IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 1

Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation

Shreya Mozumdar

IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation

3.1. An introduction to biodiversity

• Biodiversity is a term for the variety of life, which can be examined through genetic
diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity.
• Species diversity looks at both the number of species (richness) and the relative
proportions of each species (evenness) in a community.
o It is not just the total number of organisms or species in a place, but also the number
of organisms within each different species. (i.e. how organisms are distributed
among the species).
o E.g. – rainforests (high species diversity), tundra (low species diversity)
• Genetic diversity is the range of genetic material present in a particular gene pool or
population of a species.
o The higher the genetic diversity of a species, the better it is for the species. Higher
genetic diversity makes a species more resistant to disturbances like disease.
o Low genetic diversity may indicate a low population size in recent history.
o E.g. – wild mustard (high genetic diversity), grey seals (low genetic diversity)
o Humans can alter genetic diversity by artificially breeding or genetically
engineering populations with low genetic diversity.
§ It is advantageous when it produces a high-yielding crop or a disease-
resistant plant/animal.
§ However, if disease strikes and the whole population is susceptible, it could
be a problem.
o ADVANTAGES OF HIGH GENETIC AND SPECIES DIVERSITY
§ Many species and much variety within each species
§ Species can adapt to new and changing habitats
§ Species can adapt to new niches
§ However, it may stop succession because species diversity falls later in
succession. It disrupts the natural process.
• Habitat diversity is the number of different habitats pet unit area in an ecosystem or biome.
o e.g. rainforest (high habitat diversity), tundra (low habitat diversity)
o If there is higher habitat diversity, there may be higher genetic and species diversity.
• ADVANTAGES OF HIGH BIODIVERSITY
o Resilience and stability because many species are present that can survive drought,
floods, disease, pest attack
o Genetic diversity leading to disease resistance
o Plants will have deep roots to cycle nutrients and bring them to the surface making
them available for others.
• DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH BIODIVERSITY
o Could result in the fragmentation of a habitat, or degradation when species richness
arrives from pioneer species invading bare areas quickly
o Grazing can be difficult because different plants have different tolerance to grazing.
o Some stable and healthy communities may have low biodiversity and are exceptions.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 2
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

• DIVERSITY INDICES
o Communities and ecosystems can be described and compared through diversity
indices.
o Low diversity could indicate pollution, eutrophication or early stages of succession.
o Simpson’s Diversity Index helps to measure biodiversity.
o It is important to repeat investigations over a period of time. It tells us if biodiversity
is increasing or decreasing and if conservation efforts are needed/effective.
o Measuring biodiversity is important to identifying, exploring and conserving areas
of high biodiversity.
o Assessing changes in biodiversity over time helps us assess the impact of human
activity in a community.
• Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high levels of biodiversity that are under threat from
human activities.
o There are 25 recognised hotpots around the world – there about 10 which are
tropical rainforests.
o Hotspots are areas where 70% of the habitat has already been lost.
• CRITICISMS OF HOTSPOTS
o Focus on vascular plants and ignore animals
o Do not represent total species richness and diversity
o Focus on places that have already lost habitat and not ones that may be under threat
or are losing it currently
o Do not consider genetic diversity
o Do not consider the value of services like water resources

3.2. Origins of biodiversity

• Evolution is a gradual change in the genetic character of populations over many
generations, achieved largely through the mechanism of natural selection.
• Environmental change gives new challenges to species and drives the evolution of
diversity.
• Natural selection is a process that is a part of the theory of evolution proposed by
Charles Darwin, wherein individuals that are more adapted to their environment
flourish and reproduce, while those that do not die out.
• PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION
o Within a population of a species, there is genetic diversity or variation.
o Due to this natural variation, some genes in some individuals will adapt better
to the environment. These individuals will become fitter than others.
o The fitter individuals will have an advantage and reproduce more successfully
than unfit individuals.
o The offspring of the fitter individuals inherit genes that give them the advantage
and carry these forward.
• Natural selection contributes to evolution of biodiversity over time.
• Speciation is the gradual change of a species over time.
• When populations of species get separated, they cannot interbreed. If the environments
they inhabit start to change, they may diverge and form new species altogether.
• PHYSICAL BARRIERS CAUSING SPECIATION
o Mountain formation
o Changes in rivers
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 3
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

o Changes in sea level

o Climate change
o Tectonic movements
• Land bridges allow species to invade new areas. They can result from continental drifts
as well as changes in sea levels.
o e.g. land bridge between England and Europe, land bridge between North
America and Asia
• Continental drifts result in new and diverse habitats. Continents moved to different
climate zones during continental drifts. Changing climatic conditions and thus food
supplies caused the species to adapt and thus led to an increase in biodiversity.
• The surface of the Earth is divided into crustal tectonic plates that have moved
throughout geological time.
• Where the plates meet, they can:
o Slide past each other – transform faults
o Diverge – divergent boundaries. These cause the physical separation of
populations.
o Converge:
§ Collide and be forced upwards as mountains, creating a physical barrier.
§ Collide and have a heavier oceanic plate sink below the lighter
continental plate. These form oceanic trenches and volcanic island arcs.
This can create land bridges and new niches.
• Background extinction rate is the natural extinction rate of all species.
• There have been five major mass extinction events over geological time.
o Volcanic eruptions of the Deccan Plateau in India erupted for a million years
o Meteorite impacts led to the death of the dinosaurs
o Climate change led to the Ice Age
o Epidemics
• Many biologists think we are in the sixth mass extinction period – the Holocene
Extinction Event.
• It is due to climate change; however, it is different because this extinction has been
caused by humans and not natural causes.
• It has also occurred over a few decades and not over millennia as the other extinctions
have.
• Humans have caused ecosystem stress by:
o Transforming the environment – industry, urbanization, agriculture
o Exploiting other species – fishing, hunting, harvesting
o Introducing alien species – GMO, which may not have natural predators
o Polluting the environment, killing species directly or indirectly

3.3. Threats to biodiversity

• Estimates of the total number of species on Earth vary considerably because:
o They are based on mathematical models which are influenced by classification
problems and may lack enough financing, resulting in the under-recording of
certain habitats and species.
o Small animals and motile ones may escape our attention and may not be
recorded.
• Current rates of species loss are far greater now than in the recent past due to human
impact.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 4
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

• Extinction rates are believed to be 100 to 10,000 times more than the background
extinction rate.

• Human activities that cause extinction:

o Habitat destruction
o Invasive species
o Pollution
o Overharvesting/overgrazing/overfishing
o Hunting
• FACTORS THAT HELP MAINTAIN BIODIVERSITY
o Complexity of the ecosystem
§ The more complex a food web is, the more resilient it is to the loss of a
species or reductions in its population size.
§ If one type of prey, predator or food source is lost, another will adapt
and fill its niche.
o Stage of succession
§ At the colonization stage, there are very few species.
§ Species diversity increases until the stable climax community is reached.
§ Species diversity increases as succession proceeds and falls slightly at
the climax stage.
§ Communities in the first few stages of succession may not be as resilient
and stable as those in later stages.
o Limiting factors
§ If abiotic factors are in abundance, systems are likely to maintain
biodiversity even if one factor reduces.
§ If they are already in short supply, then it is more likely that species will
die out if abiotic factors reduce further.
o Inertia
§ Inertia is the property of an ecosystem to resist change when subject to
disruption/disturbance.
§ It also helps determine which ecosystems will recover quickly.
• FACTORS LEADING TO LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
o Natural hazards
§ These are naturally occurring events that may have a negative impact on
the environment.
§ They may sometimes be due to human impact when caused by climate
change.
§ E.g. hurricanes, wildfires, floods, volcanic eruptions, etc.
o Loss of habitat
§ This is due to human activities like deforestation and urbanization that
leads to loss of habitat and species diversity.
§ This occurs when humans build or develop on a piece of land.
o Fragmentation of habitats
§ This is a process wherein a large area is divided into fragments that are
separated from each other by roads, towns, fields, etc.
§ They are isolated in a modified or degraded landscape.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 5
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

§ There are edge effects on the fragments – there are fluctuations of light
temperature and humidity at the edges as they interact with human
activity as compared to the middle.
§ Invasion of the habitat by pests or humans increases the possibility that
domestic and wild species come into contact and spread diseases.

o Pollution
§ This can be in the form of:
• Local pollution – spraying pesticides that drift into wild spaces,
oil spills
• Environmental pollution – air pollution, acid deposition, smog
• Run-off from fertilizes, leading to eutrophication,
biomagnification of toxic chemicals in food chains
• Climate change altering weather patterns
o Overexploitation
§ Overexploitation due to catching, hunting and harvesting has escalated
with increasing human population.
§ If we exceed the maximum sustainable yield of any species, it is
unsustainable to continue exploiting it.
§ Many species are the victims of hunting and poaching for exotic pets
and products, for example, elephants.
o Introducting exotic/alien species
§ Humans can do this by bringing their own crops or livestock to other
countries.
§ Sometimes, non-native species can outcompete native ones and cause
disturbances and imbalance in the ecosystem.
§ E.g.
• Rabbits in Australia were brought for game hunting, but
reproduced too quickly and took over the area. Viruses were
introduced to kill them but did not work
• Cane toads were introduced to control pests on sugarcane but
outcompeted native species
• Red fox, camel, blackberry, prickly pear cactus, crown of thorns
starfish, etc.
o Spread of disease
§ Diseases of domesticated animals can spread to wild animals and vice-
versa – diseases which the species are unable to deal with.
§ They can mutate and infect other species when they are usually only
meant for one species.
§ E.g.
• Swine flu in 2010 passing from pigs to humans
• Bird flu affecting both birds and humans since 2003
• Foot and mouth disease affecting hooved animals spread to
humans in the UK in 2001
o Modern agricultural practices
§ Monoculture – salinization, loss of soil fertility
§ Pesticides – kill other organisms which are not pests
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 6
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Herbicides – can harm the crop and may make it toxic

§ Genetic engineering – superweeds
§ Fertilisers – eutrophication (lead to death of organisms through
decreasing oxygen content)
§ All of the above lead to pollution

• FACTORS MAKING A SPECIES PRONE TO EXTINCTION

o Narrow geographical range
§ If a species only lives in one place, and that habitat gets damaged, it is
easier for the species to be wiped out.
§ Though the species can be bred in captivity, this is not a permanent
solution.
§ E.g. Golden lion tamarin, lemur
o Small population size or declining numbers (low genetic diversity)
§ Smaller populations have lower genetic diversity and are less resilient
to change.
§ As numbers fall, interbreeding increases between individuals of similar
genes until populations are too small or extinct.
§ E.g. snow leopard, tiger
o Few populations of the species
§ If there are very few populations, it is easier for the species to be wiped
out.
§ E.g. lemurs
o Large body/high trophic levels
§ 90% of the energy transferred to trophic levels is lost as heat, leaving
minute amounts for higher trophic levels.
§ This means that there are very few top predators (animals at the highest
trophic levels) and they usually have very small populations and low
population densities. This makes them vulnerable to extinction.
o Low reproductive potential
§ Slow and infrequent reproduction means that the population takes time
to recover from a disturbance.
§ E.g. blue whales, gannets, albatross
o Seasonal migrants
§ Species the migrate depend solely on the habitats they migrate for an
extended period of time.
§ If one of their habitats is wiped out, they will not have food or shelter
for that period of the year, and usually have to travel far to reach their
habitat. This makes them liable to extinction.
o Poor dispersers
§ Species that cannot move to new habitats easily are also in trouble. For
example, plants that rely only on seed dispersal and growth are
vulnerable as these are both long processes and changes in biomes may
occur before plants can move to a new environment.
§ Non-flying animals go extinct too as they may not be able to escape to
other places away from introduced hunters.
o Specialised feeders and niche requirements
 IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 7
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Species that feed on only one type of diet can be vulnerable as they will
lose their food supply completely if anything happens to the species they
feed on.
§ E.g. giant pandas eat only bamboo, koalas eat only eucalyptus leaves
o Useful to humans, living in herds
§ Species that live in large groups are more liable to overexploitation by
humans as many can be exploited at once.
§ E.g. bison

o Island organisms
§ Organisms living on islands are more vulnerable because:
• Populations may be small
• High degree of endemic species (have no other habitat)
• Low genetic diversity
• Vulnerable to the introduction of exotic species
• THE IUCN RED LIST
o The IUCN is the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources.
o It monitors the world’s species through the Red List of Threatened Species.
o The Red List is a list of species under varying levels of threat to their survival.
Data is gathered on a global scale.
ALL SPECIES

Not evaluated Evaluated

Data Deficient Adequate Data

(inadequate information)

Extinct (EX)
Least Concern (LC) Near Vulnerable Endangered Critically (no doubt
(Widespread and Threatened (V) (EN) Endangered that the last
abundant) (NT) (risk of (very high (CR) individual
(may be extinction risk of (highest has died)
threatened in the extinction in risk of Extinct in the
in the wild) the wild) extinction wild (EW)
future) in the wild) (individuals
only survive
in captivity)
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 8
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

3.4. Conservation of biodiversity

• REASONS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY
o Food sources
§ Humans consumer animal and plant species. Even among the limited food
crops we consume, there are many varieties.
§ Old or unused varieties of crops must be preserved as they may be useful in
the future to create pest-/disease-resistant crops.
§ Genes must be preserved in order to have sufficient gene banks to use in the
event of disease or pest attack.

o Natural products
§ Many of the fertilisers, medicines and pesticides we use are derived from
plants and animals.
§ E.g.: guano is a fertiliser made from seabird droppings. Oil palm provides
oil for biofuels, margarine and soap.
o Environmental services
§ These are essential processes carried out by organisms, that are of great
value to the environment.
§ E.g.: fertilization, pollination, soil aeration, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling
and decomposition
o Gene pools
§ Wild animals and plants are a good source of genes to use in hybridisation
and genetic engineering.
o Medicine
§ Antibiotics like penicillin are obtained from fungi.
§ A species of yew in the US yields a chemical that can treat cancer.
§ The rosy periwinkle from the Madagascar forest helps treat leukaemia.
o Biorights
§ Species have a right to exist – a bioright unrelated to human needs and wants.
§ Biodiversity should be preserved for its own sake – it carries intrinsic value.
• Conserving biodiversity involves the sustainable use and management of natural
resources.
• Preserving biodiversity attempts to exclude human activity in areas where humans have
not yet encroached.
• IGOs, GOs and NGOs
o Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) are composed of and answer to a group of
member states. E.g. the UN, IPCC
o Governmental organisations (GOs) are part of and funded by a national government.
They are bureaucratic, and involved in research, regulation, monitoring and control.
E.g. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the US
o Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are not part of a government and are not
for profit. They may be international or local and are funded by individuals, altruists
and subscriptions. E.g. Greenpeace
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 9
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

Species-based conservation focuses on conserving a particular species but does not consider
the habitat it lives in.
• CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and
Fauna)
o It is an international agreement between governments to address the endangerment
of species by trade.
o Governments who sign up to CITES must change national laws to support CITES’
aims.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 10
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

o CITES aims to ensure that trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival.
o Species are grouped in CITES appendices depending on threatened they are by
international trade.
§ Appendix I – the species cannot be traded as it is threatened by extinction
§ Appendix II – the species can be traded, but within strict regulations to
ensure sustainability
§ Appendix III – a species included on a country’s request that needs the
cooperation of other countries to prevent illegal exploitation.
o The lists include 5000 animal species and 28000 plant species.
• CAPTIVE BREEDING AND ZOOS
o Zoos and other captive breeding facilities house many examples of species, but
cannot keep them all.
o Keeping a species in a zoo is not a process to reintroduce into the wild if they have
been wiped out there.
o Advantages
§ The animal is ensured a supply of food and water.
§ The animal is ensured proper healthcare.
§ The animal can breed properly.
§ The animal’s genes are preserved and can be used to recreate it.
§ People are educated about the value of the species in the zoo.
o Disadvantages
§ The animals may become too used to humans and may not be able to adapt
in the wild.
§ Sometimes the species’ habitat has disappeared and it cannot be
reintroduced into the wild.
§ Sometimes animals are treated cruelly.
§ The animals lose the natural instincts like finding food, hunting, defending
themselves, etc. as they have not been exposed to a situation where they
need to use these abilities.
§ They may get communicable diseases from humans.
• BOTANICAL GARDENS AND SEED BANKS
o e.g. The Royal Botanical Gardens in London grows 25,000 plant species and 10%
of these are threatened species.
o Botanical gardens grow plants to identify and classify them, and carry out research,
education and conservation.
o In seed banks, seeds are stored, frozen or dried. They are gene banks for the plant
species.
o If a plant species is lost in the wild, seeds can be preserved for future use and
reintroduction of the species.
o Seed banks can help protect the genetic diversity of a species.
• FLAGSHIP SPECIES
o Flagship species are charismatic, instantly recognised, popular and capture
people’s attention.
o Most are large and furry but may not have a significant impact on the ecosystem.
o They do, however, have instant appeal and are used to ask for funds from the public.
These funds are used to protect threatened species.
o Disadvantages
§ Prioritised over other species
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 11
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar

§ If they become extinct, it shows failure

§ May be in conflict with local people
o Umbrella species are species that are used to gain support to conserve species, and
it also helps to conserve other species in the same habitat.
• KEYSTONE SPECIES
o A keystone species is a species that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure
of the ecosystem it lives in.
o Some species have a bigger effect than others on the environment than others. Their
disappearance could have a huge impact on the ecosystem.
o Their loss could destroy or seriously imbalance the ecosystem. However, it is
difficult to identify the keystone species.
o They are usually predators or engineers in an ecosystem.
§ E.g. sea otters eating sea urchins in kelp forests, beavers making dams to
create swamps.

HABITAT-BASED CONSERVATION
• Factors to conserve an area – surrounding land use and distance from urban centres.
• UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme created a world network of
international reserves. It has created 480 reserves in 100 countries.

Single Large Reserve Several Small Reserves

Sufficient numbers of large and wide- Greater range of habitats
ranging species (top carnivores)
Minimises edge effect More populations of rare species
More habitats for more species Danger of natural/man-made disaster wiping
out the reserve is reduced as some may
escape damage
• MAB reserves have buffer zones. This is a zone around the core reserves. Some human
activities (farming, extraction of natural resources, research) can occur here.
• The core reserve must be undisturbed and species that must not be disturbed should be
kept there.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 12
Topic 3: Biodiversity and Conservation
Shreya Mozumdar