Experiences of Black Single Fathers

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The Open Psychology Journal

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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Experiences of Black South African Single Fathers

Tshisuaka E. Kabongo1,* and Langa Malose1
1
Department of Psychology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Abstract:
Objective:
This study aimed to bridge the gap in the literature on parenting by investigating the experiences of Black single fathers living in Johannesburg,
who raise children on their own.
Methods:
Social constructivism and critical theory served as theoretical frameworks, while narrative interviews were used to collect data. The study involved
seven Black male participants, who were selected using a snowball sampling method. Dialogical analysis and Bamberg’s little story approach were
used to analyse the data collected.
Results:
Two themes emerged from the thematic analysis: parenting as a single father and life beyond single fatherhood. The study’s objectives were
integrated into the discussion of themes and subthemes that emerged.
Conclusion:
The study results revealed that, contrary to the common narrative, not all Black fathers are absent. In addition, it pointed to the fact that single
fathers are also capable of being effective parents. However, it was discovered that children benefit the most from the active involvement of both
parental figures. Implications for these findings and recommendations for future studies were also discussed.
Keywords: Manhood, Fatherhood, Single fathers, Black fathers, Bamberg’s little story approach, Democratization.
Article History Received: September 21, 2022 Revised: January 24, 2023 Accepted: January 26, 2023
1. INTRODUCTION most affected, with about 41.92% of reported absent fathers in

households. Another study by Heartlines [19] reported that co-
Since the democratization of South Africa, great attention
residence data from Statistics South Africa revealed that 36%
has been directed toward single motherhood and the challenges of children live with their biological mothers in the same
that mothers face in raising children alone [1 - 14]. This is household, 34% live with both biological parents, and only 2%
partly due to the rise in trends, both globally and in South live with their biological fathers. The increase in studies on
Africa, regarding households run by single mothers [1, 2, 6, 7]. single mothers’ experiences, predominantly Black single
One reason for such an increase in attention to single mothers mothers, might also be contributing to the predominant
has been the prevalence of the absence of fathers [7, 8, 15, 16]. negative perception and the demonisation of Black fathers,
According to Posel and Dewey [17], South Africa has the who are often described in the literature and the media as
second highest rate of father absence in Africa. Findings absent and uninvolved [20, 21]. Therefore, understanding the
reported by Van den Berg [8] showed that more than 40% of experiences of single fathers in South Africa is crucial as it
households in South Africa are run by single mothers allows for a critical assessment of the extent to which reported
compared to only 3% of those run by single fathers. According experiences align with or contradict commonly held views
to Statistics South Africa [18], Black Africans are among the about Black men both in South Africa and globally.
Many studies have been conducted on father absence and
* Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Psychology,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; its related consequences [7, 8, 16, 18, 22]. However, very little
Tel: 0844358985; E-mail : ericktshisuaka7@gmail.com is still known about fathers’ involvement in raising their
DOI: xxxx, 2023, 16, e187435012303020

2 The Open Psychology Journal, 2023, Volume 16 Kabongo and Malose
children, especially as single fathers [2, 4, 23 - 25]. For this parenting styles perceived as non-western [39]. Therefore, this
article, single fatherhood only included biological fathers who study serves to add to the literature on gender and establish
were raising their children on their own due to the death of whether and to what extent gender stereotypes and traditional
their partner, separation, or divorce [24, 26]. However, we are notions of parenthood in African societies are reflected in
aware that in traditional African societies, the status of ‘father’ participants’ experiences.
is not limited to the biological process, but this may refer to
Moreover, current research on manhood and masculinity
other male figures, such as grandfathers, uncles, brothers, etc.,
was also discussed in our study. These include research on
who may fulfill a role of care, protection, and provision in
hegemonic, hybrid, and Black masculinities. Hegemonic
relation to ‘children’ [8, 25, 27, 28]. This study only focused
masculinity is a term coined by Cornell [43] and refers to an
on single fathers and their experiences of fatherhood to enrich
“ideal” form of masculinity. Contrary to Cornell’s initial
the currently existing literature [14, 29 - 32].
assertion, further research has revealed more than one form of
Furthermore, various benefits of fathers’ involvement have hegemonic masculinity [44]. These are often informed by
been reported in the literature. These include improved gender ideologies and involve the attribution of gender roles
behavioural, cognitive, and socioemotional development in based on biology [45, 46]. The performance of hegemonic
children, increased child tolerance for stress, less depressive forms of masculinity often reflects relationships of power
symptoms and higher academic performance, and improved between men and women and men and men across racial and
postnatal mental health for the mother [19, 25, 33, 34]. Other socioeconomic classes [44]. An example of this is the idea that
benefits include children’s increased empathy, self-esteem, and a husband is ‘supposed’ to be the breadwinner and dominant
social competence [7, 23]. Involved fathers have also been earner, whereas the wife is responsible for domestic labour and
reported to be healthier than those not involved in raising their child care [46]. Hegemonic gender ideologies also
children [23, 35, 36]. acknowledge that gender meanings constantly change over
time across social, cultural, and institutional contexts [44, 46,
Other topics related to fatherhood reported in the literature
47]. Moreover, these ideologies are informed by factors, such
include the interconnection of manhood and fatherhood,
as race, age, class, and the cultural context, in which
fatherhood practices, and parenting [33, 37 - 41]. In many
individuals find themselves. In instances when a man is unable
cultures, including in South Africa, becoming a father is still
to conform to the expectations of the hegemonic forms of
perceived to be a rite of passage into manhood [27, 28], despite
masculinity within their context (e.g., providing financially),
a reported increase in the adoption of progressive attitudes and
they often compensate for this lack by engaging in gender roles
beliefs on manhood post-apartheid [41]. Furthermore,
traditionally ascribed to females (e.g., doing housework), or in
fatherhood is still understood in terms of the role played by
domestic violence and adultery [47]. However, due to limited
men, which often relates to traditional gender stereotypes and
research on single fathers, the current literature has not
African parenthood practices [19, 41]. For example, men and
reported on how single fathers who assume both the provider
women are still expected to conform to traditional gender roles,
and caregiver roles negotiate these roles.
with women’s identity centred around their ability to give birth
and be primary caregivers, even when they are employed. On Furthermore, research on hybrid masculinities has
the other hand, men’s identity is still centred around their documented how cisgender, straight, white, middle-class men
ability to provide financially [19]. often engage in non-hegemonic forms of masculinity without
losing their masculinity status. Men who engage in “hybrid
Another body of research to consider in the context of our
masculinities” incorporate both hegemonic and non-hegemonic
current study is parenting practices, especially in the African
masculinities into their experiences [47]. Hybrid hegemonic
context. Studies on Baumrind and Maccoby and Martin’s
masculinities have also been used to discuss the intersection
parenting styles have yielded mixed findings on children of
between gender, class, and sexual privileges [48]. These forms
different cultural and racial groups [38, 42]. While some
of masculinity are often characterised by increasing levels of
studies have argued that collectivistic societies, such as African
equality with less hierarchy and include diverse populations of
societies, tend to emphasise the use of authoritarian parenting
men across a wide range of contexts. Participants in our study
styles [38], recent studies have challenged these notions and
can be considered to engage in some forms of hybrid
argued otherwise [39]. In addition, studies that have argued
masculinities by attempting to integrate both traditionally male
that collectivistic societies often exhibit authoritarian parenting
and female gender roles in their experiences as single fathers
styles may often assume that the use of increased control is
[47].
always negative regardless of the context. These studies often
overlook the impact of western socialisation on parenting Moreover, studies on Black masculinities have
practices in non-western societies and the diversity of family documented the role played by historical and structural factors,
structures within non-western societies, such as in South such as slavery in the United States, labour migration during
Africa. Therefore, while it is important to acknowledge the apartheid in South Africa, and unemployment and low
influence that living in a collectivistic society may have on a education in shaping Black men’s experiences [43, 49].
child’s upbringing, it is also important to avoid polarising Debates on Black masculinities are often premised on the idea
parenting styles based on “western” or “non-western” that there are versions of being a man specific to Black men
narratives. Moreover, such polarisation often tends to position and draw from hegemonic masculinities that focus on
western notions of parenting as “better” than non-western and predominantly negative narratives. These debates are also often
may overlook positive aspects that have been reported about focused on a history of Black masculinities shaped by
Experiences of Black South African Single Fathers The Open Psychology Journal, 2023, Volume 16 3
patriarchal and negative stereotypes of what it means to be a negotiate their role and identity as single fathers? 3) Are there
man, specifically a Black man. In addition, Black men’s failure differences between raising boys as opposed to raising girls? If
to live up to hegemonic masculinity expectations and perform there are, what is the nature of such differences? 4) Are there
traditional gender roles (e.g., provide financially) due to any differences in raising children of different developmental
structural factors have contributed to perpetuating negative stages? If there are, what is the nature of such differences?
discourses and stereotypes of masculinity based on race. Such
examples include Black men being demonised and perceived as 3. METHODOLOGY
hypersexual, violent, dangerous, irresponsible, absent, in crisis,
a failure, and in need of improvement [20, 21, 43, 49, 50]. 3.1. Theoretical Frameworks
These negative discourses have led researchers and scholars to This study was based on two paradigms: social
advocate for a “new Black man” [50, 51]. Moreover, prevalent constructivism (interpretivism) and the critical approach.
negative stereotypes and narratives about Black men have also Whereas social constructivism aims to make sense of the
obscured alternative positive stories and experiences of subjective world of human experiences [54], a critical
manhood and fatherhood. The current study hopes to address paradigm questions these experiences. A social constructivist
this problem by highlighting alternative discourses of Black approach understands social phenomena “through the eyes of
masculinities and parenthood. the participant(s) rather than the researcher” [55]. In addition to
Recent literature on Black masculinities has challenged the reporting on Black single fathers’ experiences, our study also
one-size-fits-all and predominantly negative approach reported challenged notions of parenting by creating a space where
in earlier studies about Black men. Social class has been single fathers can express themselves and become part of the
acknowledged as crucial in differentiating positive and broader conversation about fatherhood and parenting in South
negative forms of masculinity among Black men [45, 49, 52]. Africa. Furthermore, being single fathers sharing their
The extent to which individuals have access to economic and experiences served to challenge common discourses about
educational opportunities, rather than race alone, seems to fathers in South Africa and promote alternative marginalised
influence Black men’s choices about which forms of narratives.
masculinity to engage with. Moreover, Black working men The social constructivist paradigm advocates for multiple
with some form of education often integrate dominant norms realities that are constructed through social interaction and
with those valued within the Black culture [53]. Participants ascribed meanings within specific contexts [54, 56, 57]. In
interviewed for our study were all working middle-class addition, it recognises the influence of social values and
citizens who had some form of higher education. However, the subjectivity on the research findings [58]. For our study,
extent to which these factors influenced their experiences is yet knowledge about the experiences of single fathers was
to be established through our research findings and discussion. considered to be a result of interactions between the first author
Considering the current context of manhood, masculinity, and research participants during the narrative interview
fatherhood, and parenthood, and after reviewing the literature process. Each participant’s perspective was equally valid and
on these topics, we are convinced that investigating the constituted a crucial part of reality that served to enrich our
experiences of Black single fathers is crucial. Understanding understanding. Moreover, the presence of the first author as a
Black single fathers’ experiences will provide deeper insights researcher, the types of follow-up questions asked during the
into parenting practices and enrich our views of the dynamics interviews, and how participants answered these provided
within relationships where fathers take the leading role as both access to various realities about being a single father shared by
providers and caregivers. This is especially so, considering that the participants. This, according to social constructivism, refers
fathers have often been reported to take a secondary and
to the interdependence between the researcher and the
supportive role in the childrearing process [28].
participants in co-creating reality [54]. This view was
expanded on by the critical approach, which allowed us to
2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
perceive participants’ realities as shaped by interacting cultural,
Based on its aim, this study had four objectives to achieve: political, ethnic, gender, and religious factors.
In line with the critical paradigm, our discussion of Black
Identifying key themes and narratives based on single fatherhood attempted to remediate the political, social,
participants’ stories of their experiences as single and economic problems resulting in social oppression, conflict,
fathers. struggle, and power structures within various and varying
Discussing how single fathers negotiate their role and levels of the social-ecological spheres [54]. We also considered
identity as single fathers. how constructions about fatherhood in relation to parenting had
Discussing the implications of the findings on influenced discourses on the role of fathers in raising their
parenting, with a specific focus on differences between children. Within a critical paradigm, the overemphasis on the
raising boys and raising girls. narratives of single mothers was understood as contributing to
Identifying differences in raising children of different silencing or marginalising the experiences of single fathers.
developmental stages.
Using a critical approach, the historical, social, and cultural
These objectives translated into four questions which were contexts that shape participants’ stories were considered, and
all addressed through the research: 1) What are the experiences discourses and issues of power embedded in participants’
of single fathers in South Africa? 2) How do single fathers stories were identified [55]. From a social constructivist
perspective, meanings derived from the content of the oldest of his two sons, was five years old, and the second one
interviews were negotiated through the interactions that was not yet born. Participant three reported being employed as
occurred prior to, during, and after them. This was informed by a mechanical engineer and living with his adult children. He
the notion that meaning is constructed through interaction described his relationship with his ex-wife as amicable and is
between the researcher and the participants [54]. currently in a relationship with a new girlfriend and has a
daughter with her. Participant three also lives in the Eastern
The interpretivist paradigm uses data collected through
side of Johannesburg.
interviews, discourses, text messages, and reflective sessions
[54]. Data was collected using qualitative methods and Participant four (P4) became a single father after the death
analysed using an inductive approach, which consisted of the of his wife, who died in a car accident together with his
first author, through thematic analysis, identifying patterns mother-in-law and sister-in-law. He was 57 years old and had
embedded in the collected data in order to generate themes and been a single father for 16 years. His son was 21 years old
increase our understanding of single fathers' experiences as a when he became a single father.
social phenomenon [54]. Participant five (P5) was 54 years old and became a single
The critical paradigm focuses on respecting norms within a father after divorcing his wife in 2012. His son was 12 years
cultural context while at the same time challenging notions that old, and his daughter was 10 years old when he was granted
serve to legitimise certain bodies of knowledge and shared custody and became a single father. Participant five was
delegitimise others. In our study, notions that served to the only one who reported being unemployed at the time of the
perceive parenthood as a role that is only fit for women, as interview. He was retrenched from work due to the economic
reflected in research on single mothers, were challenged by impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
allowing marginalised voices of single fathers to become part Participant six (P6) was a 49-year-old who became a single
of the discourse. Therefore, by creating awareness of the father a few years after divorcing his wife. His children were
experiences of single fathers, this study adopted a social justice 12, 13, and 14 years old, respectively, when he stayed with
perspective, one which challenges those notions of fatherhood them. Participant six reported working as an optical technician
and parenthood that often lead to the social oppression of the and had been parenting for five years. His oldest daughter was
participant group. 14 years old when he became a single father.
3.2. Participants Participant seven (P7) was 40 years old and became a
single father after his wife died of an illness. He had been a
This study was conducted with seven Black single fathers single father to three children (one son and two daughters) for
residing in the Johannesburg area who raised children on their three years. His oldest child (a daughter) was 17 years old
own. The criteria for inclusion into the study included being an when his wife died. On the day of the burial, he discovered that
adult male, having been the main parental figure in raising a his daughter was pregnant and gave birth to a child that he also
child or children (a boy(s) and/or a girl(s) or both), and living adopted. Participant seven currently owns a small business and
in South Africa, preferably in Johannesburg. works as a personal trainer. More demographic information on
Participant one (P1) was a 51 one-year-old and a father to a the participants is included in Appendix A to provide more
20-year-old-daughter. He became a single father after his wife details on the sample used.
died due to an illness when his daughter was 13 years old. By
the time he was interviewed, participant one had been a single 3.3. Materials
parent for seven years. Participant one’s daughter is at Narrative interviews were conducted with seven
university in Cape Town and only visits her father during participants who all identified as Black single fathers [59 - 63].
school holidays. Participant one was employed at the time of In addition, a snowball sampling method was used where
the interview. participants who agreed to participate in the study were also
Participant two (P2) was 40 years old and became a single asked to invite other participants who met the criteria for
father after the court granted him custody of his daughter when selection [64 - 66]. Questions used during the interview are
he broke up with his girlfriend. He reported having been a included in Appendix B.
single parent to a 5-year-old girl for less than a year at the time For this study, two key forms of narrative analysis were
of the interview. He described his relationship with his ex- used in combination: thematic and dialogic/performance
girlfriend as distant and conflictual. Participant two also analyses [67 - 71]. While thematic analysis focuses on the
reported being employed as a process controller and living in identification and analysis of patterns or themes within the
the Eastern side of Johannesburg. data, dialogic/performance analysis examines the way certain
Participant three (P3) was 54 years old and a father to two narratives are told, the context in which they are told, and the
adult sons (25 and 28). He reported separating twice from his impact telling the narrative in a specific manner has on the
identities of individuals involved [71 - 74]. Moreover,
wife and having been a primary caregiver to his children for 23
dialogical/performance analysis also alludes to broader cultural
years. Participant three separated from his wife, then reunited,
and societal issues and how these relate to the narrative being
only to separate with her again after a short period. Of the two
analysed [71]. These two forms of analysis were in line with
boys that he raised, one was his biological son, and another one
the aim and objectives of this study.
was adopted from his ex-wife’s previous relationship.
Participant three became a single father when his stepson, the Furthermore, Bamberg’s little story approach was
incorporated into the analysis of themes identified in the father! We all brag about our parents. I cannot brag about my
interviews. Incorporating Bamberg’s little story approach into dad as such because I do not know him! Like here is my dad.
thematic and dialogical/performance analysis was beneficial as, But I do not know him! So, me with that in mind, I got a kid, I
unlike the above-mentioned forms of analysis that contribute to got responsibilities, people that are looking up to me, my kid,
the construction of a big narrative story, the little story and my own siblings back home. It made me stronger. And I
approach takes into consideration the impact that small stories had no option but to follow that route.” (P3)
have in influencing individuals when constructing a sense of
“I was never raised by a man. You know was been raised
self or identity [75, 76]. Bamberg’s approach also served to
by a single mom, we never had a father figure. (P6)”
demonstrate the interrelationship between continuities and
discontinuities (change) in participants' narratives over time, By being there for their children, P3 and P6 hoped to break
pointed to the self-vis-à-vis others (as same and different) and the cycle of fatherlessness that they experienced growing up. In
uncovered how participants portrayed themselves as both addition, participants also viewed themselves not just as
agents and undergoers in their stories [75, 77]. Finally, victims of their past experiences but as key players in
Bamberg’s approach was crucial in closely evaluating the influencing changes to the broader narrative about single
inconsistencies, ambiguities, contradictions, moments of fatherhood [75]. This also reflected efforts to challenge
trouble and tension, and participants’ constant navigation and negative stereotypes about absent Black men and fathers that
process of refining various versions of selfhood in are part of the dominant discourse in South Africa [7, 8, 16, 18,
interpersonal and interactional contexts [75, 77, 78]. 22]. P7, on the other hand, grew up with his grandmother,
away from his family, something he reported has motivated
3.4. Procedure him to be a present father. Moreover, P3 wanted to set a new
Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Human example for his siblings and those who looked up to him.
and Community Development Ethics Committee (HREC Non- Through his commitment to being involved in his own
medical) and the Registrar of the Faculty of Humanity at the children’s life, P3 was also engaged in the process of
University of Witwatersrand. Participants were recruited using redefining what Black masculinity means and reaffirmed that
online adverts that were posted on the researcher’s Facebook Black parents are just as capable of being involved in their
account and then invited for face-to-face narrative interviews. children’s life, therefore changing the narrative, as stated by
Due to challenges related to the COVID-19 pandemic, participants:
alternative means of data collection were put in place [79 - 82]. “I grew up without my father. My father passed away
These included conducting individual interviews via Microsoft when I was 12. But there is one thing I have learned from my
Teams or Zoom. Out of the seven interviews conducted, four dad. My dad was very passionate about family. So, the family
were virtual (one via Microsoft Teams and three via Zoom), was very important. And that, that has… It was well glued in
and two were face-to-face. All key ethical considerations were my mind (P5).”
considered, including signing consent forms for recording and
maintaining privacy and confidentiality using pseudonyms [83 “But for me, it started from a young age when I wanted to
- 85]. have a family of my own. I did not want to regard myself as a
sponsor, whereby I would just send money home. It was
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION important for me to be with my family (P7).”
Two key themes emerged from the thematic analysis of the Many fathers in this study grew up without fathers. They
data collected: 1) Parenting as a single father and 2) Life wanted to be good fathers and break the cycle of absent
beyond single fatherhood. These themes reflect the big picture fatherhood in South Africa. These accounts provided a new
of the experiences of singles fathers related to Bamberg’s understanding that goes beyond material provision and
theory. A chronological approach was adopted in identifying includes being emotionally available. Heartlines [19] reported
the themes, in line with both a social constructivist framework in a study on perceptions of fatherhood that while financial
and a narrative approach to data analysis [54, 56, 58, 60]. The provision was not the only measure of fathers’ levels of
section below discusses these themes and their related sub- involvement, it was the primary factor. Ratele et al. [39] also
themes. alluded to the provider role in their research on discourses of
fatherhood and found that the concept of “being there” for
4.1. Theme 1: Parenting as a Single Father one’s children also involved providing financially for them.
Part of the participants' experiences as single fathers Therefore, although single fathers assumed other female roles
involved managing various tensions between dual parenthood in raising their children, they still subscribed to the traditional
and single parenthood, navigating what it means to parent boys male roles as measures of their involvement. This also seems to
versus parenting girls, and reflecting on the various support confirm findings from other studies on fathers’ involvement [6,
systems available to them or lack thereof. 18, 28] that many fathers see their role mainly as a financial
provider rather than being emotionally available for their
Some participants had to be there for their children as a children. Participants’ emphasis on being financial providers
way to compensate for the absence of their own biological
also reflects their complicity in reinforcing hegemonic
fathers, as participants stated:
ideologies of masculinity that position men as sole providers
“I remember I had issues, and my grandmother said, [44, 53, 86]. This is especially due to participants’ ex-partners’
irrespective of whether he is in your picture or not, he is your reluctance and unwillingness to contribute financially.
Participants in this study acknowledged that fathers need to be “We would have different approaches, my wife was too
available emotionally, but all emphasised the role of provision soft with them, and I needed to be hard in making sure that
as the key marker of being a good father, further reflecting they studied (P5).”
their commitment to traditional and patriarchal gender-role
In being stricter with his children, P5 reported wanting to
stereotypes about men and fathers [45, 47, 52, 87].
strike a balance in parenting, which is often believed to be
4.1.1. Parenting Boys versus Parenting Girls beneficial to a child’s development. However, he also reported
adjusting his parenting style as his children became
Participants also reflected on their experiences of parenting adolescents. This need to use force can also be understood as
boys versus parenting girls. Different participants reflected an attempt to establish a relationship of power between a child
different views related to the parenting style that needed to be and a parent that has been characteristic of parenting within
adopted between boys and girls. One of the participants shared patriarchal societies in which men often feel entitled to having
his views as: control over women and children [44, 86].
“…The boy, he does not talk. You know boys. They do not “My son, at 20 years old, he is now spending more time
have the same emotions as girls. So, they do not talk, or they with me. And without any prompting, without any guidance
do not express their feelings like girls…Now recently, I have from anyone, he just started saying, I do not want to go to
been spending more time with him, but still, he is not opening mum, I am fine. I want to stay with you… And we are no
up (P7).” longer sticking to those bound rigidity that we used to when we
In commenting, “they (boys) do not have the same started because now there is a lot of maturity (P5).”
emotions as girls”, P7 seems to allude to more traditional This further reflects ways in which P5 has justified his
notions of how boys and girls should be treated. In addition, in exercise of power over his son and used age as a justification
the above passage, P7 points to a gender stereotype that boys for his son’s freedom and as a rite of passage into adulthood. In
do not display emotions while at the same time revealing a doing so, P5 may have further perpetuated discourses that
struggle to connect emotionally with his son. By referring to
children need to be controlled by adults just because they are
the difference in emotional openness, P7 also supports the view
children, therefore reflecting ageism [91]. Moreover, other
that boys should be treated differently from girls. Research has
participants were permissive with their younger children, as
shown that teenagers’ relationships with their fathers appear to
stated by one of the participants:
be more important to their development and achievement in
school [88 - 90]. Therefore, P7’s son, being in his teen years, “When she wants anything, Whether I have money or not, I
may benefit from a closer relationship with his father, as his will drop everything, make sure that she gets what she wants
father suggested in the extract above to be “spending more (P1).”
time” with his son. This need to treat boys differently is also “I was never saying no to my children. I could maybe say
reflected in P1’s struggle to answer the question on the no to my wife but never say no to my children (P6).”
difference between raising a boy and a girl (It is important to
note that this answer is hypothetical as P1 only had experience Participants who were permissive with their younger
raising one daughter): children also reported challenges in adjusting to their children’s
increasing and developmentally appropriate need for autonomy
“… That is a dicing question… I do not know, but based
as they became adolescents [5]. They stated that:
on my personality, I think I will approach the same situation,
the same way it is happening now. I think with boys, you have “I remember when she was starting to be rebellious. I
to be extra careful and very cautious when you are dealing with almost got physically…I will shout and everything (P1).”
them…(P1)” “ …a person that was giving me a lot of grief and
By using the expression “with boys, you have to be extra rebellious inside the house, and she will lay into sleep this time
careful and very cautious”, P1 may be referring to the need to of the day like she will put a big, huge blanket over, while it is
use more control when raising boys compared to girls. This 30 degrees outside… I forced her. She went back to school, she
may also reflect an assumption that girls are easier to control did, and she passed matric (P6).”
than boys. Hence, stricter measures may be required for boys.
‘Then the boy being a boy, trying to be a man, you know
This view also seems to align with research on parenting styles,
when boys like 13-14… he thinks now he is a man, he can
which suggests that African parents tend to use authoritarian
make things move. They did not get along with the stepmother.
parenting styles [38]. However, further investigation is
So now there were a lot of conundrums between the two (P7).”
required to ascertain this hypothesis as there is little research
focusing specifically on parenting styles within African The extracts above further reflect the idea that men, and in
households. The available research on this topic seems to this case, parents, should strive to control their children, even if
contradict the above view [39]. Regarding age, participants that means using power to exert their authority. Participants, by
shared mixed views on how they treated their children. While virtue of being parents, felt entitled to impose their will on their
some reported being stricter with their younger children, others children, perhaps as a way of enacting discourses about
used more authority, especially during their children’s puberty. discipline and raising children that they themselves had been
Moreover, P5 reported being stricter and a disciplinarian when socialised into. Research on intergenerational parenting styles
his children were younger to compensate for his ex-wife’s has shown that past parenting styles have an influence from
permissiveness. one generation to another [21]. These views also support
research on parent-adolescent relationship dynamics. The perceived by boys and men in society. Boys, on the other hand,
relationship between a parent and their child has been reported seemed not to experience any pressure when transitioning from
to shift during the child’s adolescence, with parents often boyhood to manhood. Women also seemed to reinforce these
realigning and negotiating the dynamics and offering increased problematic narratives and discourses around menstruation and
autonomy to the child [92]. how men should handle it. This is reflected in the comment
below made by P1:
When the experiences of participants on how they related
to their children when they were young versus when they were “I remember when she was now moving into the
adolescents were compared, differences were identified. Most adolescence stage, menstruation kicked in and everything. My
participants spoke about being more permissive with their sister said to me, you know what? There are things that this
children when they were younger. These differences may be child cannot talk to you. Yes… let me just stay with her for that
related to both the fathers and the children’s personalities and period so that she can adjust. Because menstruation is
temperament, among other factors that have been identified to something to other kids…I mean, you are a man. Then I said,
influence parenting and the relationship between parents and okay, fine… You know… (P1).”
their children [5]. However, reflecting on their experiences, P1’s sister seemed to endorse views that men are not
participants expressed a sense of inadequacy in raising “allowed” to engage with their girls on menstruation, a view
adolescent daughters compared to adolescent sons, especially reported to be common among women, reflecting traditional
regarding their daughters’ menstruation. While there was an patriarchal ideologies about how gender roles should be
emphasis on menstruation as a rite of passage into girls’ performed [86, 95, 96]. Moreover, the comment above reflects
adulthood, little was mentioned about boys’ process to a narrow understanding of roles that men and fathers should
manhood [93 - 95]. Furthermore, fathers framed their girls’ play in their children’s lives and exposes women’s complicity
menstruation as a problem to deal with and expressed anxiety in perpetuating particular discourses about womanhood and
in facing this “problem,” as they stated: manhood that dictate what men and women “should” and
“You know, the only challenge was when my daughter “should not” do [53]. Furthermore, it reflects the idea that just
came out of puberty, when she had her menstrual period. That because women alone go through menstruation, men cannot
was my biggest problem… And so, I had to now go to the shop fully understand this experience. As a result, menstruation may
and buy pads for her. And I get to the shop, and I now realize have been treated as disgusting, something to be feared and
oops, now I do not even know what to buy, you know? (P5)” avoided by men and boys, an experience that only the “others”
(in this case, girls and women) should be concerned with [95,
“And then sometimes, there come times when somebody 96]. Moreover, not only were boys not engaged in issues
asked you that, you know, daddy, I have got my periods. I need surrounding their own menarche (spermarche), but nothing was
money from you. How do you, as a dad, handle it? Here is a mentioned about boys being educated on the topic of
young girl getting her first period. I had to go buy a pad (P6).” menstruation. This further confirmed findings from other
Participants spoke of having to buy pads for their studies that have discovered that women or mothers, more than
daughters as a shameful experience. This attitude toward fathers, function as sexuality educators in the home [95].
menstruation may be reflective of broader narratives around the Furthermore, boys were reported to use informal and unreliable
meaning of menstruation as something to be hidden, controlled, sources, such as friends or the media, to gain information on
and treated in secret [95]. In addition, fathers’ shame around menstruation. Therefore, by not engaging boys on topics
their daughters’ menstruation could be understood as a reaction around menstruation, in addition to treating girls’ menstruation
to an act of transgression against both the hegemonic and as a secret, participants may be communicating to boys and
traditional gender roles of men, particularly Black men [49]. In girls that menstruation is obscene, therefore indirectly
other words, dealing with menstruation seemed to have been promoting notions that use menstruation to stigmatize girls and
perceived as an offence to participants’ Black masculinity as it women as moody and difficult to deal with during this period
blurred the lines between what is traditionally perceived as a [95]. By holding such views, relationships of power and men’s
masculine versus a feminine task [95, 96]. This is particularly assumed superiority over women might also be promoted,
so considering that dealing with menstruation is often where women are perceived as weak and emotionally incapable
considered to be the role of the mother, not the father. Hence, because of these unique experiences.
participants may have felt the need to “rectify” this offence by
reaching out to women for assistance. These experiences also 4.1.2. Support Systems
reflect binary ways in which gender roles are still defined Participants acknowledged the role played by various
within South African families [19]. support systems in helping them fulfill their function as single
Furthermore, treating menstruation as a secret may also fathers. All participants reported receiving support. However,
indicate to the girls that the very experience that proves their the nature, purpose, and degree of the support varied from one
participant to another. Furthermore, participants mentioned
womanhood is unclean and something to be treated in secret.
receiving support at different stages in their journey and
The discomfort displayed in the quote above also reflects
depending on the number and age of children they raised. One
participants’ treatment of menstruation as a “women’s
of the participants stated:
problem” and a taboo topic. This may also limit participants’
understanding of this phenomenon and may serve to perpetuate “But fortunately, my mom came, and took my son away
problematic narratives on menstruation and how girls are from me to go and look after him. And I continued working. I
am telling you, if I start to complain, some people will be by I can do (P2).”

my door, wanting to know what is happening. I am very much
This sentiment was also expressed by P3 and P6. As a
thankful, and I am very grateful to the families, my family, my
result, fathers (P2 and P3) had to move their children between
mom, my uncles, and everyone in my family because they are
their own homes and different family members’ homes. This
always there; support, help, how do you? (P3)”
instability in the home may have an impact on the children’s
As P3 reflected in the extract above, some participants had emotional and overall development [4, 5]. Moreover, fathers
to temporarily let their children live with extended family who did not receive support from their ex-partners reported
members or temporarily live with family members to balance either financial difficulties or issues with maintenance. For
caregiving and the demands of work. This is a common example, P2 mentioned that his girlfriend, despite being
practice in South Africa, highlighting the role that the family ordered by the court to pay maintenance, defaulted on
can play in raising a child [4, 7, 97, 98]. It also supports the payment. P6, on the other hand, spoke of his ex-wife’s lack of
common narrative prevalent in collectivistic societies and involvement:
mentioned by P4 that it takes a village to raise a child [7]. In
“So, there was only one income. I did not ask… Their
other words, raising a child is not just a mother or father’s
mother never sent money to me… she used to say, okay then,
responsibility but also involves family members. Moreover,
you wanna play the father Christmas, and be the Good
participants mostly mentioned receiving support from their
Samaritan? You know, carry on… I never picked up my phone
own family members, as opposed to those of their ex-partners’
and called her for one cent (P6).”
families, especially for divorced participants. This support
what has been reported in the literature and further highlights These participants seemed to have experienced financial
the role that conflicts between couples can have on children [5, difficulties due to their partners’ lack of involvement. The
86, 99]. However, participants whose wives died reported situation was even more difficult to manage as participants’
receiving support from both sides of the family. This may exes appeared surprised by their ex-partners’ involvement and
indicate that the nature of the cause for becoming a single then used this to challenge them to be “real” men and provide.
parent influenced how support was granted. Participants did The pressure to prove to their partners that they could provide
not only receive support from family members but also from may have increased the difficulty of approaching their reluctant
community members, friends, and colleagues who provided partners to ask for support. Therefore, the children were the
emotional, caregiving, and in some cases, financial support most impacted [4, 5]. Participants’ willingness to accept
during bereavement and the divorce settlement. financial responsibility could also be reflective of their
adherence to gender norms that equate fatherhood with
P5 prioritised his children’s needs and was proactive in
financial/material provision [42]. In taking on this financial
establishing measures to prevent him and his ex-wife from
using children in the divorce battles. Co-parenting is often responsibility without objecting, these fathers, with the
more beneficial for children, and this seems to be evident in complicity of their ex-partners, seem to have been affirming
P5’s divorce experience [5, 99]. However, other divorced their role as breadwinners, hence reinforcing prevalent
participants received no support and experienced resistance hegemonic gender ideologies that to be a “real man” in South
from both their partners and their partners’ family members, as Africa, one needs to provide financially for one’s children [19,
stated: 44, 47, 92]. Moreover, issues with support experienced by
participants also highlighted inequalities within the
“But since the child is with me, she is not interested in maintenance system in South Africa, which seems to operate
coming to see her. Yeah, so it is like I am on my own. It is like, under the assumption that only women and single mothers need
okay then, you have got what you wanted; let's see if you will money, not men and single fathers. This issue may have been
cope (P2).” influenced by discourses that position men only as capable
“My son was brought to me that you must look after (P3).” breadwinners and women as recipients of maintenance money,
therefore overlooking the complexities and diversities within
“For years now, I think she still has a grudge against me. the modern family structures and the active role that men, not
We just greet. There was a time we never even used to greet only women, play in raising children [6, 100]. Participants may
each other (P6).” have felt marginalised as not only are they faced with the
In the three cases above, participants’ partners left the task challenge of not having to receive financial support from their
of parenting to the fathers. In addition, for P2 and P6, the partners, but societal expectations for them to be breadwinners,
mothers used their absence as a punishment to the father for and structural barriers that still hold narrow descriptions of
wanting to become the child’s primary caregiver. These roles that men and women “should” play in their children’s
mothers may also have used their absence to test the fathers’ lives. Therefore, there is a need for the justice system, in
fitness to be parents. general, and the maintenance system to acknowledge
fatherhood in an active everyday form and shift it from the
“One of the court orders was that we have an arrangement
provider role [100].
that on weekends she will be with her, yeah, but they cannot go
there (referencing to his ex-place). She can be with her on the “Absent mothers” were either preoccupied with other
weekend… like not there… wherever she goes, you must make relationships or deliberately withheld the necessary support
sure that, that boy is not there (referring to his ex-girl’s brother from fathers because of their marital issues. However, P7, who
who abused drugs). For some reason, she just stopped coming. became a single father after his wife died, also reported
So, I cannot go after her and try to force her… there is nothing experiencing challenges with support, even though he quoted
relationships within his family of origin as a barrier to guidance and parenting advice from participants’ ex-partners
accessing this support: and other mother figures available in their daughters’ life. In
addition to the support from family members and
“They make sure that they respect my boundaries. I take
acquaintances, participants used their religion and spirituality,
my own decisions, so they do not interfere with that… There is
their own self-efficacy, and physical activities, such as running,
a lot of uncertainty because they do not know what is in my
as coping mechanisms. Most participants quoted their belief in
head. I do not know what is in their head, but they are my
God as a crucial source of strength and hope in raising their
family, and I love them to bits. But it is hard for them to
children.
interfere in how I do things because I had my way or I have my
own way of doing things (P7).” Furthermore, participants referred to the influence of
historical, social, economic, and cultural factors in how they
P7’s lack of support from family related to his reluctance
assumed their role as single fathers. Intrapersonal conflicts
to seek it and a belief that he can handle the situation on his
experienced by participants were influenced by the tension
own, despite the challenges he faced with balancing various
between previously held beliefs about manhood and fatherhood
roles. As a personal trainer, P7 may have adopted a more
and their current and, at times, contradicting realities. There
individualist approach in addressing his challenges, which may
was tension and discomfort among participants, particularly
have influenced his reluctance to seek help from the family
when assuming roles traditionally attributed to mothers. This
structures available. This approach to problem-solving could
further highlighted the interrelationship between personal and
also reflect notions that a man is supposed to be strong and take
broader narratives around manhood and fatherhood and
responsibility, with responsibility in this instance referring to
revealed a struggle to relinquish hegemonic masculine
not asking for assistance from others [47]. Whereas other
ideologies. Moreover, the process of constructing a coherent
participants referenced family members and friends, he
narrative around participants’ experiences as single fathers also
mentioned briefly attending therapy, hiring a helper, and then
reflected moments of tensions, contradictions, and
relying on his own internal locus of control. P7 was not the inconsistencies in the process of navigating and refining
only one who hired a helper, as P1 also used a helper to various aspects of their selfhood or their identity [75].
compensate for duties that he could not fulfill. However, P7
was raised by his grandmother, away from his family members, 4.2. Theme 2: Life Beyond Single Fatherhood
and acknowledged receiving some support from her, albeit
minimal, as he stated: Participants’ experiences also extended beyond their role
as single parents and involved their relationship with their adult
“So, I would say the support that I got from her is just children, healing from the divorce and death of their wife,
making sure that when the kids are at home, she is there, as an finding new meanings to life, and entering new relationships.
adult. Nothing more, nothing less than that (P7).” Participants also reflected on mistakes made during their
P7 added that he would only visit his family during the journey and shared lessons they had learned from their
holiday seasons. This early experience may have created some experiences.
distance in his interpersonal relationships with family members Participants’ relationships with their children changed over
and influenced his perception of the role that family plays in time. While some fathers reported being closer to their
one’s life. Nonetheless, P7’s experiences add to the diversity of children, others said that they experienced distancing from
single fathers’ experiences and provide insights into how the their children. P3 and P6 reported being closer to their sons
men who were interviewed used support differently, despite now than when they were young. Both participants still share
having gone through similar experiences. Furthermore, the same household with their children. This may have
participants received support from their current wives and influenced the need for both parties to maintain closer bonds.
partners. However, like the help received from family P3, who now lives with his 28-year-old son, reported that
members, the help received from partners was primarily with conflict with his son mainly arises due to his need for
caregiving. This further reinforced traditional gender-role independence and differences in views, an experience reported
ideologies, which hold that women are meant to be caregivers to be common among parents raising adolescents and young
in the family [44, 53, 86]. Moreover, P6, who experienced adult children [92].
challenges with finances, mentioned receiving money from his
“Maybe now that I think he is independent. Because I think
boss:
he knows, it upsets me that he thinks that he can reason for
“Luckily, I worked for a very good boss at that time, that, things (P3).”
sometimes I was like honest with my boss and said to my boss,
In the extract above, P3 also seemed to imply that a child
you know, today there is nothing at home. And my boss would
will always remain a child regardless of their age and that a
say, okay then I will give you a thousand rand. I will give you a
father’s views are not to be challenged by virtue of being a
thousand rand just to add up for the girls (P6).”
father. This reflects patriarchal thinking and a belief in
The extract above also indicates that participants may have traditional notions of parenthood that confer to an adult man
felt more comfortable approaching alternative and conventional and a father continual power over their children [92]. Although
normative sources of help, such as colleagues from work, for participants did not provide details on points of conflicts
maintenance money as opposed to the court. This further between them and their children, some issues that were noted
reflected more traditional gender-role ideologies [45, 52]. to contribute to conflicts between adult children and their
Moreover, participants and their adolescent daughters received parents include communication and interactional styles, habits
and lifestyle choices, values, politics, religion, and ideology, whose fathers are present and involved, have been reported to
work-habits and household standards and maintenance [88]. benefit from the involvement of both parental figures [5, 25,
Moreover, issues around adjusting to children moving out of 33, 99]. Benefits related to fathers’ involvement include
the house or the “empty nest syndrome” were also reported [4]. children improved behavioural, cognitive, and socioemotional
For example, P1, whose daughter is now studying at a development, improved tolerance for stress, reduced depressive
university in Cape Town, reported feeling lonely and anxious symptoms, high academic performance, increased empathy,
about his daughter’s independence. He had to initially maintain self-esteem, and social competence [7, 33]. Fathers’
contact with her through constant phone calls. involvement also benefits fathers. The advantages of being
“She is now alone on her own. I am no more there… no involved in a child’s life include improved health, lower levels
daddy, she is on her own. That was challenging me of depression, and high levels of satisfaction.
emotionally. I would have to call her almost every day in the Overall, all participants reported experiencing a sense of
morning to check if she is fine (P1).” pride and satisfaction to have been present in their children’s
However, P1 and others who had adult children learned to life. For some, children were a motivation to remain committed
accept their children’s independence and the shift in their role to their role as a father, especially during stressful situations.
as primary caregivers. This shift in the relationship between However, not all fathers were satisfied with their relationship
fathers and their children also reflected a moment of transition with their children. For example, P7 reported that his
in the family life cycle, which necessitated an adjustment [4]. relationship with his children was still a work in progress. In
Participants maintained their relationship with their children addition to challenges in healing from the impact of his wife’s
through regular face-to-face visits and from a distance. For recent death, P7 also mentioned issues such as not living in the
example, P6, whose three daughters had all moved out of the same city and household with his children because of work. P7
house due to marriage and work commitments, mentioned only visits his children during the holidays or at the end of the
talking to his children using Skype during the lockdown period. month and cannot be present with his children daily. He
reported experiencing stress and worry about not sharing the
“We like to Skype each other and speak over the phone same household with all his children. This dynamic may also
and still have that father and daughter relationship because reflect the impact that cohabitation with children may have in
they were not working far from me. So, Erick (referring to the their life.
first author), I had jobs where they were not far from me… I
got them jobs right next to me (P6).” 4.3. Limitations and Future Directions
Finding jobs for his children in closer proximity to his Although this study is significant and contributed to the
workplace was another way for P6 to maintain his relationship body of knowledge on fatherhood in South Africa, it also
with his daughters. While some participants were grateful and presents some limitations. A very small sample of participants
content with the state of their relationship with their children, was interviewed. This means that views shared by participants
others believed that it was still a work in progress. P1, P3, and interviewed may not necessarily be representative of all Black
P5 all reported experiencing a sense of joy and satisfaction in single fathers in South Africa. In addition, this study only
their relationship with their children: included Black fathers as part of the research sample, hence
“It gives me great pleasure. It gives me great pleasure that limiting the relevance of its findings to only one racial group,
there are people… okay, not necessarily here… out there, even especially for a country as racially diverse as South Africa.
when I walk out the street here, you know they are people that Furthermore, only fathers were included as participants and not
say you have got a big boy? We still walk together, make their children. Therefore, the findings of this study are
jokes, we laugh… people admire… (P3).” representative of one group of individuals involved in the
process of parenting: fathers. Meaningful insights that children
“So, I want to believe that the decision I took to be there
of single fathers may have shared to enhance the quality of the
for them is now paying off. I do not have an alien relationship
study have not been included, further limiting the relevance of
with my kids… They grew up understanding that, yes, this is
this study. Interviewing children raised by single fathers may
how it is. But we still have these two people in our lives. So,
provide more information to be compared with what has been
yeah, it helped lay that foundation from the onset… I am very
shared by fathers in the study.
happy, being a single father. The fact that I am spending time
with my kids, but also, the fact that they also have equal access Despite the above-mentioned limitations, this study has
to their mother, and she spends as much time with them. I am been valuable in creating awareness of issues faced by single
happy. I know it is not an ideal father-and-mother family fathers as a marginalised community and has contributed to the
relationship (P5).” diversity of voices and insights into fatherhood and parenthood
in South Africa.
Whereas P3’s sense of pride was from the feedback he
receives in social settings, P5 was proud to have had a Based on the limitations of the current study identified
relationship with his children beyond their early formative above, future studies should include a larger sample of
years and despite the divorce between him and his wife. P5’s participants to ensure that the views and experiences of single
unique experience with his children became his little story, fathers are more representative of the larger Black South
further highlighting the benefits related to parents’ joint African community. In addition, including the voices of fathers
custody [5]. Although the mere presence of a father in his from different racial groups and the experiences of children
children’s life does not lead to effective parenting, children from diverse racial groups raised by single fathers will be
beneficial. Furthermore, research focusing on understanding that participants may still be committed to patriarchal
single fatherhood and fatherhood within non-heteronormative discourses of parenthood that consider heterosexual
relationships, as well as research investigating “Black relationships as the “ideal” type of relationship for raising
fatherhood” as a specific topic within the South African children [45]. For example, this was reflected in most fathers’
context, is needed to deepen our understanding of fatherhood attempts to solicit support from mother figures, especially
and parenthood. when raising adolescent girls and faced with their daughters’
menstruation. Participants spoke of the involvement of female
CONCLUSION partners and did not consider alternative family structures and
This study was narrative research on the experiences of dynamics outside of heteronormative relationships. These
Black single fathers living in Johannesburg, who raise children results support findings from other studies establishing that,
on their own. The study was crucial as it allowed for the despite progressive gender and family policies and legislation
inclusion of the voices of single fathers that have been adopted by the South African government, traditional and
underrepresented in the literature and discussion on fatherhood patriarchal ideologies about gender roles are still prevalent in
and parenthood. Using social constructivism and critically South Africa [19, 101]. Therefore, participants’ experiences
situated epistemologies as theoretical frameworks [20, 49, 51], reflected both an attempt to challenge dominant narratives
the study used narrative interviewing as a method for data about being a parent and an enactment of traditional masculine
collection, as well as thematic analysis and Bamberg’s little beliefs and ideologies of “gender” [51, 102].
story approach to analyse data. Moreover, participants referred to the influence of
Three key objectives were addressed in the discussion: historical, social, economic, and cultural factors in how they
identifying key themes and narratives based on participants’ assumed their role as Black single fathers. Considering such
stories of their experiences as single fathers, discussing how factors allowed us to appreciate the complexities, difficulties,
single fathers negotiate their role and identity as single fathers, conflicts, and tensions embedded in participants’ experiences
discussing the implications of the findings on parenting, with a of having to negotiate gender roles in contemporary South
specific focus on differences between raising boys and raising Africa, especially for a generation of individuals raised in a
girls, and finally identifying differences in raising children of patriarchal society in which gender roles are expected to be
different developmental stages. From this study, it can be performed according to traditional norms. Despite the fact that
concluded that, contrary to the dominant narrative about fathers participants identified as Black, they did not specifically refer
in South Africa, especially Black fathers, not all fathers are to the role of race in shaping their experiences as fathers.
absent. The study demonstrated that fathers are just as capable However, the role that race has played in shaping the realities
as mothers of integrating roles traditionally associated with of many South Africans was considered [86]. Participants’
both fatherhood and motherhood. These findings offer an narratives included experiences shaped by how they
alternative to common narratives that portray Black fathers as understood their identities as Black men in South Africa. For
absent, irresponsible, and uninvolved in their children’s example, participants attempted in their stories to distance
upbringing. In addition, they cast a positive light on parenting themselves from negative stereotypes about being a Black man
and Black masculinities in South Africa by allowing Black and a Black father in South Africa by rejecting the discourse
fathers to rewrite their narratives and contribute meaningfully that Black fathers are absent and uninvolved in their children’s
lives. By doing this, they were also engaged in a protest against
to the fatherhood discourse. These findings reflect participants’
hegemonic and negative stereotypes about South African men.
attempts to move away from traditional and patriarchal
ideologies about masculinity and fatherhood that only position The intrapersonal conflicts participants reported in their
men as financial providers. By embracing their ability to be experiences may be understood, through the lens of Bamberg’s
caregivers, participants embraced more hybrid forms of theory, as influenced by the tension between previously held
masculinity, which allowed them to integrate both hegemonic beliefs about manhood and fatherhood and their current and at
and non-hegemonic masculinities [53, 86]. times, contradictory realities [75, 77]. There was tension and
discomfort among participants, particularly when assuming
However, the study also demonstrated that both a father
roles traditionally attributed to mothers. This further
figure and a mother figure are crucial to a child’s optimal
highlighted participants’ fear of transgressing hegemonic
development. In as much as children growing up with maternal
notions of being a man and a father and the interrelationship
figures may benefit from the presence of paternal figures in
between personal and broader narratives around fatherhood and
their lives, children raised by single fathers also stand to
thereby, between processes of personal and social change [47,
benefit from having mother figures in their lives. This view
53]. In addition, participants’ experiences also showed how
was further supported by participants through suggestions to
they navigated among the intersectionality of gender, race, and
other single fathers, such as avoiding divorce as much as
social class. While they benefited from the privileges of being
possible and building a solid and stable home environment for
men in a patriarchal society, they also grappled with challenges
children. Findings further pointed to the idea that children are
related to being Black and being a marginalised group of single
not raised in isolation but may benefit from the help of various
Black fathers.
family and community members [7]. Moreover, the results of
our study further highlighted the caregiver role that mothers The process of constructing a coherent narrative around
and grandmothers still play in their children's and participants’ experiences as single fathers also reflected
grandchildren’s lives. A closer analysis of these results reveals moments of tension, contradiction, and inconsistency in the
process of navigating and refining various aspects of their ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO
selfhood or identity [75]. Participants found that prioritising the PARTICIPATE
needs of their children over marital conflicts was important for
Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Human
building relationships with the children. Other participants
and Community Development Ethics Committee (HREC Non-
suggested prioritising building a solid relationship with
medical) and the Registrar of the Faculty of Humanity at the
children and healing from the loss of a loved one or from
University of Witwatersrand.
divorce before entering a new relationship. Overall,
participants’ experiences as single fathers were characterised HUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS
by intrapersonal and interpersonal tensions that revolved
around choosing between their needs and those of their No animals were used in this study. All procedures
children. performed in studies involving human participants were in
accordance with the ethical standards of institutional and/or
There are a number of implications to this study’s findings. research committee and with the 1975 Declaration of Helsinki,
Firstly, in light of the results presented above, there is a need to as revised in 2013.
engage all men in the process of gender resocialisation that
focuses on renegotiating gender roles. In addition, the results of CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
our study have highlighted the importance of creating
opportunities for fathers to be more involved in raising their Informed consent was obtained from all the participants.
children by engaging in tasks beyond their traditional role as AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
providers. This is crucial as it will initiate the process of All the data and supportive information are provided
breaking down gender-role stereotypes and create equal within the article.
relationship dynamics within families. The changes suggested
above can and should be implemented both at an individual as STANDARDS OF REPORTING
well as a broader societal level. This study has inspired new
COREQ guidelines were followed.
optimism about fathers’ involvement in their children’s lives
beyond traditional norms of masculinity. In addition, the study FUNDING
has meaningfully contributed to the project of social justice by
giving a voice to a marginalised community and by challenging None.
limiting and problematic notions about fatherhood and
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
parenthood in South Africa.
The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS otherwise.
P1 = Participant One
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
P2 = Participant Two
The authors are grateful to the participants who agreed to
P3 = Participant Three
be interviewed for this research and reviewers for their
P4 = Participant Four comments and feedback about this manuscript.
P5 = Participant Five
Appendix A: Demographic information
P6 = Participant Six
P7 = Participant Seven 1. Information about Participants
- Age Level Employment and Reason for Duration of Current Relationship Relationship with Ex-
of Education Profession Becoming a Parenting as Status wife (for Divorced
Single Father Single Fathers Participants)
P1 51 years - - Wife’s death 7 years (from when In a relationship with a -
old a child was in girlfriend
grade 7)
P2 40 years Diploma Process Controller Divorce Less than a year Single Distant and conflictual
old (breakup) relationship
P3 54 years Diploma Mechanical Engineer Divorce 23 years In a relationship with a Amicable relationship
old girlfriend
P4 57 years Diploma Self-employed Wife’s death 16 years In a relationship with a -
old (Construction) girlfriend
P5 54 years - Unemployed Divorce 8 years In a relationship with a Amicable relationship
old girlfriend
P6 49 years Grade 11 Optical Technician Divorce +/- 5 years In a relationship with a Distant relationship
old girlfriend
P7 40 years Diploma Small Business owner Wife’s death 3 years In a relationship (married) -
old (Personal Trainer)
2. Information about Participants’ Children
Number of Children Age of Oldest Child when Participant Became Single Fathers Children’s Gender
P1 One 13 years old Female
P2 One 5 years old Female
P3 Two 5 years old Males (2)
P4 Five 21 years old Males (3), and Females (2)
P5 Two 12 years old Male (1) and Female (1)
P6 Three 14 years old Females (3)
P7 Three 17 years old Male (1), and Females (2)
Appendix B Policy and Development 2011.

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Experiences of Black South African Single Fathers

1. INTRODUCTION most affected, with about 41.92% of reported absent fathers in

DOI: xxxx, 2023, 16, e187435012303020

am telling you, if I start to complain, some people will be by I can do (P2).”

2. Information about Participants’ Children

Appendix B Policy and Development 2011.

[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1060826517711160] [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100971] [PMID: 34988279]

© 2023 Kabongo and Malose

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