example according to desk rows)
means groups can compete to finish first. Aim to maximise participation, ensure safety and
minimise noise.
The game or activity must involve everyone. Divide the class into as many groups as possible.
Modify games to increase individual and class participation.
Safety is very important. Learners should keep away from sharp edges and desk tops. Keep
running activity to the minimum, and only when it does not interrupt the class next door.
Modify verbal commands and use hand clapping instead of loud commands or starting
whistles, for example. The class next door must not be disturbed.

e Answering the following questions:


. State six ways of integrating health education into the physical education programme.
. Can art and music be combined with physical education? Give examples.
. Briefly discuss how language as a subject area will benefit by incorporation in a physical
education lesson.

READ chapter 15 in Kirchner (1992).


. What is important to consider when you combine an academic lesson with physical
activities?

13.4 CONCLUSION
Our discussion has given you an idea of the tremendous potential of physical education for
other subject areas. However integration should be mutual; it should work both ways.

98
Therefore teaching in other academic subjects must integrate physical education whenever
possible. This mutual integration emphasises the unique place and role of the various
subjects in the learner's total education. Integration should occur at both primary and
secondary school. Decisions about integrating physical activities in the classroom should
depend on the mood and receptiveness of the class: learners sometimes need more active
games to pep up their mental concentration; other times they need games to help them calm
down and relax. Finally, remember noise and safety issues when you plan a physical activity
for the classroom.

PST312M/1 99
STUDY UNIT 14

EVALUATION AS PART OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION

14.1 INTRODUCTION

f Why is evaluation important in physical education?

Evaluation is an essential part of the physical education programme. Educators use the
techniques of observation to assess the strengths and weaknesses of their daily lessons.
They do so to make appropriate changes in their teaching strategies as well as to evaluate
the learner's progress.
Evaluation refers to the process of determining whether objectives have been met. In
physical education evaluation means more than testing learners and assigning grades and
marks.

g Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit you will be able to:
. successfully evaluate learners
. assess whether learners' performances compare favourably with those of learners at
similar schools
. establish detailed records on physical education activities

You need to understand the following terms used in evaluation:


. measurement
. tests
. checklists and rating scales
. reliability

14.2 EVALUATION PROCESSES


. In summative evaluation you test at the end of six weeks or at the end of a series of
units.
. In formative evaluation you test more frequently, maybe daily or weekly.

Educators should do more formative evaluation as it gives a more representative picture of


the learner's performance, because performance is never constant; it varies over time.
Measure the quality of movement as well as the outcome. Tests may be used to evaluate a

100
criterion or norm. For example you set a specific criterion if you administer a 1500 metre
run as a test of cardiovascular endurance. Learners who reach that level are judged to have
satisfactory cardiovascular endurance.

14.3 EVALUATION OF LEARNERS


Primary school learners need to be evaluated on their physical growth. This is calculated
according to their height, weight and fatness. Measurements should be taken at least two
to three times a year.
Physical fitness and motor performance tests are considerably more reliable at this stage.
Educators use more summative evaluation. Tests of running speed, throwing distance,
cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, and specific sports skills produce reasonable
evaluations of how learners have changed from the beginning to the end of the lesson unit.
The quality of movement should also be evaluated. Use rating scales and checklists for this
purpose. With daily observation you can complete the entire class evaluation in two weeks.
So you can evaluate the quality of movement by means of formative evaluation.

14.3.1 CHECK LIST AND RATING SCALES


This method is used to evaluate the form of movement skills. Check lists are marked to
indicate the presence or absence of certain characteristics. Rating scales show the degree
to which the characteristics are present. The point scale of 1±3 or 1±5 is used.

c How do you go about using check lists and rating scales?

14.4 PHYSICAL EDUCATION TESTING


14.4.1 GROWTH
. Height and weight
Height and weight should be tested at least twice a year. To measure height the learner
stands up straight, without shoes, with the back against the wall. By resting a ruler or a
book on the head at a right angle to the wall, you can accurately mark the height on the wall.
Record to the nearest centimetre. Use a reliable medical scale to measure weight. Body
length is used to assess appropriate weight. Excessive deviation should be discussed with
learner and parents. (See Thomas et al 1988:184.)

. Fatness
Measure skin folds to determine whether the learner is too fat or thin. This is a reasonably
accurate measurement of body fatness. Educators should be concerned about learners who
are obese. The parents should be consulted about stepping up exercise to reduce body fat.
Dieting is not recommended for young learners because of the importance of diet for
growth at this early stage of life.

PST312M/1 101
14.4.2 HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
We highly recommend testing primary school children for physical fitness. The aim is to get
a representative sample of the learner's performance. Test the following areas:

. cardiovascular endurance
. body fatness
. strength and muscular endurance
. flexibility

f Which test is recommended for each of the above?

14.4.3 MOVEMENT SKILLS


Specific tests to evaluate movement skills are less common. This is because the skills to be
taught and evaluated vary according to locale and focus. Facilities, equipment, community
interest, educators' expertise, sports, movements and games differ from school to school,
or may not exist in a school. Educators often lack the expertise to demonstrate, explain and
critique learners' movement. Therefore evaluation is difficult. There is no ideal situation to
evaluate movement and sports skills. The best solution is to do all you can. You may need to
call on parents with expertise, supervisors and other physical educators in the area.

In the primary school phase educators must concentrate on the evaluation of fundamental
skills. Locomotion skills that need to be tested are for example: walking, jumping, hopping,
skipping, running, leaping, galloping, performance in games and rhythmic activities by means
of observations on checklist and rating scales. You will test these skills more in the lower
grades. In the upper grades (Grade 6 to 7) you can start evaluating sport skills.

When selecting a sport skill test for the upper grades, you need to ask the following
questions:

. Does the test measure an important skill that was included in the lesson unit?
. Is it administered in a game-like situation?
. Do you have the equipment and facilities to administer the test?
. How long will it take to test the entire class?
. Is the test reliable and valid?
. Can you interpret the results adequately?
. Is the test fun for learners?

14.4.4 KNOWLEDGE
As soon as primary school learners can read, the educator can construct cognitive
knowledge tests to test movement and fitness concepts at their level of reading ability. You
can use pictures to test learners' knowledge before they can read. For example show them
pictures of a child sitting reading, a child skipping, and a child riding a bicycle Ð on the value
of vigorous exercise. Learners indicate the activity that promotes fitness or demonstrates
a greater level of fitness.

102
14.4.5 AFFECTIVE MEASURES
These measures are seldom used. They are however useful for educators to judge how well
learners are participating and working, how they feel about the physical education
programme, and how they feel about their bodies in movement, and about physical fitness.
Areas of self-concept, social behaviour, personality, perceptions, acceptance,
sportsmanship and leadership can be measured.

14.5 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS

f What do the results tell you?

14.5.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY


Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to and what you
intend it to test. Furthermore a test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Reliability means
the test consistently elicits the same answer.
When selecting standardised tests or designing your own, verify both reliability and
validity. The test must always be done in the same way: your rating of performance should
be done in a consistent, regular way. This is not always easy. (See Thomas et al 1988:197.)

14.5.2 EVALUATING OUTCOMES


Regardless of how specific or general outcomes are, the educator should plan how to
evaluate them. This process involves selecting the most appropriate tests and determining
what constitutes meeting the outcomes. Some outcomes might be for the entire class while
others might be for the individual learner.
The key factor is to make outcomes challenging but attainable. This encourages
participation as well as feelings of satisfaction and accomplishment. Reasons why
outcomes are often not reached:
. The outcomes chosen were too difficult.
. The activities selected were inappropriate.
. The educator's instructions were unsuccessful.
. The learner did not try hard enough.

14.5.3 GRADING
Most learners, parents, educators and administrators are concerned about grading.
Important questions to ask are:
. Is the learner growing normally?
. Is the learner improving?
. How does the learner compare with other learners in the class?
. Which specific area(s) does the learner need to improve in
. Is the learner making the best possible effort in class?

Learners need feedback on their efforts. Parents want to know how their children are

PST312M/1 103
progressing and how they can support the system. Educators want to and need to evaluate
their programme and teaching methods.
Grading can be communicated by means of letters and reports. Learners must be graded on
how they have learnt from what they have been taught. Sometimes educators are reluctant
to give grades on physical skills. However we are graded according to our knowledge of a
subject.
When learners get low grades on skills, they have the opportunity to improve them. This
opportunity also motivates learners to stay interested in physical education.

b
Now try answering the following questions:
(1) Differentiate between the following terms: summative and formative evaluation,
validity and reliability.
(2) Discuss the assessment of growth.
(3) Discuss affective measures.
(4) List the five types of testing needed in physical education.

14.6 CONCLUSION
The physical educator must realise that the scope of evaluation involve more than grading.
It involves outcomes and programmes, and educators', parents' and administrators' input.
When you plan evaluation you have to decide between the summative and formative
approaches. Focus evaluation on the outcomes: physical fitness and skill development. Areas
to test are: growth, health-related physical fitness, movement skills, cognitive knowledge
and affective behaviours. Having chosen the test, you need to decide about interpretation
of the results. Check lists are seen as useful tools for informing learners and parents on
physical education performances.

104
STUDY UNIT 15

THE PHILOSOPHY OF COACHING


AND THE ROLE OF THE COACH

f What is a coaching philosophy?

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Why do we start this course with a philosophy? The reason for this is that everyone has a
certain philosophy of life and of coaching.

g Learning outcomes
When you have completed this study unit you should be better prepared to
.
.
develop your own coaching philosophy
clarify your coaching objectives
. identify the needs of athletes
. understand the various roles of a coach

Your philosophy determines every action and every decision you make. It does not matter
who you are, from where you come, or how you come to be in coaching, you bring ideas,
opinions and attitudes from a lifetime of personal experience. Start off by asking yourself
some basic questions.

15.2 HOW WELL DO I KNOW MYSELF?


You may be a beginner coach, so ask yourself what the most important aspect of coaching
is? How would you handle a situation? You may already be coaching. If so, ask yourself what
you value as the most important aspect of coaching? Are you proud of how you act as a
coach? Many characteristics describe successful coaches. Answer the following
statements by indicating what you think athletes would choose:

c Please note:
The term ``athlete'' used in this course refers to all sportsmen, women and children taking
part in sport in all the various disciplines.

PST312M/1 105
Indicate the areas you think that you as a coach have to improve.

Coaching assets Low Average High Areas of improvement

Knowledge of athletics 1 2 3 .............................................

Well organised 1 2 3 .............................................

Honest 1 2 3 .............................................

Professional appearance 1 2 3 .............................................

Qualified 1 2 3 .............................................

Enthusiastic 1 2 3 .............................................

Hard worker 1 2 3 .............................................

Punctual 1 2 3 .............................................

Consistent 1 2 3 .............................................

Understanding 1 2 3 .............................................

Good listener 1 2 3 .............................................

Provides individual help 1 2 3 .............................................

Builds athletes' 1 2 3
confidence .............................................

Motivates 1 2 3 .............................................

Good teacher 1 2 3 .............................................

Encourages 1 2 3 .............................................

Praises effort 1 2 3 .............................................

Respects athletes 1 2 3 .............................................

Patient with athletes 1 2 3 .............................................

Sense of humour 1 2 3 .............................................

15.3 WHAT DO I WANT TO ACHIEVE AS A COACH?


The answer to this question requires a knowledge of objectives. When we ask coaches why
they coach, we receive a number of answers, such as, for the sake of winning, for fun, or for
athlete development. The successful coach places the development of the athlete first.
This can result in the athlete producing better performances and greater consistency. The
coach and athlete also enjoy more satisfaction. The overemphasis on winning is left out.
The philosophy of putting athletes first, and winning second, is very easy to understand but
very difficult to put into practice.

106
15.4 WHY DO I COACH OR WHY DO I WANT TO COACH?
Consider the following reasons why coaches like, or would like, to coach:
Ð I want to contribute to the overall growth of people.
Ð I like to put something back into sport.
Ð I want to be known as a winning coach.
Ð I have a good time when I am coaching.
Ð I like to help others.
Ð I like the sense of control I get from coaching.
Ð It makes me feel that I am doing something worthwhile.
Ð I like to be known as ``one of the best'' coaches.
Ð I enjoy the recognition I receive.

15.5 WHAT OUTCOMES DO PEOPLE EXPECT FROM SPORT?


. Why do athletes take part in sport?
It is important for you to consider the reasons why athletes participate in sport. This
enables you to have a better understanding of the athlete, thereby avoiding possible
conflict situations and misunderstandings that can occur.

. Why do children take part in sport?


Children take part in sport for the following reasons:
Ð to have fun
Ð to feel good
Ð to learn new skills
Ð to gain a feeling of direction
Ð for the feeling of belonging to a group
Ð to achieve success
Ð to become a winner
Ð to be regarded as a champion
Ð to get recognition from peers

. What do parents require from sport?


Parents seek certain things in sport when they encourage their children to take part in it.
Parents think of the following:
Ð safety
Ð fun
Ð a child-minding service
Ð family involvement
Ð success
Ð groundwork for future sporting success

b Now make up your own questionnaire to determine why parents want their children to
participate in sport and why children themselves want to participate.

PST312M/1 107
15.6 THE ROLES OF THE COACH
As a coach you may be asked to perform many parts! Ask yourself if you will be able to
perform the following ROLES as:

. teacher ... passing on information, skills and ideas


. trainer ... improving athlete's fitness
. motivator ... instilling a positive, resolute approach
. disciplinarian ... firm but fair, determining a reward system and punishment
. organiser ... of practices, officials and parents
. public relations officer
. planner
. fundraiser
. advisor and counsellor
. friend ... supporting and nurturing
. scientist ... analysing, testing and evaluating
. student ... watching, asking questions, listening, learning

e Are you prepared to undertake these roles?

15.7 THE VARIOUS COACHING STYLES

f What are the different coaching styles?

Irrespective of what jobs the coach is expected to undertake, how he or she carries them
out may determine the ultimate success. Coaching styles are very easily recognised by
athletes and they can either help or hinder. Let us now look at some styles that have been
identified.

15.7.1 AUTHORITARIAN
The following are some characteristics of an authoritarian approach:

. win centred, winning judged by coach


. task orientated
. strict, disciplined
. good team spirit when winning, dissension when losing
. coach makes all decisions
. little or no communication development
. little or no trust in athletes
. sometimes motivates
. training structures inflexible

108
15.7.2 COOPERATIVE
The following are some characteristics of a cooperative approach:
. athlete centred
. social and task objectives
. winning judged by athlete and coach
. decisions are guided by coach, but shared
. communication style Ð telling, asking and listening
. communication development high
. trusts athletes
. motivates all
. training structure is flexible

15.7.3 CASUAL
The following are some characteristics of a casual approach:
. no emphasis on any philosophy
. no specific coaching objective in mind
. decisions made by athletes
. communication style Ð listening
. no communication development at all
. meaning of winning not defined
. no trust shown in athletes
. no motivation
. no training structure at all

The authoritarian and casual styles are extreme and are unlikely to be successful methods
of coaching. The cooperative leadership style offers the athlete opportunity to develop
physically, psychologically and socially. It also provides guidance and structure.
Coaches can be successful even though these three styles all have advantages and
disadvantages. If you want to be a good coach you should be able to modify your styles
according to the athletes and their situations. You must always stay positive and encourage
athletes at all times, whatever the situation.

15.8 THE RESPECTED COACH

f What in your opinion are the qualities a respected coach should possess?

See if you agree that a respected coach should


. instil the highest desirable ideals and character traits into their athletes
. dress appropriately to suit the session being conducted
. be responsible for maintaining discipline throughout the session
. be self-confident, assertive, consistent, friendly, fair and competent
. be able to deal with initial treatment of minor injuries, thus requiring a basic
understanding of first aid
. be very organised not only for each session, but for the week, the month, the year
. be able to justify if necessary why things are being done, or be ``big enough'' to ask for
suggestions when not sure

PST312M/1 109
15.9 THE COACH'S SKILLS

f What coaching skills should the coach posses?

There are a number of basic skills that you should possess to be able to function effectively
as a coach. Based on a knowledge of the sport and an understanding of coaching techniques,
you should be able to do the following
. demonstrate
. observe
. organise
. show understanding
. analyse
. improve performance
. communicate

Now let us consider some of these skills in more detail.


(1) Observing. All training programmes should provide plenty of time for observation. This
provides the information on which you can make basic changes to the programme and to
the needs of the individual athlete. Observation provides opportunity to improve and
refine skills.
(2) Organising. Organising is based on knowledge and planning. Knowledge is based on your
own experiences, studying material and sports specific courses. We will look at how to
organise various aspects in coaching later in a separate study unit.
(3) Analysing. Analysing refers to observing and evaluating performances. By doing this
you are able to compare what is being done to what should be done. You should not act
on one or two observations only. Find a pattern of errors, then trace and determine
their causes. You should be able to determine, if more than one error exists, exactly
how they are related. If there is no apparent relationship then by eliminating the first
error you may correct others in the process.
(4) Improving performance. A coach's major role is to improve the performance of his or
her athletes! However, do not think this is your only role.
(5) Communicating. Your ability to improve performance depends largely on your ability to
communicate; not only verbally, but when listening, and using the appropriate nonverbal
communication, which includes body language, (eg grinning, sighing, shrugging).
Messages consist of two elements
Ð content (what is in the message)
Ð emotion (how you feel about the content)

The message and body language, must be appropriate to convey the intent of the message.

b The most important skills that coaches should possess are communication, organisation
and administration skills. Now read pages 122 to 174 in the recommended book Sport
coaching and teaching (Gummerson 1990) which will enable you to describe these skills in
detail.

110
15.10 SETTING GOALS FOR YOUR SPORT PROGRAMME
The setting of goals or aims forms an important part of any sport programme. You must,
however, first realise and take cognisance of the overall aims of children's sport as a whole.
We can single out the following fundamental aims of children's sport:
. to provide children with opportunities for involvement in physical activity in a way that
promotes immediate and long-term benefits
. to contribute to the total development of the child (concentrating on physical attributes
that form the complete child along with social and intellectual attributes)
. to enhance physical growth and development
. to enhance physical fitness
. to help children attain desirable social skills
. to enhance creative abilities
. to help form positive self-confident attitudes in the child

Let us look more closely at the goals set by a good coach. They must be measurable,
observable, challenging, achievable and believable. You need to help athletes set short-term
and long-term goals. These goals should be objectives that athletes can focus on in their
efforts to improve their performances.
Some characteristics of goals set in a sport training programme are the following:
. Measurable. For example, each athlete will get equal time in games over the season. The
team will finish higher in the league than last year; players will better their score on a
skill circuit; or athletes will better their times by 10 percent or improve their distance or
height by one metre.
. Observable. Some goals are easily seen in the form of scores, times, records and skill
drills. We can see evidence of even the most abstract goals such as ``enjoyment'' or
``keenness'' on the athletes' faces. Attendance at practices is another visible sign to note.
. Challenging. Athletes should see goals as a challenge and inspiration to improve in their
performances.
. Achievable and believable. All goals should be realistic. You must not set goals without
taking into account the standard of the athletes. Convince your athletes that they can
reach the set goals.
. Short-term and long-term. Short-term goals are goals that are set to be attained
within a short time. For example by the end of the season an athlete wants to be included
in the first team. Long-term goals are aimed for over a period of years. For example an
athlete may want to be included in the Olympic team in four years' time.

15.11 WORKING WITH OTHERS


Probably one of the most important areas to develop in your coaching philosophy is the
ability to communicate and work with other people. The people around you need to know
what your coaching philosophy is. Coaches have to build relationships with administrators,
officials, referees and umpires, opponents, opposing coaches, parents, coaching colleagues,
athletes' families as well as the athletes themselves. You have to form a meaningful
relationship with all these different people.

15.11.1 ADMINISTRATORS
A coach must be a representative of a school or club's administration. Success results from
the harmonious blending of talents, energies and efforts of all participants. You have to
comply with certain rules and procedures and you must play your role to the full. Officials

PST312M/1 111
must be respected and you should teach your athletes to do the same. You should be
cooperative and supportive toward officials.

15.11.2 REFEREES/UMPIRES/JUDGES
Referees, umpires and judges are probably the people coaches love to ``hate'' most. You
should respect umpires' decisions. Mutual respect will lead to greater understanding and
less pressure all around. You should teach athletes to respect umpires and thank them for
their time and effort. Other competitors usually disapprove of confrontations with
umpires.

15.11.3 PARENTS
Parents' attitudes range from one extreme to the other. There are over-protective parents
and aggressive ``demanding'' parents. Others do not take an interest in their children at all.
Parents play a key role in the whole coaching system. You must learn to understand parents
and make them realise their specific role and responsibilities in relation to the coaching of
their children. Parents can contribute productively to a child's sporting experience by being
cooperative. Establish communication channels with parents to ensure smooth running
communication lines.
It is your responsibility to convey certain do's and dont's to the parents. Coaches need to
educate parents on how to handle their child's participation in sport.
Adults generally determine the environment in which children learn to play sport. Parents'
expectations have a very significant bearing on children's attitudes towards sport. Not all
parents have the ability to make a positive contribution to the performances of their
children. The coach plays a very important role in the correct functioning of the triangle
between parents, children and the coach. Ways of getting the parents involved include the
following:
. encouraging their help and participation
. explaining your philosophy and plans regarding coaching
. explaining your attitudes
. setting behavioural standards
. encouraging parents to give positive feedback
. not allowing destructive criticism, trying to be polite
. conducting a parents' meeting at regular intervals
. demonstrating basic skills to parents so that they can help their children at home

f There are numerous ways of getting the parents more involved in their children's sport
programmes. Can you think of other ways?

15.11.4 PLAYERS/ATHLETES
The coach and athlete relationship needs to be one of mutual understanding and respect.
You must care about the needs of athletes and be aware of their individual needs.

. What do athletes expect from you?


(1) Enthusiasm. You must clearly show a love for the sport and the competitions.

112
(2) Respect. You must show respect for each individual.
(3) Coolness. You should always be cool under pressure and not become angry
(4) Fairness. It is your duty to apply rules fairly and correctly. Make sure you do not have
favourites.
(5) Maturity. You should always act as an adult role model.
(6) Willingness. You should be willing to listen, to admit mistakes and to consult with
others.
(7) Safety. You must make sure that the training and competing environment is safe and
free of any obstructions.
(8) Support. You must support your athlete and have a genuine caring relationship with him
or her.
(9) Recognition. You should recognise each athlete's individual skills.

Coaches should at all times try to develop effective working relationships with all the
people they deal with. The following hints should help you to achieve the best results:
. Encourage help and participation.
. Explain your philosophies and plans.
. Be respectfully firm when views seem to be opposed.
. Set the behavioural standard.
. Always encourage positive feedback.
. Never allow destructive criticism.

You should always try new ways of improving your communication with your fellow workers
during the season. Try some of the following:
. Send a letter to your athletes' parents.
. Holding a team meeting with parents.
. Meet the club's administrator to discuss your plans for the year.
. Use questionnaires to find out what your athletes want out of their sport and how they
evaluate you as a coach.
. Arrange get-togethers to watch other top athletes perform.

b Now try to answer the following questions using all this information:
(1)
How would you define a coaching philosophy?
(2)
How would you describe the role of the coach?
(3)
Describe the different coaching styles.
(4)
How would you identify the respected coach?
(5)
List and discuss the different basic skills a coach should possess. How would you
develop these skills to the best of your ability?
(6) Can you list some characteristics of goals and then discuss them?
(7) What other types of people do you work with apart from athletes and how do you
see your role with these groups?
(8) Can you describe the different types of parent?
(9) How do you deal with ``problem parents''? Does your programme allow parents to
become involved? Should it?
(10) Parents have to consider some important points when selecting a coach for their
child. What are they (when looking for coaches outside club or school)?
(11) How can you improve your communication with the people you work with?
(12) How would you set up an agenda for a parents' meeting?

PST312M/1 113
15.12 CONCLUSION
Coaching is a very responsible task that has to be performed. Two important principles we
have already dealt with are developing a functional coaching philosophy and communicating
with other people. There are also a few other practical principles that we will deal with in
more detail in this module, including teaching skills more effectively; developing a physical
training programme; guiding athletes to better nutrition; helping to prevent drug abuse;
reducing injuries by managing risks better; and managing equipment, facilities, schedules,
and team logistics.

114
STUDY UNIT 16

TRAINING THEORY

16.1 INTRODUCTION
In the sports world there is a continual challenge to improve upon the performances of the
past. Everything possible has to be tried to deliver the best performance. In order to do
this, a higher level of fitness is required. Coaches and athletes also need a better
understanding of training and its effects.
Training theory consists of bringing together all the necessary information from the
specific sports' social and scientific sources. As a coach you should use this information
together with information about the athlete, to produce an effective training
programme.

g Learning outcomes
By the time you have completed this study unit you should be better prepared to
.
.
understand the principles of training
recognise the components of fitness
. understand the development of physical capabilities
. understand periodisation
. plan a training session

16.2 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING

f What is meant by physical conditioning?

The physical condition of an athlete is the most important part of his or her training
programme. The coach needs to establish a core of general and specific fitness components
to suit the particular sport. All athletes benefit from physical conditioning. Skill alone is
not sufficient for success in the modern world of sport.
Total training is divided into two aspects: physical conditioning and skill training. Physical
conditioning is further divided into general conditioning and specific conditioning.
There is no short cut to success. Physical conditioning has to be developed alongside
the development of skills. The total picture of physical conditioning is illustrated as
follows:

PST312M/1 115
TOTAL TRAINING

PHYSICAL SKILL
CONDITIONING TRAINING

GENERAL SPECIFIC
CONDITIONING CONDITIONING

PERFORMANCE

When considering physical conditioning, you need to determine the factors of fitness that
are required for a particular sport. These factors have to be developed through suitable
exercises. You, therefore, need to know the answers to the following:

c .
.
.
.
How much fitness is required?
What kind of fitness is essential?
How much time is available?
What are the most efficient methods to develop the required fitness?

16.3 FITNESS

f Do you understand the meaning of the term ``fitness''?

Fitness is described as how well a person is adapted to and capable of living a certain
lifestyle. An athlete is normally fitter than a nonathlete. All athletes need to be fit to cope
with the demands of their chosen events. Fitness requires a certain amount of training.
We also refer to fitness as the physical capacity to perform a task. The type of physical

116
capacity required for a sports event varies between sports and within sports. For example:
an endurance sport primarily requires aerobic fitness, a power sport requires anaerobic
fitness. Most ball-sports require a combination of both.
Athletes vary in height. Genetically they have to accept their height. However, flexibility
and strength can be affected by a training programme.

Components of fitness
Most components of physical fitness are concerned with strength, power,
endurance, speed and flexibility.
. Strength is the ability of the body or its segments to apply force against
resistance. It is an important component of power and speed.
. Power, also known as explosive strength, is the rate of performing work. It
results from an optimal combination of strength and speed.
. Speed is the maximum velocity of muscle contraction in the movement of
body segments for accelerating and running.
. Endurance is the maximum work that muscles can perform in repeated
contractions. Endurance, depending on the energy system used, can be
roughly divided into two types:
Ð General endurance (aerobic), determined by the ability to resist fatigue
under conditions where the oxygen intake and consumptions are kept at a
steady rate.
Ð Specific endurance (anaerobic), determined by the ability to resist
fatigue under conditions where lactic acid is accumulated in the muscles.

. Flexibility is defined as the range of movement in or around a joint or a series


of joints. It depends on a variety of factors, including the bone and joint
structure and the bulk of the muscle close to the joint.

Success in physical conditioning will largely depend on how effectively the basic components
of fitness can be fitted into the training programme. It also depends on finding the best
ways to improve each component. Care also has to be taken in finding the right distribution
of training for each component according to the needs of an individual and the sport
involved. A universally accepted variety of training methods exists, from which activities
can be chosen and combined to improve each of the selected components of fitness.
. Strength. weight training (exercises with heavy loads and limited repetitions); isometric
exercises; combined isometric and isotonic exercises; circuit training (designed to
emphasise strength) exercises against own body weight; partner exercises
. Power. weight training (exercises with medium loads and performed explosively); circuit
training; all sorts of jumping exercises, including bounding and depth jumps; exercises
with some form of an overload; uphill sprints; sandhill sprints; up stairs sprints; et cetera
. General endurance. cross country, road and beach runs over long distances at steady
speed; fartlek (athlete must try and keep oxygen intake at a steady state); slower type
of interval running; et cetera
. Specific endurance. faster type of interval running (high speeds and relatively short
recoveries); sandhill, up stairs and uphill runs (in fast interval form); fartlek; repetition
runs (high speed); et cetera
. Speed. all forms of fast sprint accelerations; reaction exercises; starts from various
positions; downhill sprints; throwing with lighter implements
. Flexibility. stretching exercises, including ballistic stretching (with care) and static
stretching

PST312M/1 117
16.4 TRAINING

f Can you describe the principles of training?

Training is regarded as a systematic process with the objective of improving an athlete's


fitness in a selected activity. This is a long-term process that includes progression and the
recognition of the individual athlete's needs and capabilities. In a training session you
should use exercises or practice sessions to develop the various qualities required for the
event.
There are various training principles that you have to understand before you can produce
effective long-term programmes. These principles should be introduced into the training
programme and training sessions if you want to avoid illness and injury. They include the
following:
. readiness
. individual responses
. adaptation
. overloading
. progression
. specificity
. variation
. warming and cooling-down
. long-term training
. reversibility

Principle 1: Readiness
Coaches should realise that an athlete must be physiologically ready for training. This
means that the physical development of the athlete is an important factor when
considering the readiness of the athlete. Athletes have to be physiologically ready to
respond fully to training.
Aerobic training is less effective for prepubescent athletes than for adolescents or young
adults. The teaching of skills is most effective during this stage. Anaerobic training of
young athletes is ineffective because this method depends on strength and maturation.
Weight training should be avoided until the age of 14 years and even older.

b READ page 92 in Successful coaching (Martens 1997).


Now complete the diagram below regarding the stages of training. These stages indicate
the goals that coaches should emphasise at various ages.

118
Principle 2: Individual responses
Every athlete's level of fitness and response to training differs. To ensure that all athletes
gain the maximum benefit from a conditioning programme, activities should be individually
designed for each athlete. You should teach either athletes to manage their own
conditioning programmes or they should be grouped according to their abilities. Athletes
do not respond identically to a method of exercise. Some athletes might need to
concentrate more on speed while others need to concentrate on flexibility.
Successful coaches are aware of individual differences and how athletes respond to
training. There are differences in heredity, maturity, nutrition, rest and sleep, level of
fitness, environment, illness, injury and motivation.

Principle 3: Adaption
An athlete's body requires a certain amount of time and training to adapt to changes in
activity. Ligaments, tendons, bones and muscles need to adjust to the stresses of
exercising. Changes in activities for which a body is unprepared can result in stress
fractures, strained tendons, sprained ligaments, torn muscles and fatigue. A conditioning
programme should begin with performance criteria that are significantly within the
athlete's limits. Thereafter the athlete should gradually adapt to the new activity or level
of activity required.

PST312M/1 119
NEW
PERFORMANCE
LEVEL
INITIAL

PERFORMANCE
LEVEL

-Y
-R
-E
-V
FA

O
C-
TI

E-
GU

R-
E
TIME

By trying to rush the process the athlete could become injured, ill, or both. Typical
adaptions to training include the following:
. improved respiration, heart function, circulation and blood volume
. improved muscular endurance, strength and power
. tougher bones, ligaments, tendons and connective tissues

e READ page 94 in Successful coaching (Martens 1997).

Principle 4: Overloading
Study unit 2 referred to the human body which consists of millions of tiny, living cells. Each
group and type of cell performs a different task. All cells adapt to what is happening to the
body. Adaption usually takes place all the time.
A training load refers to the work or exercise that an athlete performs in a training
session. Loading is the process of applying various training requirements (loads). The body
responds to the training load that challenges the athlete in his or her training session.
Initially the response is fatigue. Once the loading stops there is a process of recovery and
this results in the adaption to the training load. Recovery and adaption enable the athlete
to return, not just to the original level of fitness, but to move on to a higher level of fitness.
Overloading an athlete can be achieved by three factors, which you can remember by using
the acronym FIT:
. increasing the frequency of training sessions or repetitions of and activity within a
training session
. increasing the intensity of an activity (adding extra weight)
. increasing the time (duration) of an activity

If you keep the workload the same, the athlete's fitness level will be maintained. Improving
a fitness level therefore, requires the application of overloading.

Principle 5: Progression
A conditioning programme should progressively condition an athlete to achieve a better
performance. Progression is based on the established principle, from the easy to the
difficult. There should be a gradual increase of the load and intensity of training. For

120
example, weights are increased in weight training, new targets are set in circuit training,
harder demands are made on the respiratory cardiovascular system in endurance training.
The targets for fitness components are constantly moved higher. Progressive loading
should be applied to every phase of conditioning training and also included in the day's
workout, weekly, monthly and yearly plans. Coaches must also not overlook the need for
recovery and restoration as athletes adapt themselves gradually to progressively
increasingly difficult tasks.
There are several factors that have to be considered when you want to determine the rate
and size of progression. These factors include an athlete's
. physical maturity
. stage of development
. response to training
. desire to develop

You should encourage the athlete to progress in each physical capacity specific to the
sport. It is vital that progressions, or stages of development, are sufficiently small enough
to guarantee success and sufficiently large enough to provide athletes with a challenge.

Principle 6: Specificity
Conditioning training activities and the implementation of progressive overloading must be
specific to a particular sport. Once the required standard of all-round fitness is reached,
you should concentrate on the development of the primary fitness components required by
the sport. Specific needs have to be followed as closely as possible.
Strength training should be adjusted to allow the development of either speed-oriented or
strength-oriented power. Endurance training must either be aerobic based (long-duration
endurance) or shifted towards the development of the anaerobic system (short-duration
explosive activities).
Specific training brings specific results. Endurance training brings improvement in
oxidative enzymes and the muscles' ability to burn fat and carbohydrate in the presence
of oxygen. Strength training leads to the increase of the contractile proteins, actin and
myosin, but only in the muscle exercised.
It is important to include a variety of specific activities. This will ensure that an athlete's
interest is maintained. Running and jumping components of many team sports are similar.
Therefore, it is worthwhile to add an occasional game of another team sport. The more
closely related an alternative activity is to the sport, the more beneficial it will be to the
development of the athlete's fitness. Every attempt should be made to develop and include
specific fitness activities.

Principle 7: Variation
As previously mentioned, variety can help to maintain an athlete's interest in a training
programme. Other than resorting to other sports for variety, training programmes should
be managed properly to overcome tediousness.
You can look at the following:
. Changing the training venue.
. Changing the mode of activity. Speed training can be improved by running downhill.
. If a sport requires several different physical capacities, the coach must change the
emphasis from one to another.
. Alternating between competitive and noncompetitive training regimes.
. Work versus rest.

PST312M/1 121
. Hard versus easy.
. Introducing training cycles.
. Cross-training.

Neglecting variation will lead to boredom, staleness, and poor performance.

Principle 8: Warming up and cooling down


Warming up is a vital part of the training programme. It should always precede strenuous
activity. Reasons for warming up are to
. increase body temperature
. increase respiration and heart rate
. guard against muscle, tendon and ligament strains

Warm-ups should include stretching exercises, calisthenics and sport-specific activities of


gradually increasing intensity. No matter what the age or ability level of athletes or
participants, an effective warm-up is vital. A good warm-up improves flexibility as well as
preparing the mind, heart, muscles and joints for subsequent activity.

f Why is warming up and cooling down so important?

Cooling down is just as important as warming up. If a vigorous activity is halted, it causes
pooling of the blood, sluggish circulation and slow removal of waste products. It may also
contribute to cramping, soreness and more serious problems, such as fainting. Stretching
and light activity after an exercise continues the pumping action of muscles and veins. It
promotes both the circulation and removal of metabolic wastes.
It is your responsibility to include warm-up and cool-down exercises in each practice
session.

Principle 9: Long-term training

f Is long-term planning really necessary?

Long-term training allows for gradual progress, growth and development, skill acquisition,
learning strategies and a fuller understanding of the sport. It is not necessary for an
athlete to give up everything else to specialise in one sport. Young children should be
encouraged to participate in a variety of activities. No coach should demand the exclusive
control over an athlete and his or her time.
In time, as athletes grow and develop, they will begin to specialise in one or two sports. An
athlete with the desire to reach the top will eventually decide on a single sport and give it
undivided attention for years. You should never sacrifice an athlete's long-term personal or
career goals in order to achieve short-term success. Too much training too soon may lead to
mental and physical burnout and early retirement from sport.

122
Principle 10: Reversibility
Development trends in fitness are reversible. If an athlete stops training in a particular
physical capacity, either by ceasing the activity altogether or by reducing the training load,
the acquired fitness levels will diminish accordingly.
With complete bed rest, fitness can decline at a rate of almost 10 percent per week!
Strength declines more slowly, but disuse eventually causes atrophy of even the best
trained muscles.
Knowledgeable coaches will understand the principle of reversibility and provide their
teams with off-season maintenance programmes. This is only applicable from adolescence.
Athletes should participate in another sport during the off season.

Fallacies of training
There are some popular fallacies or misconceptions about training. There is no
medical or scientific research that proves any of the following to be true:
. No pain, no gain.
. You must break down muscle to improve.
. Go for the burn.
. Lactic acid causes muscle soreness.
. Muscle turns to fat (or vice versa).
Do you believe in the fallacies of training?

16.5 DEVELOPING PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES

f Which physical capabilities are best suited for the sport you coach?

Coaches should be knowledgeable about the development of certain physical capabilities.


Let us consider these capabilities more closely.

ENDURANCE TRAINING
The purpose of endurance training is to improve the ability of an athlete to use oxygen in
the energy production process. In endurance sports, the endurance (aerobic) type of
training should dominate the programme. In speed and power sports, endurance should be
used sparingly. It provides an athlete with the aerobic fitness to be able to safely pursue a
power programme. Look at the following examples of endurance training.
. Continuous. This kind of training means the provision of a continuous activity covering
relatively long distances or times using gross body movements. There will be some effect
on training if the work continues for approximately 20 minutes with a heart rate at or
above 60 percent of the difference between a resting and maximum heart rate.
. Fartlek. Fartlek training involves continuous training, interspersed with efforts of
varying intensity and duration. It occurs over natural terrain and alternates fast and
slow efforts.
. Interval. Interval training is a refinement of fartlek training in that the speed and

PST312M/1 123
recovery efforts are consistent. One example would be for you to alternate 50 m sprints
with 60 m jogs for up to four kilometres. Interval programmes must vary the distances
covered to include the distances which reflect the movement patterns of the sport.
. Repetition. This kind of training is similar to interval training, but tends to have longer
work intervals. The length of work intervals is two to six minutes, or approximately half
to one kilometre. You should allow a longer recovery period than that in interval training.

X
HINT: Whatever method of endurance training you use, it is important to
exceed the training threshold. This can only be achieved by maintaining
a heart rate which is 60 percent of the difference between a resting
and maximum heart rate for a period of at least 20 minutes.

THE ROLE OF RUNNING


You should first determine the aim of running to ensure the athlete benefits from running.
You must ask yourself:
. Does the performance require a high oxygen uptake capacity (aerobic endurance)? (eg a
1 500 m race)
. Does the performance require specific (speed) endurance? (eg some 400 m hurdles)
. Does the performance require pure speed? (eg a 50 m sprint)

During the off season (no competitions) you should concentrate on physical conditioning
using a combination of the three types of running. The emphasis must be placed on one or
the other, depending on the particular needs of the sport involved.
Events relying on aerobic endurance, will require long, steady runs over different terrains.
Continuous running is an indispensable element in obtaining basic fitness. Cross-country or
road running at a relatively slow pace over a relatively long time is employed for this
purpose. Obviously, this type of training has no value to improve speed or speed endurance.
Speed endurance (anaerobic endurance) is developed by employing repetition runs over
relatively short distances with limited recoveries between each repetition. You should
provide a recovery time that is of sufficient time to increase the lactic acid level in the
muscles. The athlete's running pace should be less than maximum speed.
To develop pure speed you can use repetitions of short sprints at maximum speed, with full
recoveries between each repetition. The recoveries should be sufficient enough to reduce
the lactic acid level in the muscles. If not, speed training sessions will turn into speed
endurance workouts.
The development of pure speed is also usually combined with the development of
acceleration by performing explosive starts from a variety of positions. All accelerations
should be executed at maximum speed after full recovery.

STRENGTH TRAINING
Most sports rely on strength training. Combined with speed, this produces power. There is a
large variety of strength training programmes. Whatever the decision, several principles
such as the following need to be applied.
. The weight (resistance) should be gradually increased.
. Exercises must be performed correctly.
. Both sets of muscle groups around a joint need to be worked.
. Only particular types of resistance programmes are suitable for certain stages of
maturity and development.

124
The risk of stress injury, when conducting weight training with children and early adolescents
is very high. Therefore, it is essential that you are knowledgeable about strength programmes.

Types of strength programmes


. Body weight exercises Ð Athletes use their body weight for resistance and
perform various limb flexions and extensions (push-ups, sit ups, squats, etc).
. Partner exercises Ð Athletes use their peers for resistance by either
adopting various wrestling holds and working in opposition to a partner or by
having the partner act as a dead weight.
. Free weights Ð Athletes use dumbbells or barbells to perform a variety of
resistance exercises.
. Circuit training Ð This consists of a series of exercises performed one after
another as fast as possible.
. Machines Ð This apparatus is found in a professionally equipped gymnasium.
. Weighted packs and ankle straps are used for sprinters and jumpers.
. Weighted skipping ropes.
. Heavy duty lengths of rubber which an athlete stretches in various ways.
. Medicine balls (weighted rubber balls).
. Hill running.
. Bounding.

Weight training
You should plan your training sessions very carefully. Weight training must not be regarded
as gymnasium work only. The following aspects have to be considered:
. The amount of strength required by an athlete for a particular level of performance.
Never overestimate the need for pure strength.
. A decision must be made about the kind of power required to exploit speed, timing,
coordination and the skills involved. In other words, is the power in the competitive
performance strength-dominated or speed-dominated?
. Always consider the individual. Weakness and strengths of athletes have to be
determined by the muscular movements involved. Not every athlete can handle the
same weight.
. Weight training is closely linked to the world of bodybuilders and weightlifters.
Movements such as squats, leg presses, dead lifts, bench presses and curls have some
value in an initial all-round development programme. This type of exercise can be used
for primary school children, but avoid the addition of weights.
. The weight training programme should include exercises for the development of the
rotational muscles of the abdomen and lower back.
. Exercises should be specific and related to the demands of a particular sport. You should
also follow the principle of progression.
. You should concentrate on the all round development of the young child. Caution must be
taken not to introduce heavy weights at an early age. The recommended age to start
training with weights in a gymnasium is +14 years.

Circuit training

f Why is circuit training suitable for coaching young athletes?

PST312M/1 125
Exercises chosen for a circuit can focus on the use of personal body weight and some other
resistance, such as weights or medicine balls. Progressive loading according to each
individual's particular ability is a distinctive feature of circuit training. The athlete's rate
of improvement will also determine the rate of progression. All exercises in the circuit are
strenuous and contribute to the increase of the progressive work rate.
When compiling a circuit, select exercises to have an all-round fitness effect. You should
select exercises to accommodate the different large muscle groups. Strength and muscular
endurance exercises can be applied to different parts of the body and the number of
repetitions involved will decide the likely result. Lighter exercises with high repetitions will
produce only circulo-respiratory improvements, while heavy resistance and lower repetition
will improve strength.

b Use the examples given to design your own circuit programme for your athletes.

Flexibility
Flexibility training is an essential part of the training programme. It enhances the
following:
. the range of movement about a joint
. the coordinated and fluid movement of muscle fibres and tendons which in turn enhances
speed
. the prevention of muscle and tendon tears
. energy conservation by enabling an athlete to adopt the required body positions without
having to use excessive muscle force, for either flexing the muscle to produce limb
movement or in extending the muscle to inhibit limb movement

f Are you aware of the different types of stretching?

Types of stretching
. Ballistic. Ballistic stretching should be avoided or treated with extreme caution. This
involves forcing a joint to adopt a greater joint angle. Bouncing is a common type of ballistic
stretching. The body weight is used to gradually force the joint angle to increase.
. Static. This involves an athlete adopting a position on near maximum stretch and holding
that position for 20 to 30 seconds. Following this initial stretch, the athlete should relax
and then move into a position of greater stretch for a further 20 to 30 seconds. This
procedure should be repeated three times. All the relevant joints must be stretched.
. PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation). PNF stretching involves voluntarily
adopting a position of maximum stretch and then submaximally contracting the
stretched muscle. By contracting, the stretched muscle and tendon reduce their
sensitivity to stretch and subsequently allow the athlete to move into a stretch position
greater than the first position. This movement should be repeated three times.

This method of stretching makes use of partners that provide the resistance for the
stretched muscle contraction. The contraction should occur for approximately five to six
seconds while the joint is fully extended. This method further produces maximum gains in

126
flexibility, while also producing gains in strength. The result is low risk, provided the
partner does not force the stretched muscle into the position of maximum stretch. All joint
complexes should be included in the choice of flexibility exercises.

Guidelines for stretching


. A five to ten minute warm-up involving slow, restrained and continuous total body
movement should precede bouts of stretching.
. Athletes should never bounce into the stretching position. Slow and controlled
stretching is essential.
. Each of the major muscle groups must be stretched.
. Training sessions must be preceded by 10 to 15 minutes of stretching.
. Stretching should be maintained throughout the season.
. The training session must end off with stretching. As the muscles are warm, this is the
most important time to stretch. Small muscle injuries can be attended to at the same time.

b . Design activities that will improve the endurance and flexibility of athletes in your
sport.
. Which principles of training need to be employed to improve an athlete's fitness in your
sport?

Summary
Conditioning is designed to develop physical capacities that will enhance the overall
performance of athletes. It is important that the training programme caters for individual
differences. There has to be a gradual adaption to the training load. You have to plan for the
optimal stages of development. As much variety as possible must be included in the training
programme. The training programme has to be maintained otherwise the gains will be short.
Endurance training provides the foundation upon which most of the components of fitness
are developed. Strength training involves working against resistance which includes a
variety of choices. No training programme should be allowed to start or end without the
inclusion of flexibility exercises. By doing this, injuries are prevented. Speed and agility
also benefits from regular flexibility.

16.6 PLANNING THE TRAINING SESSION

f How important is the planning of the training session?

One of your most important responsibilities as coach is the planning of the athlete's training
programme. This is a long-term process as athletes may not reach their peak until 24 years of
age or older. You have to look at what the athlete wants to achieve for a particular year and
subsequently divide the year in to a number of periods. For younger inexperienced athletes,
performance targets may need to occur at more frequent intervals. This is necessary as young
athletes are often unable to work towards objectives which they think are too distant.
We use the term ``periodisation'' in coaching to describe the division of a training
programme into a number of periods. Each period has a specific training objective. The

PST312M/1 127
most important aspect is to have the athlete fully prepared and in a physical and mental
state to perform at a level never previously achieved. Achieving optimum performance at
the right place and time is called ``peaking''.
Planning for the year or season is done backwards. You and the athlete must decide what,
where and when major competitions will take place. Thereafter the start of the training
year should be decided. Training plans should be simple and flexible as the plan may be
modified according to the athlete's progress and improvements.

b Now try to answer the following questions:


. Which guidelines must be followed to ensure safer and effective training for your
athletes?
. Which important facts must be considered when coaching athletes?

16.6.1 PERIODISATION

f Is training the same all year round?

There are three main periods to any training programme


. preparation
. competition
. transition

Preparation period (preseason)


This is the first and longest period of any training programme. During this period the
athlete will move gradually from very general to specific training. The main aim is to
prepare the athlete for the competition period. General training can be thought of as
``training to train'' and may last for as much as one third of the whole plan of preparation,
competition and transition. The aim of this period is to develop all-round general fitness by
gradually increasing the volume of training. This allows the athlete to do the more
demanding specific training which follows without getting injured. The volume of training
should be gradually increased allowing the athlete time for recovery and overcompensation.
The beginning of the preparation period is the best time to introduce new techniques or
modify existing skills. Technique should be worked on when the athlete is not fatigued,
therefore it should come before any general fitness training in a session.
General preparation should be followed by specific preparation. Training should now be
increased in both volume and intensity. Training becomes more specific to the athlete's
event with conditioning training emphasising the energy systems used in the event.

Competition period
During this period the volume of training is gradually reduced and the intensity is increased.
Heavier weights can be lifted but not as often. Speed training should be faster with longer
recovery times. Training should be mostly related to the characteristics of competition.
The athlete's fitness should be at its highest in the last part of the competition period.

128
Transition period (off season)
This period comes at the end of a season and can be thought of as an ``active rest''. The main
aim is to allow the athlete an opportunity to recover mentally and physically from training
loads during the preparation and competition periods. Athletes should be encouraged to try
other activities to provide change and allow them to return to their events refreshed and
eager to resume training the following season.
Dividing the training plan into periods provides you with guidelines for developing fitness
and techniques that are relative to volume and intensity. You need to know what types of
training to do for a particular event. Each sport has its own relative needs for strength,
endurance, speed, flexibility and coordination which the specific preparation and
competition training should reflect.

b READ page 121 in Successful coaching (Martens 1997).


What are the signs of overtraining?
(1) .................................................................................................................................................................

(2) .................................................................................................................................................................

(3) .................................................................................................................................................................

(4) .................................................................................................................................................................

(5) .................................................................................................................................................................

(6) .................................................................................................................................................................

(7) .................................................................................................................................................................

(8) .................................................................................................................................................................

16.6.2 PLANNING THE SESSION AND THE TRAINING WEEK

f How can you differentiate in your weekly training programme?

The time available for preparing an athlete for competitions will vary greatly from a year to
a few months. You can divide the time into periods in order to plan progressively. Training
progresses in cycles of activity and the smallest of these is known as the microcycle. The
microcycle is usually considered to be a duration of 7 days. The amount of training sessions
in a microcycle will depend on the athlete's age, experience, fitness, capacity for work and
where the microcycle fits into the three periods of the training programme.

Planning the microcycle


You need to realise that the training ratio must vary during the microcycle. The training
ratio refers to the ratio of training loads to recovery. The athlete needs to recover. This
may mean lighter, easier or, in advanced programmes, different training loads. The training
load can be varied by increasing or decreasing the number, volume, intensity or combination
of volume and intensity of training sessions.

PST312M/1 129
Heavy

Medium

Light

Rest

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Microcycle for a young, inexperienced athlete Ð preparation period

EVENT __________________

Age ___________ years Training age ___________ Developmental age ___________

Training load Warm up Cool down

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

130
Heavy

Medium

Light

Rest

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Microcycle for a young, inexperienced athlete Ð competition period

EVENT ___________________

Age ___________ years Training age ___________ Developmental age ___________

Training load Warm up Cool down

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

COMPETITION DETAILS

Saturday

Sunday

PST312M/1 131
Heavy

Medium

Light

Rest

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Microcycle for an experienced athlete Ð preparation period

EVENT __________________

Age ___________ years Training age ___________ Developmental age ___________

Training load Warm up Cool down

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

132
Heavy

Medium

Light

Rest

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Microcycle for an experienced athlete Ð preparation period

EVENT ___________________

Age ___________ years Training age ___________ Developmental age ___________

Training load Warm up Cool down

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

PST312M/1 133
Heavy

Medium

Light

Rest

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Microcycle for an experienced athlete Ð competition period

EVENT ___________________

Age ___________ years Training age ___________ Developmental age ___________

Training load Warm up Cool down

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

134
Training sessions, for younger athletes of 13 or 14 years can be more structured. Two to four
sessions a week may be possible. The graph below is an example of microcycles for young,
inexperienced athletes in the preparation and competition periods. ``Heavy'' loading on the
Saturday during the competition period indicates matches or participation in sport competitions.
As athletes mature and gain experience they are able to tolerate higher training loads.
Over a number of years they will eventually be able to carry out sessions on six to seven
days a week. There is also the possibility of more than one session per day.

Planning the training session


The training session consists of basic building blocks of coaching. Skills are learned,
conditioning and fitness are achieved and confidence is developed within the session. To
decide what units of work are suitable for a particular session you should follow four stages
of planning:

. The four stages of planning

Design the training session.


4 Decide what activities, and what order
will achieve your goals and objections

Build in the principles of effective


3 practice sessions

Set specific goals and objectives. Decide


2 which skills, biomotor abilities or energy
systems will be developed

Set the overall goals and objectives.


1 Decide how this practice fits into the big
picture of the microcycle and the period
of training

. Progression of a training session

b Indicate how you would conduct and plan a training session.

PST312M/1 135
c Progression through the session should allow for a gradual build-up of physical activity
and moves from
easy
slow
A
A
A
A
difficult
fast
known A A unknown
general A A specific
start A A finish

16.7 PRINCIPLES FOR STRUCTURING PRACTICE


You should structure a training session as follows:
. Big movements before small movements. Bigger movements require less accuracy than
the smaller movements, therefore the bigger movements are easier to learn. It is better
to get the bigger movements correct before worrying about the precision of advanced
technique.
. Simple to complex tasks. Simple movements are always easier to complete than complex
ones. Learning should therefore proceed from the simple to the complex. You should
understand the limitations of children.
. Parts to wholes. When teaching simple movements, it is best to do so as a whole task.
Complex movements having many parts and being more difficult should be taught in parts.
Break the skill down into sections.
. Continuous practice or broken practice. Long training sessions can be very boring for
children. You should present interesting variations in practice and break the sessions
into different parts. In this way you can deal with the different necessary skills.
. Practice and competition conditions. Children enjoy using what they have learnt in a
competition. Testing the children's skills under competition conditions provides more
motivation. Competitions should be adapted to the ability of the child. Children learn
quicker if they enjoy what they are doing.

If you look back at this study unit you will find there are the following numerous
implications for coaches:
. Coaches must refrain from specialising too early.
. Practice sessions must be within the child's limitations.
. Encourage a wide range of movement experiences.
. Seasons are sometimes too short and provide little time for preparation.
. Use the amount of time effectively.
. Large groups impede the implementation of differentiation.
. Insufficient sports equipment hampers coaching.
. Inadequate sports facilities cause problems, negativeness and discontinuation of sport.
. Winning at all costs leads to children dropping out of sport at an early age.
. Coaching the incorrect technique causes injuries and allows for little progress.
. Coaches must teach simply. Use the KIS principle Ð KEEP IT SIMPLE.

Use the following guiding principles:


. Explain clearly and simply what you are trying to do.
. Demonstrate and suggest how children may do this.
. Give enough time for practice.

136
. Be patient and correct errors, one at a time, the most important faults first.
. Teach the big, simple movements first.
. Do not give children too much to think about.
. Develop basic movement patterns should be developed before special skills.
. Do not expect too much too soon.
. Help children to evaluate their own performances.
. Practices for younger athletes should be short.
. Allow children to use the learned skill in a competition situation as soon as they can.
. Always use simple, easily understandable language.
. Be positive when giving feedback.
. Break down the skills into sections.
. Make skill practice challenging.

16.8 ORGANISING A TRAINING SESSION


Managing groups for effective training sessions
Time is a valuable resource for the sports coach. Efficient use of the available time is an
essential element of any practice or skill development lesson. By spending a little time
developing group management skills you will ensure that children are actively participating
throughout each session.

, Getting started
Organising groups
Getting their attention
Moving from activity to activity
Using practice stations
Teaching a new drill

GETTING STARTED ORGANISING GROUPS

Be sure all your athletes know where and when Ensure athletes can see you, and hear your
the session is to begin. instructions. Position your group so they are:
Ð not looking into the sun
Be prepared and organised yourself Ð arrive Ð not watching the team behind you
early and organise the equipment. Let the early
arrivals help with this task. If you can't put Effective coaches vary practice sessions; use
things out before session starts, check that individual or partner activities as well as small
what you need is on hand so it can be group drills. Being able to quickly change group
distributed without any waste of time. formations will save time.
Check you have everything you need. Are the Use simple commands such as ``Two to a ball'',
balls inflated? ``Get a partner about the same size'' or ``Each
pair find another pair so you have four players
Dress appropriately so that you look and feel in your group''.
the part. You can then join in the activities.
Establish strategies to help organise children
who arrive at different times, but begin your
session on time.

PST312M/1 137
GETTING THEIR ATTENTION USING PRACTICE STATIONS

Use either your voice or a whistle to get Set up a number of stations around the ground,
attention. What you do will depend on the pool or gymnasium. One group is positioned at
circumstances Ð your voice may be suitable for each station. Each group completes a particular
indoors but a whistle could be better outside. activity at a station, then moves to a different
Whichever you use, develop a consistent pat- activity at the next station.
tern. Make sure your players know what they
are meant to do when they hear the whistle or
when you give a verbal command.
MOVING FROM ACTIVITY TO ACTIVITY

Smooth transition from one activity to another


and changing group formations can be easily
achieved by starting the warm-up in a circle. Commence the practice by taking the whole
group to each station, demonstrating the
exercise to be carried out there.
Split the squad into appropriate groups, send
one to each station and begin the practice by
calling out ``GO!'' or blowing the whistle.
After an appropriate while, blow the whistle
again and have the groups rotate (hustle) to the
next station.
When the warm-up is finished, simply split the
group into two lines Ð those to your left form TEACHING A NEW DRILL
one line, those to the right form another.
Getting a new drill started effectively is
sometimes a difficult problem. Try
Ð giving the drill a name, for example ``Jacob's
passing drill'', ``four corners passing'', ``pres-
sure rebounding'', ``Tennessee drill'', to save
time and words
Ð teaching a few of the early arrivals at
It is now very easy to move to other group training so that they can demonstrate to
formations: others
Ð back into a circle Ð setting it up on a small scale and walking it
Ð groups of four through
Ð four lines Ð building from a previously practised drill ±
this can be done by adding athletes, adding
or reducing equipment

138
16.9 CONCLUSION
It is essential that you plan well ahead of time for the coming season. The development of a
physically conditioned athlete should include all the components of fitness. To avoid injury,
training should be geared for the long term and you should be knowledgeable about training
principles.
It is, for numerous reasons, not recommended to start intensive coaching at an early age.
You should, however, use this available time to plan the training sessions properly.

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STUDY UNIT 17

TEACHING SKILLS

17.1 INTRODUCTION
The most essential task of the coach or physical educator is teaching children skills. Skills
must be taught at the level at which children operate. Children do not have the same
language capabilities as adults. Therefore, very clear explanations are needed. This refers
firstly to what they are learning and secondly to how they should do it. Many coaches and
teachers forget what the children already know or some assume children have more
experience than they actually have.

g Learning outcomes
By the time you have completed this study unit you should be better prepared to
. understand the characteristics associated with the developments in each stage of
learning
. develop an effective coaching strategy for each stage.
. teach the simple and complex skills in your sport
. understand what determines children's skills

17.2 DETERMINATION OF CHILDREN'S MOVEMENT

f Which factors determine children's movement?

When coaching children, you should spend a great deal of time teaching basic skills and
helping children to become more skilful. The basic skills are required for running, jumping,
throwing and balancing. Development of coordination in basic movements is required before
specific event skills are attempted.
The degree to which children learn skills, depends on their maturation and experience, the
teaching they receive and the difficulty of the task. We discussed maturation and
experience in study unit 3. When referring to teaching, it is essential that skills are taught
to suit the level of the child. Young athletes are not as fluent in language as adults. Very
clear explanations are needed. You should explain what they are to learn and how they are
supposed to do it.
Tasks present different difficulties to different people. The same task can present
difficulties to people at different stages of growth. The more complex the task, the more
difficulty young athletes will have in learning the task (skill). Skills should be presented in a
way that gives the greatest chance of success. The more complex the skill the more
practice time is required.

140
17.3 CHILDREN'S BASIC MOVEMENTS

c Study the chart of gross motor development of the child from 2 to 6 years of age on
pages 21 to 23 in Sportstart: developing your kids' skills at home (Singh 1993).

Different patterns of movement are learnt from birth. Children go through stages as they
learn basic movements. Not all children go through the various stages at the same time.
Some have very immature patterns of movement in adolescence. Others have very mature
patterns. Coaches play a key role in creating opportunities for accelerating progress. Late
developers should be allowed to fully learn basic movements before going on to complex
movements.

f Can you describe the five periods relating to the child's basic movement patterns?

The foundation period Ð up to seven years of age


During this period children should be offered a broad range of nonspecific physical activity.
Specialisation in one sport should not be allowed. The emphasis should be on basic
coordination, skills and movement patterns.

The participation period Ð 7 to 11 years of age


Sport competitions were devised by men for men at the peak of their careers. These
competitions are therefore not suitable for children. Children cannot be expected to play
on the same size pitch as adults, use the same size equipment or adhere to the same adult
rules. During this period of physical development, children should experience modified
versions of adult games. Activities should be designed to develop specific skills. Coaches
should aim at offering children as wide a range of physical and sporting experience as
possible.

The performance period Ð 11 to 14 years of age


During the performance period, children should be exposed to activities that have not been
modified. Experiencing full game situations will enable children to appreciate the varied
demands and benefits. Children can then identify activities that are physically, mentally
and personally suited to them.

The development of excellence Ð 14 to 16 years of age


Children are now able to participate and specialise in a particular sport if they wish. If they
are offered a wide range of sporting experiences, most children will be able to find at least
one activity good for them. This activity may then be developed further.

Specialisation Ð 16 years of age and older


From the age of 16, youngsters are physically and mentally more mature and capable of
withstanding the pressures of specialisation. The physical education teacher should develop

PST312M/1 141
the learning of movement patterns for all pupils, and not just the gifted. The schools must
concentrate on the teaching of basic movement skills and coordination. The skills taught
have to be implemented in a sport. Coaches possess specific technical and tactical
knowledge about sport. The physical education teacher and the coach should compliment
each other creating opportunities for the sporting development of all interested
individuals.

17.4 HOW TO HELP CHILDREN LEARN

f How can you assist the child in learning sports skills?

The learning of skills is an invisible process. The results of skill learning can be seen in
improved performances. However, the process of learning is inside the body and the mind.
Learning involves the nervous system, the brain and the memory. When a child practises a
skill, the memory of previous attempts is used to physically perform the action again.
Continued practice forms a clear and precise memory of the action. This can be recalled for
use as needed. The brain's memory of a particular technique is called a ``motor programme''.
As learning progresses so does the development of the motor programme. The motor
programme starts to develop in the earliest stages of skill learning. The advanced athlete's
motor programme is a complete set of instructions that gives consistent performance.

Stages of learning

f Can you distinguish between the three different stages of learning?

. The beginning stage (the thinking stage Ð working out what to do).
Before children can learn anything they need to know what it is they are trying to achieve.
Do not start off by assuming athletes know what to do.
. Talk briefly about the skill to be learnt.
. Demonstrate and explain the skill.
. Use a teaching method that allows the beginner to perform the skill well enough to begin
to practise it.

The duration of the beginning stage will vary from athlete to athlete. Some children will
take longer to learn a simple skill than others. It will take longer for a child to learn a new
and complex skill. The beginning stage is completed once the child can perform a ``rough'' or
``coarse'' form of the skill, even though many errors remain.

. The intermediate stage (trying out ways of doing it)


This stage is when the athlete develops, by regular practice, the motor programme that
was initiated in the beginning stage. Practice alone is not enough to learn the correct skills.
Athletes need to be motivated to learn and to know that what they are doing is correct.

142
They also need to know what they are doing incorrectly. You should show them how to
correct their faults.
As with the beginning stage, there is no set timetable for the intermediate stage. Learning
can occur within a day, but complex skills may take years to reach the advanced stage. Once
the skill is being performed accurately and consistently it will become automatic and the
athlete will move into the advanced stage.

. The advanced stage of learning


Athletes are able to maintain a high level of performance under a variety of competition-like
environments in the advanced stage. Athletes develop confidence and have a good
understanding of their skill. This understanding means they are able to evaluate themselves
more effectively. During this stage athletes need to be motivated to practise the skill as
improvements are small and not so easily achieved. Learning is not finished at this stage. The
limits are being approached and the learning must continue if the limits are to be reached.

b Try to answer the following:


What are the implications for the coach during the teaching of motor skills during these
three stages of learning?

17.5 METHODS OF TEACHING SIMPLE SKILLS

f Are simple skills easy to teach?

Simple skills are those skills that an individual can perform with very little practice.
Sometimes beginners have seen the skill performed many times by other people, either in
person or on television. It is generally considered that 80 percent of learning takes place
through what is seen. A skill should only be seen as simple when beginners acquire it quickly
and easily. When a skill seems easy for you but hard for learners to master, you should
regard it as complex. Skills are often complicated by fear and nervousness. If there is
doubt whether a skill is simple or complex it should be taught as a complex skill.
There are two approaches to teaching simple skills:
. the imitation method
. the demonstration/explanation/practice/correction method

The imitation method


Simple imitation is often the best way for athletes to learn. It requires athletes to focus on
what is to be imitated or copied. Athletes must watch ... or try it. If the imitation is
correct, it should be confirmed. Athletes should remember and practise it.

The demonstration/explanation/practice/correction method


This method follows the following four steps:

PST312M/1 143
Allow further practice and correct in
4 more details, if needed.

Provide information while practice continues.


If you must, stop practice and conform
3 correct actions is if necessary make
suggestions to correct errors.

Allow time for practice. Observe carefully,


2 looking for correct actions and common
errors.

1 Demonstration with a brief explanation.

17.6 METHODS OF TEACHING COMPLEX SKILLS

f Which two methods can be used to teach complex skills?

Complex skills cannot easily be learnt by the same methods used for simpler skills. You
should simplify the skill to make learning easier. You should also be able to evaluate the
beginner athlete and simplify the skill to his or her level.
The following are the two most common methods used to teach complex skills
. shaping
. chaining

Shaping a complex skill


Shaping a complex skill means making the whole action simpler. To do this, proceed with the
following guidelines:
. Briefly demonstrate and explain the complete skill to be learnt.
. Use a simplified, or incomplete version of the whole skill which includes the most
important actions and is something the learners can be successful at.
. Allow practice of the simplified skill.

144
. Gradually change the tasks so that the whole skill is shaped into a reasonable example of
the finished product through practice.
. Encourage athletes who encounter problems to try it in other, simpler ways.

Chaining a complex skill


This means you should break a skill up into simpler parts. Athletes must chain the skill
together. A complex skill is made up of a number of simple, distinct parts. Each part may be
thought of as a link in a chain. The simple parts or links of the whole skill are learnt using
the methods of teaching simple skills. For chaining to be effective, the parts should be put
together as soon as possible to form the whole skill. In the intermediate stage the athlete
may practise parts of the skill but should always finish with the whole skill, putting the links
back into the chain.

4 Use effective communication skills

3 Provide feedback during practice

2 Plan how the athletes will practice the skill

1 Plan an explanation and demonstration

b Indicate how skills should be taught in specific sports events.

17.7 PLANNING A SKILL UNIT


The skill unit forms part of a training session where a new skill can be introduced or a
previously learnt skill practised and developed. The following four steps are given in
planning a skill unit for the introduction of a new skill:

PST312M/1 145
Plan a explanation and demonstration

f Why are demonstrations so helpful when coaching children?

You should determine whether a skill is simple or complex. Thereafter, you should choose an
appropriate method for teaching the skill. Decide on how to say it briefly in simple clear
language. Use an aid (chart, picture, videotape) only if it is necessary for the
demonstration. Aids can also be displayed on a wall or bulletin board.
You should give demonstrations wherever possible because they help athletes to learn skills
by acting as a visual model they can copy. Explanations and demonstrations work together
to develop an understanding of what is to be learnt. The best person to act as a
demonstrator is an athlete in the same event. A technically correct demonstration from
this athlete is all that is necessary. If you decide to demonstrate the skill, it is essential
that you are capable of performing the skill correctly. An effective demonstration by the
coach builds respect.
If there is no one available to demonstrate, use film or video instead. Slow motion can be
used to concentrate on movements that are difficult to follow at normal speed. This must
always be followed by the action at normal speed.
Sound can also be used as a model to help skill learning by focusing on the rhythm of
physical movements. Clapping hands demonstrates and emphasises the correct rhythm.
Sound combined with verbal explanations and visual demonstrations make skill learning more
effective.

Plan how the athletes will practise the skill


Athletes must begin to practise as soon as possible after a demonstration. Athletes should
not be afraid to make mistakes, as these mistakes are a necessary part of the learning
process. Athletes should not be fatigued at the beginning of the skill unit. Advanced
athletes, however, sometimes need to practise skills when fatigued to simulate competition
conditions. Skill practices should not extend beyond 20 minutes without a break.

Provide feedback during practice

f What is so important about feedback?

You should provide feedback so that athletes know how they are coping. Athletes learn to
get the feeling of the correct technique, which is very important for the permanence of the
skills, from the feedback they receive. Emphasising the feeling of the correct technique is
more important than what the athlete sees.
Feedback from other coaches, athletes and video cameras help athletes realise that they
are able to perform the skill. This gives a better understanding of the correct movement
pattern for a particular skill. This way, you are able to provide accurate and useful
information to your athletes.

146
Use effective communication skills
You need to give effective verbal feedback. It is essential for the athlete's motivation,
learning and self-image. Look at the following key aspects of effective feedback:
. specific to general
. constructive not destructive
. sooner not later
. checked for clarity not left misunderstood
. directed at behaviour which is changeable
. correcting one fault at a time

b
. Evaluate your communication skills and indicate how you would go about improving your
listening skills.
. What coaching techniques should be emphasised in the three stages of learning?
. Outline the most effective way to include demonstrations in your coaching routine.

17.8 CONCLUSION
A good coach is a teacher of physical skills who uses the principles of skill learning to make
his or her teaching more effective. A coach should be able to correct the reasons for
technical faults and, at the same time, allow the individual athlete's style to develop fully.
The concepts and principles contained in this study unit are fundamental to all aspects of
coaching when teaching games and various sports activities.

PST312M/1 147
STUDY UNIT 18

SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

18.1 INTRODUCTION

f Do you know the athlete you are coaching?

Coaches play a key role in helping children develop how they think, their mental skills as well
as their physical skills. Any sport requires more that just conditioning work or practising or
performing the skills. Competitors have to think their way through their event.
In the past athletes used to learn from others and have to read from books to be able to
give of their best. Today's athletes no longer have to battle along the path of trial and
error. Coaches and athletes can turn for help to well-developed principles and training
programmes of applied sport psychology for related materials.

g Learning outcomes
By the time you have completed this study unit you will be better prepared to
. coach your athletes to control psychological factors in sports performances
. help your athletes determine goals and strategies and achieve those goals that will
enhance motivation

18.2 MENTAL PREPARATION AND SKILLS

f Is mental preparation to the advantage of the athlete?

Mental preparation involves the design and practice of structured thinking approaches.
Athletes often have to think and do certain things that are completely unnatural Ð such as
being focused and controlled when the entire stadium is going crazy trying its best to
distract them.
Athletes sometimes waste a considerable amount of mental and physical energy worrying
about things beyond their control. They should base their mental preparation on things
they can control and spend time in training these skills. By doing this they are able to
approach the event with a much more focused and confident attitude.
The key to mental preparation is to identify what can and cannot be controlled and then to

148
work on those things that can be controlled. An athlete must have the correct frame of
mind. It is your task to really get to know the athlete you are working with. This preparation
is not only a means of avoiding or recovering from disasters. It plays an important part in
organising practice and training effectively so that things go correctly in the first place.

Arousal and performance


What happens to an athlete's performance as his or her level of psychological arousal level
increases? The following diagram is the classic presentation:

OPTIMAL
PERFORMANCE/AROUSAL
PERFORMANCE

LO AROUSAL HI

Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, tension levels, and so on, increase,
performance increases to an optimal point and thereafter decreases at an alarming rate.
This is of course the inevitable. The worried athlete, who worries about the result of the
event, the other competitors, the condition of the venue, the weather, or recent poor
training sessions, is definitely going to feel uncomfortable. He or she will be a victim of the
``inverted U'' Ð actually the victim of their own thinking.

X
HINTS
. Last minute strategy changes or tactical changes should not be made.
. Do not stress the outcomes of the results.
. Help athletes to regain their concentration when distracted.
. Teach athletes to control their level of arousal and their concentration.
. Teach athletes to look forward to competitions as these provide the
chance to test their skills under pressure.

b Is mental preparation for the six-year-old child the same as for the 16-year-old
adolescent? Explain your answer.

18.3 PERSONALITY
No two people react to training and competitions in the same way. Scientists have proved

PST312M/1 149
that there is no one ideal athletic personality. Personalities of the people around
competitors during competitions cannot be controlled. Smart athletes realise that they
don not have to change their personality to be an effective competitor, but they have to
know how to control their tendency to react inappropriately at times during competitions.
Athletes who have been taught how to control their emotional reactions will approach a
competition confident of their ability to control themselves when things get tough.

18.4 MOTIVATION

f What is your role as coach in motivating your athletes?

You cannot control the motivation levels of your athletes. You can, however, assist athletes
to continue to work towards desirable goals. Focusing on effort levels and what can
personally be achieved is much more motivating than focusing on winning, which is
dependent on many other uncontrollable factors.
Motivation means how much an individual wants to achieve a goal. You need to know what
goals an individual has. The following are some reason for being involved in sport:
. to have fun
. to master new skills
. to make friends
. to become fit
. to experience excitement

You should understand the reasons why children take part in sport. Unless they find what
they are looking for they are unlikely to want to stay involved and will choose to drop out of
sport. External pressure from coaches and parents is unlikely to increase motivation in the
long term and may actually decrease it. Self-motivation and fulfilment are what keep the
athlete interested in the sport.
. Psychological factors that can you control include the following:
Ð how the athlete is coping with school, home or career
Ð the athlete's friends, fellow club members
Ð attitude and approach to training
Ð ability to recover from the effects of training
Ð coping with minor and chronic injuries
Ð mood fluctuations, particularly around competition times
Ð competition preparation routines
Ð pre-event distractibility and nervousness
Ð the ability to visualise performance skills
Ð planned approach to each segment of the event
Ð self-talk at the competition venue
Ð strategic thinking during an event
Ð post-event emotions

Coaches should help athletes understand what they want to achieve, their goals and how
they will achieve them.

150
b READ chapter 6 of Successful coaching (Martens 1997).

18.5 GOAL SETTING

f How can you assist your athlete in setting targets?

Athletes need clearly defined goals so that they know what they are aiming at. They need
to know exactly what they have to do to achieve these goals and know when they have
achieved them. Goals need to be set out for each training session, each week, the next
month and the whole season. The goals should lead towards well-defined, important events
in the athlete's experience. Goal setting improves motivation and helps build self-
confidence in the athlete.

The main features of good goal setting


. Goals should be structured into long-term, short-term and intermediate.
. They should be seen as the stepping stones of success.
. They should be accepted by the athlete.
. Goals should be of varied difficulty, with some challenging but still realistic goals.
. They must be measurable so that success can be recognised.
. They should determine what an athlete has to do.
. Goals must be reviewed regularly, either monthly, weekly or daily.

Long-term goals
Long-term goals should be set at the start of the season and may even relate to a four-year
to five-year period if necessary. Firstly all the competitions should be listed. Then you must
decide what you want to have achieved by the time of each competition. This will be either
the attainment of a level of skill or a certain achievement such as a time or placing. Long-
term goals should be reviewed regularly. Determine whether goals are still relevant,
achievable, whether the athlete is still on target to achieve them, or what can be done
immediately to achieve them.

Short-term goals
Short-term goals should be developed and used as stepping stones to help you achieve long-
term goals. Short-term goals should be achievable and assessable to ensure athletes remain
motivated. Unrealistic goals are more harmful than no goals at all. Short-term goals can
relate to the following:
. Performance segments. The various sections of a performance, for example a start,
heats or play at the end of a half
. Specific skills. The maintenance of skills already learnt or the perfection of a new skill,
(eg the number of skills performed in one training session)
. Fitness. Conditioning, flexibility, (eg duration, volume and intensity of training)

PST312M/1 151
. Concentration. Mental application to the required task, (eg accepting responsibility for
actions, developing mental toughness by focusing on the task at hand)
. Emotional control. Controlling arousal levels and emotional behaviour
. Social goals. Cohesion, cooperation, the individual's role within the team, managing the
individual's social life
. Performance strategies. Overall structuring of approaches to competition

It is important for you and the athlete to evaluate the performance in relation to the goals
set. You should look at what the athlete has achieved as well as what did not work. Finally,
ensure that you, as a coach, reward successful achievement of goals. Let your athletes
decide on suitable rewards.

18.6 EMOTIONAL CONTROL

f How can coaches help athletes to control certain levels of anxiety?

Learning to control anxiety is an important task of the coach. Anxiety is always present in
any situation. One symptom of anxiety is worry. This refers to thoughts or images about
what may happen in an impending event. Some athletes experience high anxiety and others
low anxiety levels. It does not matter how well physical preparation has been if the athlete
arrives at the competition and is unable to perform at his or her best due to being under or
over aroused. There are two ways in which you can help to prepare the mental skills of
emotional control:
(1) setting effective goals to increase self-confidence
(2) using appropriate relaxation techniques

The athlete who has clear targets can focus on these, rather that some vague worry about
the possibilities of competition. Relaxation can also be taught and improved through
practice.

18.7 DEALING WITH WINNING AND LOSING

f Which is more important, winning or playing the game?

A prerequisite for sport involvement is to try to win. However, competition is often


confused with the outcome. Coaches are faced with the problem of helping the athlete to
deal with ``winning'' or ``losing''. There is undue pressure placed on athletes to win. A ``pep-
talk'' by the coach before the event, pressure from parents and the emphasis of how
important winning is to the team, can lead to a tremendous loss of self-esteem if the result

152
is not favourable. The motivated talk often leads to ``over arousal'' resulting in ``anxiety'' and
a subsequent deterioration in performance.
``Winning'' and ``losing'' can be replaced by the terms ``success'' or ``failure''. The result of a
competition does not always reflect the quality of the performance. Doubtful umpiring
decisions, the quality of the opposition's performance and ill-fortune on the day, can all lead
to a result which does not really reflect the losers' performance.

Athletes should be seen as successful in competitions if they


C try to do their best throughout the event
C show respect to officials in charge of the event
C have respect for their opponents
C play within the laws or rules of the competition
C get enjoyment from participation

Athletes should be seen as unsuccessful if they


B do not give their best throughout the event
B show disrespect to officials in charge of the event
B show disrespect to opponents
B try to cheat or perform outside the laws

These points do not take into account winning or losing. No one expects an athlete to enjoy
losing, but athletes should enjoy taking part regardless of the outcome.

X
HINTS
. Remember winning is not necessarily success.
. Losing is not necessarily failure.
. Over motivation can lead to anxiety.
. Set your athletes a good example by accepting defeat gracefully and
being humble in victory.
. Provide competitive situations during the training period.
. Provide guidelines for athletes on how to accept victory and defeat in a
good spirit.

b How would you counsel athletes regarding training setbacks?

PST312M/1 153
b Evaluation exercises
(1) What would be your main goal when coaching primary school children?
(2) Do you set goals when you coach? Do you, or would you, do the following?
. involve your athletes in setting their goals
. use only long-term goals
. use only short-term goals
. use specific, measurable goals
. encourage your athletes to work out their own tactics and adjust their goals

(3) An athlete you coach is considering giving up. What steps would you take to encourage
the athlete to stay in the sport? Discuss how important motivation and goal setting
are in this situation.
(4) Visit a sports club and evaluate a coach according to his or her coaching skills. Use
the check list provided in Sports coaching and teaching (Gummerson 1992:37).

18.8 CONCLUSION
Psychological training for your athletes should be based on an understanding of which of
the various psychological factors likely to influence your sport are controllable. There
should be some assessments as to which athletes have apparent weaknesses in their ability
to control each relevant factor. The training programmes should be developed to train
these control skills.
As a coach you are not expected or supposed to be an expert in the mental preparation of
your athletes. However, you may want to read as much material on sport psychology as
possible to develop an understanding of what is happening to your athletes.

154
STUDY UNIT 19

TEAM MANAGEMENT AND STRESS


MANAGEMENT

19.1 INTRODUCTION
Coaches have many responsibilities beyond the everyday coaching of their athletes. Many
wish they have fewer of these management responsibilities so they could have more time
for actually coaching. Team management functions are part and parcel of the job. The
responsibilities vary greatly depending on the sport you coach and the organisation for
whom you coach. If your organisation has no assistants or outside funds and very limited
facilities, the responsibilities on you are going to be greater than if you had this kind of
support. In a highly organised club with financial backing, adequate volunteers and
administrative staff you can really concentrate on the task you like best, namely coaching.
The key to success in coaching includes your own mental and physical preparation, in other
words, take care of yourself first in order to take care of others. Despite your particular
position you will find this particular study unit valuable to review, whatever management
responsibilities you hold.

g Learning outcomes
By the time you have completed this study unit you will be better prepared to
.
.
manage your responsibilities as a coach more effectively
avoid stressful situations
. use your time effectively
. handle your health successfully

The following are going to be highlighted in this study unit:


. preseason management
. in-season management
. postseason management
. managing relationships
. stress management
. time management
. health management

19.2 PRESEASON MANAGEMENT


The more you address the functions you are responsible for at the start of the season, the
fewer management problems you will experience during the season. Matters that need your
attention before the start of the season include:
. a review of your coaching philosophy

PST312M/1 155
. the development of your season instruction plan
. staff selection and training (assistant coaches and other positions)
. player positions (recruiting players, communication systems, eligibility, team rules, team
notebook, preseason team meeting, initial skill and knowledge evaluation, team captain
and award system)
. scheduling
. facilities
. equipment and supplies
. fiscal management
. risk management
. parent orientation programme

19.3 IN-SEASON MANAGEMENT


Once the season has arrived, your management responsibilities are not at an end. There are
a number of ongoing responsibilities that have to be taken care of. Player supervision during
the season, maintenance of equipment, putting your preseason plan into action,
transportation, publicity, first-aid provision, these are only a few of the responsibilities
you are faced with.

19.4 POSTSEASON MANAGEMENT


The last match is over, but you are still faced with several postseason management
responsibilities. You have to evaluate your programme, take care of players during the off-
season, check what equipment has to be repaired or replaced, complete the necessary
records of performances, arrange an awards function.

19.5 MANAGING RELATIONSHIPS


To be a successful coach you need to be able to work with the people that assist you. You
need to have a special relationship with the parents as they will be needed to transport
their children. Assistant coaches, administrators, officials and medical staff are all
relied on during the season. The main objective must be to create positive working
relationships with these individuals. This will ensure that they not only do their jobs
effectively, but also enjoy what they are doing. A sense of satisfaction can be created
among all.

e READ chapter 14 of Successful coaching (Martens (1997).

Now try to answer the following questions:

(1) How you would establish a better relationship with your coaches?
(2) How do you intend to keep your medical staff productive?
(3) How can you work more effectively with parents?
(4) How will you go about preparing officials for their responsibilities?

156
19.6 STRESS MANAGEMENT
Various factors can cause stress for coaches. Stress is often caused because the coach
interprets something incorrectly. One coach perceives a situation differently to another.
The following may cause coaches to feel stressed:
. They often perceive that administration and the community do not appreciate their
difficult task.
. They are concerned that players will not respect them.
. They are concerned about making mistakes.
. They always feel tired during the season.
. They find it difficult to calm down after games.
. The schedule during the season makes them feel overloaded.
. They worry that players are going to mess up.
. They come in for criticism from parents and supporters.
. They suffer from nervousness before the game.
. They are often on edge when coaching.

Coaches have to find the ability to cope with the various situations they have to deal with.
Here are a few guidelines to help you cope:
. Find something good to comment on from a bad practice or game.
. Keep your temper and other emotions under control when coaching.
. Try not to feel troubled by coaching matters at home.
. Try to find coaching challenging but never overwhelming.
. Do not fly off the handle when a player or an official makes a mistake.
. Have confidence that you are doing a really worthwhile job as a coach.
. Remember that as a coach you cannot control everything.
. If something bad or unexpected happens during the season, learn to adjust to the
situation.
. Set time aside each day for yourself, to exercise, relax, or just to be alone.
. Listen to constructive criticism as feedback.
. When a problem arises, address it quickly instead of letting it be a source of ongoing
concern.
. Do not panic and blow difficult circumstances out of proportion.
. Plan periodic ``fun days'' when you and your athletes can break away from the normal
practice routine.
. Learn to laugh and not be so serious about your role.
. Join in relaxation sessions with your athletes.

19.7 TIME MANAGEMENT


Coaches can be disorganised and, so, unfortunately unproductive. Instead of being spurred
on by the knowledge of the great benefits they hide behind the problems associated with
planning or time management.
Poor time management may also cause you stress. Look at the following:
. You rely on ``mythical time''.
. You underestimate demands on your time.
. You find you creep from one task to another, unable to ``switch off'' task creeping
. You start hopping from task to task, never completing any of them.
. You ignore reality.

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Effective time managers do the following:

. plan every day and every training session


. concentrate on achieving goals
. are unperturbed by the unexpected which may ``throw'' others off the task
. believe in themselves and their abilities
. value organisation

How to manage time


Try to do the following to help you manage your time:

. Establish seasonal or yearly, six-month and three-month goals and monitor them
regularly.
. Develop schedules and criteria to measure progress for major events.
. Discuss plans with experts, encourage feedback and constructive criticism.
. Prepare a recording system to allow quick reference to results.
. Compile a reminder list of things that have to be done to keep you on track.
. Keep a notebook with you so that you can write down ideas as they occur.
. Break down projects into more manageable units.
. Ensure consistency between personal goals and coaching goals.
. Focus on one task at a time.
. Set and keep deadlines for yourself and others.
. Recognise the importance of delegating work and getting good assistance.
. Concentrate on controlling any demands made on you or your time and find time for
yourself.
. Concentrate on getting your message across clearly and quickly.
. Slow down when your feel pressure and review your priorities.

19.8 HEALTH MANAGEMENT

f Is it important for the coach to have a healthy lifestyle?

If you do not manage your own health properly, you could be heading for a heart attack, a
stroke or a hypertension-related disorder. You need to set an example for your athletes.
This is possible by following a healthy lifestyle, which consists of

. regular exercise
. a high-performance diet
. maintaining a moderate weight level
. controlling blood pressure
. not smoking
. drinking alcohol in moderation
. managing stress

If you are healthy, you will not only live longer and have more energy to coach successfully,
you will also provide a good role model for your athletes.

158
19.9 CONCLUSION
By managing yourself better, your stress, time, and health, you will manage your team
better and thereby become a successful coach. Athletes learn more from the personal
example of their coach. You must meet the challenge and follow the straightforward
guidelines to a healthier lifestyle.

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STUDY UNIT 20

PARENT, COMMUNITY AND


MEDIA INVOLVEMENT

20.1 INTRODUCTION
Few organisations can afford to do without the support of parents, the community and the
media. Closer links with these circles helps to ensure a systematic and coordinated delivery
of sport. Improving the links between the school and the community means a more
coordinated approach to sport, which leads to better opportunities for the youth of a
country.
Nobody has unlimited resources. By working together, groups can reduce duplication and
make the best use of the resources available Ð whether they are facilities, qualified
personnel or equipment. This in turn can assist young people to move easily between school
and community sporting opportunities and competitions.
Even though study unit 1 looked into parent involvement in sport, we need to highlight this
again. Schools must also develop good working relationships with their athletes' parents.
With just a little effort you can have parents working with you and appreciating your
coaching efforts.
Media involvement can bring a school's existence to the notice of community members. The
trick is to relate the news in such a way that the media representative will be interested in
carrying it. You must inform the media that there are other schools or clubs that want
media space.

g Learning outcomes
At the end of this study unit you should be able to
. develop better links with your community
. make your media reports more effective
. get parents more involved in their child's sport

20.2 DEVELOPING BETTER SCHOOL-COMMUNITY


LINKAGES

f How do your coaching and school benefit by improving the school-community linkages?

Schools are in the unique position of being able to introduce young people to a diversity of
sports and sporting skills from which they can eventually choose a sport that suits or

160
interests them. They also play an important role in giving children the basic skills and
confidence needed to explore community-based sporting options and encouraging them to
join clubs.
Coaches have a special responsibility to foster a positive attitude towards physical activity
and sport and to help young people develop sporting skills. Coaches are a powerful influence
on the continued involvement of children in sport. However, although coaches can provide
the context for the development of sports skills, they cannot be expected to have
expertise in teaching all sports. Even the most skilled coaches can enhance their
programmes by providing appropriate contact with community sport.
Linking school-based sport to sport in the community gives children the opportunity to
extend themselves beyond the status of a pupil who has to participate, to an active
voluntary participant in community sport. By linking the school sport programme to
community sport the following benefits are possible:
. Children are able to occupy positions in community sport clubs.
. Children are encouraged to become involved in sport for life.
. Children become more aware of the community facilities and competitions.
. Community clubs, and in particular, sport development officers, are aware of school
programmes.

f How can schools improve their links with the community?

There are various methods and strategies to link the school with the community which can
be developed to suit the location and any constraints that may exist through time and
programming. The children should have good experiences in the school environment to want
to continue outside that environment.
Strategies you can employ to link school sport programmes with the community include the
following:
. Conduct training sessions with a prominent coach or member of a senior team.
. Organise class attendance at a game or senior training session.
. Invite local referees to attend a class session.
. Have your group participate in a local competition.
. Collect and display information on community competitions and facilities.
. Arrange publicity for finals and award presentations.
. Arrange for your athletes to coach other teams in the community.
. Give your athletes opportunities to assist in event and competition management in the
community.

f How can a club or organisation be of help to the school in order to develop better school-
community links?

Clubs can develop strategies to offer assistance to schools. If you are a club coach you can
do the following for example:
. Identify what your club or association is able to offer a school. This may include
personnel, resources or facilities.

PST312M/1 161
. Provide coaching as part of an Expo/Come and Try programme at the school.
. Visit schools and talk to children about a particular sport as part of a special ``focus on
sport week''. Also talk to older athletes about careers in sport.
. Provide printed resources on a particular sport to assist school coaches.
. Deliver information on appropriate equipment and where to obtain it.
. Assist with other sport-related issues which could be of help, for example how to
organise a sporting event, how to devise a training programme, how to deal with injuries.
. Appoint a contact person for the school.
. Inform the schools of competition dates and the format for the coming season.
. Consider including school programmes and timing of competitions in the club planning.
. Invite coaches, teachers and parents from the school to an afternoon at your club.
. Make your club's facilities available after school.
. Offer incentives, awards and scholarships to school sporting teams, coaches and
referees.
. Invite school coaches, personnel and athletes to coaching or refereeing courses
organised by your club.
. Use children as volunteer officials at the club or association events.
. Provide coaches, referees and officials for school competitions.

Just as you evaluate and monitor coaching activities in your school, it is important that you
take the time to evaluate your linking activities with clubs and discuss the outcomes. Be
prepared to change your programmes to build on successes and make improvements which
will provide longer term benefits to your school.

The feedback concerning the athletes' skill levels, equipment necessary to run a specific
programme, and the specific programme are all useful for your training sessions. Coaching
courses will bring you up to date with all the latest development in your specific sport. Do
not be afraid to learn from others as you will never cease to learn something.

20.3 A PARENT ORIENTATION PROGRAMME


You should hold a preseason parent orientation programme to avoid the traditional
problems that occur between coaches and parents. Such a programme is useful for the
following reasons:

. It enables parents to understand the objectives of the programme.


. It allows the parents to become acquainted with you.
. You are able to inform the parents about the nature of the sport and its potential
risks.
. You can explain why you do not put pressure on children too early.
. Parents get to know team rules, regulations and procedures.
. You can inform parents about what is expected of the athletes and of them.
. It enables you to understand the parents' concerns.
. You are able to establish a clear line of communication between yourself and the
parents.
. It is possible to obtain help from parents in conducting the season's activities.

You may feel uncomfortable speaking to adults. The importance of open, honest
communication with parents to a successful and enjoyable sport programme cannot be
overemphasised.

162
c Planning the programme
When planning your orientation programme you will need answers to the following
questions:
. When should the meeting be held?
. How long should the meeting be?
. Should athletes attend the meeting?
. Where should the meeting be held?
. How should the meeting be conducted?

The agenda for the parent orientation programme


The planning of an orientation programme has to be followed by the setting up of the parent
orientation programme agenda. The agenda should include the following:
. Introduction (10 minutes)
. Coaching philosophy (10 minutes)
. Demonstrations (25 minutes)
. Potential risks (25 minutes)
. Specifics of your programme (15 minutes)
. A question-and-answer session (20±45 minutes)

b Describe each section of the agenda very briefly.


Consult pages 199 to 201 of Successful coaching (Martens 1997).

Involving parents
Parents can be both the strongest allies and the worst critics of the coach.
Nearly everyone has observed ``ugly parents'' jeering and berating their own children, team,
officials and the opposition.
Much has been written about such parents. Rather than dwelling on the negative, we will
examine positive ways of communicating with parents and involving them in the programme.

PRESEASON MEETING

The first step in the communication process could be to arrange a preseason orientation
meeting for parents. Often a club will establish the first informal links with parents. At
registration, notice may be given for a parent orientation evening.
The parent orientation meeting will provide the opportunity for the junior coach to discuss
key issues and establish a coaching climate for the season. The agenda for the meeting may
include:
Coach's background Brief summary of your history including coaching
qualifications, first aid qualifications.

PST312M/1 163
Coaching philosophy A rundown on the club's and/or your team's approach to fun,
fitness, skills development, emphasis on competition,
catering for individual differences, training intensities and
schedules. Provide a total picture of what you are on about
and how you intend to operate. Highlight the need for the
coach to control athletes' behaviour during games and
practice.
Programme details Practice time and venue information. Yearly calendar of
events. What is required of children and parents in relation
to the above.
Financial considerations Fees; fund-raising; other costs, for example competitions,
clothing, etc; some idea of how the club uses its money.
Consideration for children who may not be able to afford
fees.
Parental concern Open the meeting to parents to ask questions, seek
clarification, express concerns. State club policy in a firm
and polite manner.
Parental involvement Point out where you need additional help. Highlight the ways
in which parents can positively contribute to the team or
the individual performer(s).
Safety and other Club rules, dress requirements and considerations
information (especially to encourage girls), protective equipment,
horseplay, eating, drinking policy, as well as using equipment
or apparatus without supervision may be touched on at the
meeting.

The following is a sample letter which may be used as a basis for a letter to invite parents
to an orientation meeting.

164
Dear parent,
I have been appointed coach of your child's (daughter's, son's) team (squad) for
this season.
This letter is to invite you to a parents' meeting and to outline my (our, the
club's) coaching philosophy.
My (our) coaching programme will emphasise skills development, fun and working
cooperatively.
I (we) want the children to learn all the basic skills of the sport and to become
as good as they can. I (we) also believe that forming friendships, developing a
feeling of belonging and learning to share experiences with others are
important to children.
All players (team members) will be given equal opportunity to play or compete
during the season. Everybody will have a fair level of involvement in all positions
(events).
I am (we are) inviting all parents to a short meeting at (venue) on (date and
time). At the meeting we will further outline my (the club's) coaching philosophy
and we can also discuss:
Programme details including competition (game) fixtures and practice times and
venues.
The things that you want your child to get out of their involvement with our
team.
Transport to and from games (events) and practice.
Safety, including club rules, injury management and First Aid arrangements.
Practical duties Ð umpiring, officiating, canteen (other rosters)
Club social activities
Fees and fund-raising
I look forward to meeting you.
Yours sincerely
Coach

Postseason parent evaluation


At the end of the season it is very wise to ask the parents to evaluate you and the
programme. This will provide an indication of which points have to be improved for the next
season. It will also help you become a better coach!

20.4 CONTACTING THE MEDIA

f Which methods can you use to advertise the sport happenings?

The media can help to promote your sport in the community. Very few schools can do

PST312M/1 165
without publicity. Presentations have to be of a high quality so that the media corporation
will not hesitate to publish them.

The electronic media


Getting television coverage is difficult for schools because there is precious little time for
local content in news bulletins. Junior sport programmes focus mainly on youth sport and
should be contracted for this purpose.
The local radio station is also an avenue but items will probably be heavily cut because of
time demands. However if you have an event that you think is worth publicising, sport
editors recommend that you do the following:
. Find out about the people with whom you will be dealing. Introduce yourself to them.
. Send information about your event at least four days in advance. Make you information
``eye catching'' so that you attract the editor's attention. This is important when you
remember that networks may have only five minutes to cover local sport.
. Send a reminder fax or follow-up with a phone call on the morning of the event.
. Well-known personalities or local champions may be drawcards to attract attention.
. Do not forget a thank you call after your event has been covered.

Newspapers
The local newspaper is the most accessible of all media outlets. Editors of larger daily
newspapers and those of smaller, once-a-week papers suggest that you remember the
following guidelines:
. Personal contacts are important. Try to meet the reporters with whom you will be dealing
and talk directly to reporters you know.
. Give several working days notice Ð up to a week if possible Ð of your event. Follow up
your release with a phone call.
. Use your organisation's letterhead or type the organisation's name at the top of the
release. You will need to include a publication time. Write ``immediate release'' or if it is
under an embargo, write the date and time of release.
. Write clearly, or better still, type copy in double spacing. If your submission is hand-
written, be sure to print names in block letters.
. Give meticulous attention to the basic details. Keep in mind the five W's Ð who, what,
when, where, why Ð and how. However, try to get straight to the point and limit your
release to a single page. Press releases are often cut from the bottom so your important
information should be in the early paragraphs.
. Use junior sport columns if your local paper features these and time your release to
coincide with these columns.
. If no reporter turns up, do not be discouraged. Continue to send in details and results.
Not every event can be covered especially in small operations.
. Allow a couple of days for publication.
. Include your name and a contact number in case there is any need for a reporter to
contact you.

Photographs
You can often request a photographer to attend your event but if this is not possible
include a photo of your own.
Look at the following suggestions for photographs:
. Black and white glossy photos are still preferred but colour photos are acceptable.

166
. Avoid a dark background, particularly with dark-haired children as you will lose
definition.
. Take action shots rather than static group shots.
. Identify the people in the photo by typing their names, from left to right as you look at
the picture. Tape this information to the back of the photo. Do not write directly onto
the backs of the photos and do not mark the photo in any way.

b Answer the following:


(1)
(2)
(3)
Can you improve on the links between yourself and the community?
Is it important to introduce a parent orientation programme?
Which avenue have you not yet tried to publicise the sporting events of your school?
(4) Indicate how you will go about contacting a newspaper.

20.5 CONCLUSION
It is important for you, the coach, to help improve the links between the school and the
community. By doing this the athlete is given the opportunity to bridge the gap between
junior and senior sport. Schools very often cling to athletes not allowing them to spread
their wings in the community. This limits their opportunities of finding a suitable sport to
continue once they have left school. You should aim to encourage life-long participation.
Getting parents involved in their child's sport is also to the advantage of the child's self-
esteem. You must not look at the negative side of parent involvement, in other words
interference. Parents can be of value when it comes to building team spirit.
The media is a very useful tool to help develop your specific sport and to encourage greater
participation. Try to publicise it as much as possible. Do not wait for the reporters to come
to you for news.

PST312M/1 167
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