Just Plain English

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
Writing and Reviewing Staff Work

If you’re the writer,

Talk a project over with your reviewer at the start. Learn the points and emphasis to use.

Write a draft. Keep in mind your reader’s knowledge and interest. Do your homework and head
off questions.

Revise ruthlessly. Have you been clear and accurate? Try to find fault with your work.

Try to see the reviewer’s changes from his or her viewpoint. Be grateful for the times you were
saved from blundering.

If you’re the reviewer,

You must show your people that you want plain English. Circulate and post this pamphlet, give
it to newcomers, include copies in local writing guides.

Discuss a project with the writer before he or she starts it. Plan it together. If you’re in the
middle, know what the boss wants.

Don’t make the writer parrot your pet expressions. They can keep a subordinate from
developing a natural style.

Whenever possible, suggest changes and let the writer make them. Give reasons for major
changes.

Avoid making changes just to feel you’ve left your mark. Tinker only to prevent real damage.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 COMPACT WRITING

Suspect wordiness in everything you write. Quarrel with the need for every paragraph, every sentence,
every word. The longer you take to say things, the more you blur your ideas. When Deadlines permit,
let your writing rest for a day and then rewrite it. And rewrite it. To help you hunt for wordiness, here
are some common sources that are easy to spot and easy to fix.

Doublings

Avoid writing about a project’s importance and significance when importance will do. Avoid writing
about your gratitude and thanks when thanks will do. Pairs of words with similar meanings add
needless bulk to writing. Whatever the differences between theory and concepts, for example, they
aren’t worth calling attention to if you just want to give a general idea.

“It is”

No two words hurt naval writing more than the innocent-looking it is. They stretch sentences, delay
your point, encourage passive verbs, and hide responsibility. Unless it refers to something mentioned
earlier, write around it is. “It is necessary that you revise ruthlessly” becomes “You need to revise
ruthlessly.” And the roundabout “It is realized” becomes the straight forward “we realize” or “I realize.”
Spare only natural expressions like “it is time to….”

Less common but no less wordy are the cousins of it is, there are and there is. “There are two
alternatives mentioned in the report” becomes “The report mentions to alternatives.” Similarly, “There
is a helicopter pad on the ship” becomes “A helicopter pad is on the ship.” You can avoid most of these
weak beginnings with just a little rewriting.

Legalese

Avoid legal-sounding language like therein, herewith, and the undersigned. Try there, here, and I. Such
pompous and needless language doesn’t give writing added authority. It simply shows that the writer’s
style, and perhaps the writer’s thinking, is outdated. Let a directive’s number or a letter’s signature
carry the authority; you risk committing bloated bureaucratic bombast if you try to put that authority in
your language.

Smothered Verbs

Weak writing relies on general verbs, which take extra words to complete their meaning. When you
write a general verb like is, give, hold, and have, see if a nearby word will make it a more specific verb.
Here are some common smothered (and unsmothered) verbs: “The committee members held a meeting
(met) to give consideration to (consider) the plan. They made the decision (decided) to give their
approval to (approve) it.” Make use of ( ) specific verbs. Avoid diluting the action words in your
sentences.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
“That and Which”

Look for thats and whiches to cut from your writing. Often those words don’t help meaning or flow.
Sometimes you can just drop either word: “We believe that the changes will help.” Sometimes you will
have to rewrite slightly: “a system which is reliable” becomes “a reliable system.”

“The _____ion of”

Shorten words ending in –ion whenever the context permits. Instead of saying “I recommend the
adoption of the plan,” say “I recommend adopting the plan.” And instead of saying “We want the
participation of the command,” say “We want the command to participate.” Words ending in –ion are
verbs turned into nouns. Writing is shorter and livelier when it favors verb (action) forms over noun
(static) forms.

Wordy Expressions

Wordy expressions don’t give writing impressive bulk; they litter it by getting in the way of the words
that carry the meaning. Verbs and nouns do the real work; long linking phrases don’t deserve the
attention they receive. So simplify these sentence stretchers. In parentheses are the simpler forms of
four common wordy expressions: in order to (to), for the purpose of (to), in the near future (soon), in the
event that (if). These wordy expressions and others appear in the list of SIMPLER WORDS AND PHRASES.

Hut-2-3-4 Phrases

Though you should cut needless words, sometimes you can go too far. Avoid building hut-2-3-4 phrases,
long freight trains of nouns and modifiers. Readers can’t tell easily just what modifies what or when
such trains will end. You may have to use official hut-2-3-4 phrases like “Air Traffic Control Radar
Beacon System,” but you can avoid creating unofficial ones like “computer programs advance
information.” Instead, write “advance information on computer programs.” And for “rapid operational
equipment distribution,” sue “rapid distribution of operational equipment.” By increasing the number
of words a little, you increase reading speed a lot.

Specialized Terms

Like hut-2-3-4 phrases, the overuse of specialized terms is false economy. Avoid your job’s shorthand
with outsiders, and use it no more than you must with insiders. Spell out uncommon abbreviations and
acronyms the first time they appear. If they will appear only twice, a good rule of thumb is to spell them
out both times. The goal is to keep readers from pausing to decode your shorthand any more than they
must. Of course, spelling out a strange abbreviation may not help much. Are you any closer to
understanding SDI by knowing it means Systemized Dynamic Interface? You’ll avoid using terms others
don’t understand by testing everything you write as though you were the reader.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 Old: By virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution of the United States of
American, and as President of the United States of America, it is hereby ordered as
follows….

New: As president of the United States, I direct….

--old and new beginnings to Executive Orders

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 NATURAL WRITING

To avoid a bloated bureaucratic style, make your writing more like speaking. Now this isn’t a call for
copying every quirk of speech down to grunts and ramblings. And granted some people don’t speak
very well. Still, because Readers “hear” writing, the most readable writing sounds like people talking to
people.

Begin by imagining your reader is in front of you. If you’re writing to many different people and none in
particular, picture one typical reader. Then write with the techniques below – the best of speaking.

Once you’ve written a draft, read it aloud. If you wouldn’t say it in person, don’t say it by mail. Take the
time to revise. For most of us, good writing really means good rewriting. It’s worth the effort. A single
naval letter is likely to be read by many people as it goes up for signature in one activity and down for
action in another. Work to help the many who must read your writing. If you don’t sweat, your readers
will.

Respect plain words.

Go out of your way to use small words. Issue directives, don’t promulgate them. Start things, don’t
initiate them. Think of the city fellow in those old western movies who overdressed to impress the folks
at the ranch. Overdressed writing fails just as foolishly. Readers may know utilize means use and
optimum means best, but why force them to translate? You sell yourself in your writing. Come across
as a sensible person, someone who knows that good English is plain English.

Use personal pronouns.

Avoiding natural references to people is false modesty. When speaking for your activity, as in a letter
signed “by direction,” use we, us, our. When speaking for yourself – if you’re in charge, for example –
use I, me, my. In either situation, bring readers into the writing by using you and your.

You can write poorly even with personal pronouns. (Too much of we and you can obscure the subject,
and no amount of them can overcome confused thinking.) But without personal pronouns, you’re
doomed. Attempts to avoid them are often elaborate and inefficient: “The position of this command is”
for “our position is” or “it is understood” for “we understand” or “notify this office” for “notify us” or
“all addressees should” for “you should.” Research has confirmed many times that personal pronouns
improve readability. The importance of this fact goes up as reading skills go down.

We in the Department of the Navy can take a lesson from “We the people” in the Constitution. In spite
of that honorable past, many of today’s naval writers think personal pronouns hurt objectivity and
encourage chumminess. A chummy style has no place in our writing, but neither does an untouched-by-
human-hands style. Both extremes lack the natural dignity of ordinary English.

Besides, readers aren’t fooled if you write “it is planned” for “we plan” or “it is requested” for “we
request.” They know your activity is behind the planning and requesting. Personal pronouns merely
acknowledge the obvious. And where some doubt may exist, the personal pronouns clear it up.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
Try some contractions.

Contractions link pronouns with verbs (we’d, I’ll, you’re) and make verbs negative (don’t, can’t, won’t).
The second kind keeps readers from skipping over not, a special advantage with instructions.
Contractions are appropriate in less formal writing situations such as this pamphlet. Yet even when your
final product will be very formal, you can still use contractions in drafts to help you write naturally. The
point is that if you’re comfortable with contractions, your writing is likely to read easily. And because
the language is clear, you can spot holes in your thinking that need to be filled.

If contractions feel out of place, you may need to deflate the rest of what you say. In the next sentence,
something has to go, either the opening contraction or the remaining formality: “It’s incumbent upon
personnel at all echelons to conserve energy.” Written naturally, the sentence might read “It’s your job
to save energy.” Contractions without guilt! That’s the goal.

Prefer short transitions.

Prefer short, spoken transitions over long, bookish ones. Use but more than however, also more than in
addition, still more than nevertheless, so more than consequently or therefore. The shorter transitions
help set the right tone, a natural one, for the rest of what you say. Save the longer transitions for
variety. And, yes, you can start sentences with words like but, so, yet, and.

Ask more questions.

Reach out to your readers now and then by asking questions. A request gains emphasis when it ends
with a ?. In a long report, a question can be a welcome change. Hear how spoken a question is? One is
hidden in the next sentence: “Request that this command be notified as to whether the conference has
been rescheduled.” Written as a question, the sentence is short and direct: “Has the conference been
rescheduled?”

Keep sentences short.

For variety, mix long sentences and short ones, but average twenty words or less. Though short
sentences won’t guarantee clarity, they’re usually less confusing than long ones. Now you needn’t
count every word. Try the eye test: average under two typed lines. Or try the ear test: read your writing
aloud and break up a sentence that you can’t finish in one breath.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 TO-THE-POINT WRITING

Much naval writing follows a pattern of organization that is easy on writers but hard on readers. Most
of us write the way we think, by leading up to our conclusions. From a reader’s perspective, it is the
clue-by-clue pattern of mystery stories. A more helpful pattern is that of newspaper articles, which
open with the most important information and taper off to the least important.

Open with your main point.

What’s the one sentence you’d keep if you could keep only one? That sentence is your main point, your
bottom line, your “so what.” Get right to it. Whenever you can, start with that sentence, in a paragraph
by itself for added emphasis.

Give comments before reasons, requests before justifications, answers before explanations, conclusions
before details. Readers need to know your main point early so they can appreciate the relevance of
whatever else you say.

If no single sentence stands out, you may need to create one to keep from wandering aimlessly.
Occasionally, as in a set of instructions or a reply to various questions, all your points may be equally
important. In this case start with a sentence that tells your readers what to expect: “These are the
training quotas for FY 82.”

Delay your main point to soften bad news, for example, or to introduce a controversial proposal. But
don’t delay routinely. Readers, like listeners, are put off by people who take forever to get to the point.
In most cases, plunge right in.

To end most letters, just stop. When writing to persuade rather than just to inform, you may want to
end strongly – with a forecast, appeal or implication. When feelings are involved, you may want to exit
gracefully – with an expression of good will. When in doubt, offer your help or the name of a contact.

Downplay references.

The hardest way to start a letter, but the best way, is to get right to the point. The easiest way to start a
letter, but the worst way, is to open with a reference…or two or three. Beware.

Reading slows with every glance from the text to the reference caption. Justify such distractions by
using only necessary references. Try drafting a letter without references much in mind. That way you’re
likely to use fewer of them than you would by starting with a list. Many letters need no references at
all. Others are complete with a reference to only the latest communication in a series. Reading first
paragraphs that overuse references is like driving in reverse, through alphabet soup.

Make forward progress right from the start by subordinating references:

Not: Reference (a) proposed double coding 21 Navy billets. The rational was that these billets
then would have more candidates. This proposal is supported.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 But: We support double coding 21 Navy billets, which reference (a) proposed.

Or: We support the proposal in reference (a) to double code 21 Navy billets.

Or: We support the referenced proposal to double code 21 Navy billets.

(This example applies to single-reference letters.)

This up-front pattern works for other types of writing. Staff papers can begin with a “highlights” or
“main thrust” section. Similarly, long electronic messages that would normally end with summaries can
open with them instead.

Use short paragraphs.

Important ideas are swamped in long paragraphs. Cover one topic completely before starting another,
and let a topic take several paragraphs if necessary. But keep paragraphs short, down to roughly four or
five sentences. Long paragraphs will divide where your thinking takes a turn. By adding white space,
you make reading easier.

Call attention to lists of items or instructions by displaying them in subparagraphs. And when topics
vary widely, use headings to catch your reader’s eye.

Write strong sentences.

The four examples under Downplay references illustrate ways to write emphatic sentences. The “Not”
example wrongly gives the reference a major role as the subject of an independent clause. The
remaining examples give the reference its proper minor roles first in a dependent clause, then in a
phrase, and finally in a single adjective. As emphasis on the reference decreases, emphasis on
important ideas increases.

Emphasis also increases on words that begin and end sentences. The next sentence stresses soon:

The course will be given to middle and senior managers soon.

Soon would receive less emphasis if placed in the middle of the sentence. If soon were the opening
word, its emphasis would be compounded by its placement and the reversal of normal word order.
Begin and end sentences with any words you like, but keep in mind that you can make important ideas
stand out by positioning them strategically.

Keep lists parallel.

In lists, stick to one pattern. By avoiding interruptions, you set up expectations that make reading easy.
Violations of parallelism work most often when writers mix the following:

Things and actions,

Statements and questions

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 Active instructions and passive ones.

The four headings under To-The-Point Writing form a list of active instructions. The list would lose its
parallelism if instead of Keep lists parallel we used things (Parallel lists) or passives (Lists must be kept
parallel). The trick is to be consistent. Make ideas of equal importance look equal.

If you’ve mastered this bold kind of parallelism, go on to subtle forms that involve balancing words with
words, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses. You’ll find them discussed in any grammar text.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 ACTIVE WRITING

Write actively most of the time. Over 75 percent of the verbs in magazines and newspapers, the kinds
of writing we like to read, are active. Many naval writers, however, make 75 percent of their verbs
passive. As a result, much of our writing is wordy, roundabout, and sometimes downright confusing.

Put doers before verbs.

To spot passive verbs, look for any form of to be plus the past participle of a main verb (that’s a verb
usually ending in –en or-ed). Forms of to be: is, are, was, were, am, be, being, been. Passive verbs, then,
look like these: was inspected, has been left, is being anchored, may be chosen.

Sentences written with passive verbs are wordy and roundabout. They reverse the natural, active order
of English sentences. In the passive example below, notice how the receiver of the verb’s action comes
before the verb and the doer comes after:

Active: The skipper inspected the ship.

(doer) (verb) (receiver)

Passive: The ship was inspected by the skipper.

(receiver) (verb) (doer)

Besides lengthening and twisting sentences, passive verbs often muddy them. Whereas active
sentences must have doers, passive ones are completely without them:

Nominations must be approved beforehand. By whom?

Plans are being made. By whom??

You will be notified. By whom???

To avoid most passive verbs, find the doer of the verb’s action and put it before the verb. By leading
with the doer, you automatically will follow with an active verb:

Supervisors must approve nominations beforehand.

We are making plans.

I will notify you.

Now and then you can avoid a passive verb without rearranging the sentence. Simply change the verb
or drop part of it:

Your request has been received (arrived).

Annapolis is located in Maryland.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
Write passively now and then – when you have good reason not to say who or what does the action.
This situation may occur if the doer is unknown, unimportant, obvious, or better left unsaid:

Doer obvious: Presidents are elected every four years.

Doer perhaps unimportant: The parts have been shipped.

This isn’t a license to kill. When in doubt, write actively, even though the doer might seem obvious or
unimportant. You will write livelier sentences (not, livelier sentences will be written by you). The point
is make you ruse of passives deliberate and infrequent.

Write direct instructions.

Instructions deserve special attention because we write so many of them, often with so many passives.
When describing how to do something, talk directly to your readers by leading with verbs. Imagine
someone has just walked up to you and asked what to do. (This isn’t a new way to turn passive
sentences into active ones. A doer, you, will be understood or stated in front of the verb.

All safes will be checked. → Check all safes.

Each dial must be spun. → Spin each dial.

To improve instructions further, apply these next techniques:

― State rules before exceptions.

― Stress important points.
― Choose exact words.
― Say who does what.
― Give examples for difficult ideas.
― Divide processes into small steps.
― Use headings, subparagraphs, parallel lists.
― Answer likely questions.
― Test your material.
― Rewrite to avoid ambiguity.

Until Murphy’s law is rescinded, you must write so you cannot be misunderstood.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 SIMPLER WORDS AND PHRASES

Official writing does not demand big words or fancy phrases. Write naturally – in the words you speak
with. Those words are usually small. The guts of English are in its small, often one-syllable, words. Not
only do they save typing and reading time, they make writing livelier and ideas clearer.

Instead of Try Instead of Try

Accompany Go with Confront Face, meet
Accomplish Carry out, do Consequently So
Accomplish (a form) Fill out Consolidate Combine, join, merge
Accordingly So Constitutes Is, forms, makes up
Accrue Add, gain Construct Build
Accurate Correct, exact, right Contains Has
Achieve Do, make Continue Keep on
Actual Real Contribute Give
Additional Added, more, other Current (omit)
Address Discuss
Addressees are requested (omit), please Deem Think
Adjacent to Next to Delete Cut, drop
Advantageous Helpful Demonstrate Prove, show
Advise Recommend, tell Depart Leave
Afford an opportunity Allow, let Designate Appoint, choose, name
Aircraft Plane Desire Wish
anticipate Expect Determine Decide, figure, find
A number of Some Develop Grow, make, take place
Apparent Clear, plain Disclose Show
Appear Seam Discontinue Drop, stop
Appreciable Many Disseminate Issue, send out
Appropriate (omit), proper, right Do not Don’t
Approximately About Due to the fact that Due to, since
As a means of To
Ascertain Find out, learn Echelons Levels
As prescribed by Under Effect Make
Assist, assistance Aid, help Elect Choose, pick
Attached hearwith is Here’s Eliminate Cut, drop, and
Attempt Try Employ Use
At the present time Now Encounter Meet
Encourage Urge
Be advised (omit) Endeavor Try
Be responsible for Handle Ensure Make sure
Benefit Help Enumerate Count
By means of By, with Environment (omit)
Equitable Fair
Capability Ability, can Equivalent Equal
Category Class, group Establish Set up, prove, show
Caveat Warning Evaluate Check, rate, test
Close proximity Near Evidenced Showed
Cognizant Aware, responsible Evident Clear
Combined Joint Examine Check, look at
Comply with Follow Exhibit Show
Component Part Expedite Hurry, rush, speed up
Comprise Form, include, make up Expeditious Fast, quick
Concerning About, on Expend Pay out, spend
Conclude Close, end Expense Cost, fee, price
Concur Agree Expertise Ability, skill

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 Instead of Try Instead of Try
Explain Show, tell It is recommended We recommend
It is requested Please, we request
Facilitate Ease, help
Factor Reason, cause Justify Prove
Failed to Didn’t
Fatuous numbskull Jerk Legislation Law
Feasible Can be done, workable Liaise with Coordinate, talk with
Females Women Limited number Few
Final Last Limitations Limits
Finalize Complete, finish Locate Find
For a period of For Location Place, scene, site
For example Such as
Forfeit Give up, lose Magnitude Size
For the purpose of For, to Maintain Keep, support
Forward Send Majority Greatest, longest, most
Function Act, role, work Methodology Method
Furnish Give, send Minimize Decrease, lessen, reduce
Modify Change
Herein Here Monitor Check, watch
However But Month of (omit)

Identical Same Nebulous Vague

Identify Find, name, show Necessitate Cause, need
Immediately At once Non-concur Disagree
Impacted Affected, changed, hit Notify Let know, tell
Implement Carry out, do, follow Not later than By
In accordance with By, following, under Numerous Many, most
In addition Also, besides, too
In an effort to To Objective Aim, goal
Inasmuch as Since Obligate Bind, compel
In a timely manner On time, promptly Observe See
Inception Start Obtain Get
In conjunction with With On a ____ basis (omit)
In consonance with Agree with Operate Run, work
Incorporate Blend, join, merge Optimum Best, greatest, most
Incumbent upon Must Option Choice
Indicate Show, write down
Indication Sign Parameters Limits
Initial First Participate Take part
Initiate Start Perform Do
In lieu of Instead of Permit Let
In order that For, so Personnel People, staff
In order to To Pertaining to About, of, on
In regard to About, concerning, on Point in time Point
Inter alia (omit) Portion Part
Interface with Deal with, meet Position Place, put
Interpose no objection Don’t object Possess Have, own
In the amout of For Practicable Practical
In the course of During, in Preclude Prevent
In the event that If Prepared Ready
In the near future Soon Previous Earlier, past
In view of Since Previously Before
In view of the above So Prioritize Rank
It is (omit) Prior to Before
It is essential Must Probability Chance

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 Instead of Try Instead of Try
Procedures Rules, ways Transmit Send
Proceed Do, go on, try Transpire Happen, occur
Proficiency Skill -type (omit)
Programmed Planned
Promulgate Announce, issue Until such time as Until
Provide Give, say, supply (the) use of (omit)
Provided that If Utilize, utilization Use
Provides guidance for Guides
Provisions of (omit) Validate Confirm
Purchase Buy Value Cost, worth
Purpose is to (omit) Verbatim Word for word, exact
Pursuant to By, following, under Viable Practical, workable
Vice Instead of, versus
Reason for Why
Recapitulate Sum up Warrant Call for, permit
Reduce Cut Whenever When
Reflect Say, show Whereas Since
Regarding About, of, on With reference to About
Relating to About, on With the exception of Except for
Relocation Move Witnessed Saw
Remain Stay
Remainder Rest Your office You
Remuneration Pay, payment
Render Give, make / And, or
Request Ask
Require Must, need
Requirement Need
Reside Live
Retain Keep
Review Check, go over

Selection Choice
Shall Will
Shortfall Shortage
Similar to Like
Solicit Ask for
State Say
State-of-the-art Latest
Subject The, this, your
Submit Give, send
Subsequent Later, next
Subsequently After, later, then
Substantial Large, real, strong
Sufficient Enough

Take action to (omit), please

Task Ask
Terminate End, stop
That (omit)
Therefore So
There are (omit), exists
Thereof Its, their
This command Us, we
Timely Prompt
Time period (either one)

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350
 BOOKS ON WRITING

Contemporary Business Writing by Michael Adelstein, Random House 1971. A thorough college text that
offers excellent instruction for the working writer.

The Elements of Style, third edition, by William Strunk, Jr., and E. B. White. Macmilllan, 1979. These tips
on style are sure to improve anyone’s writing.

English 3200: A Programmed Course in Grammar and Usage, second edition, by Joseph C. Blumenthal.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. Readers learn grammar, punctuation, and sentence
construction by progressing through a series of questions and answers.

Gobbledygook Has Gotta Go by John O’Hayre, 1966. Through the examples come from the Bureau of
Land Management, the problems are common in the Department of the Navy. Order through
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Handbook of Technical Writing by Charles T. Brusaw, Gerald J. Aldred, and Walter E. Oliu. St. Martin’s
Press, 1976. Besides covering the elements of technical reports, this reference text answers
hundreds of questions on grammar and punctuation.

Harbrace College Handbook, eighth edition, by Jon C. Hodges and Mary E. Whitten. Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1977. A popular reference on grammar and punctuation.

Rudolph Flesch on Business Communications by, you guessed it, Rudolph Flesch. Barnes and Nob le,
1974. A small practical guide by the leading advocate of spoken writing.

Just Plain English, September 1981, was written in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (Op-09BR),
Washington, D.C. 20350