Particles - Kinematics and Kinetics
Particles - Kinematics and Kinetics
Particles - Kinematics and Kinetics
Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Dynamics Course Companion, Part 1
Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics
Edward Diehl, University of Hartford
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The Engineering Dynamics Course Companion, Part 1: Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics
Edward Diehl
www.morganclaypool.com
DOI 10.2200/S00996ED1V01Y202002MEC026
Lecture #26
Series ISSN
Print 2573-3168 Electronic 2573-3176
Edward Diehl
University of Hartford
M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
Engineering Dynamics Course Companion, Part 1: Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics is a sup-
plemental textbook intended to assist students, especially visual learners, in their approach to
Sophomore-level Engineering Dynamics. This text covers particle kinematics and kinetics and
emphasizes Newtonian Mechanics “Problem Solving Skills” in an accessible and fun format,
organized to coincide with the first half of a semester schedule many instructors choose, and
supplied with numerous example problems. While this book addresses Particle Dynamics, a
separate book (Part 2) is available that covers Rigid Body Dynamics.
KEYWORDS
dynamics, particle kinematics, particle kinetics, Newtonian mechanics
ix
Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.1 About the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 Newtdog and Wormy: Your Course Companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.3 Bottom Line Up Front (B.L.U.F.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.4 Kinematics Versus Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.5 Course Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.6 Equation Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.7 Textbooks and References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Acknowledgments
This course companion is the result of a decade of teaching Dynamics in close cooperation with
several brilliant and dedicated engineering educators. I would like to sincerely thank my col-
leagues and mentors for their assistance and inspiration. Here I acknowledge their contribution
to this effort and my career as an educator in reverse chronological order.
I’m grateful to my fellow faculty at the University of Hartford, many of whom reviewed
the manuscript and offered extremely valuable and insightful feedback and corrections. These
include Dr. Cy Yavuzturk, Dr. Mark Orelup, Dr. Mary Arico, Dr. Taka Asaki, Professor Phil
Faraci, and Dr. Chris Jasinski. I’m indebted to my Ph.D. advisor, friend, and mentor, Dr. Jiong
Tang, for his support and encouragement to publish a work that mattered to me. I’m forever
thankful to my friends and colleagues at the United States Coast Guard Academy for support-
ing me during and providing the opportunity to transition from a practicing engineer to an
educator. These include Dr. Todd Taylor, Captain Mike Corl, Dr. Elisha Garcia, Lieutenant
(Ret) Sean Munnis, Commander Nick Parker, Dr. Tom DeNucci, Dr. Susan Swithenbank,
Commander John Goshorn, and Lieutenant Commander J.J. Schock. The close working rela-
tionship of these instructors in which we shared notes, examples, and exam problems heavily
influenced the content of this book, and many of the problems within are adaptations of this
group effort. I’d like to acknowledge Sean Munnis in particular as the person who dubbed Sir
Isaac Newton “Newtdog” and encouraged me more than anyone to draw him as a cartoon char-
acter and develop this into a book. Before I joined academia, I was a working engineer and I’m
grateful for my former colleagues at Seaworthy Systems and General Dynamics, but especially
my mentor, the late Bill McCarthy, who pushed me and inspired me to be a better engineer and
better writer. Special thanks to the late Professor Don Paquette of the United States Merchant
Marine Academy, my Statics, Dynamics, and Machine Design professor. He inspired me to
become a teacher, and I’ve endeavored to follow in his footsteps.
And in real life, I’m so very thankful to my incredibly supportive wife, Lori Dappert Diehl,
who actually read this book. Thank you, Lori, for always making me laugh and never letting me
give up. Lastly, I’d like to acknowledge my older brother, the late James Harold Diehl, whose
communication limitations have obliged me to communicate and whose resilience inspires me
to persevere through the relatively minor inconveniences of life.
Edward Diehl
August 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WvowYa_3OQg
1
CLASS 0
Introduction
B.L.U.F. (Bottom Line Up Front)
• Dynamics is the study of motion.
• Kinematics and Kinetics:
– Kinematics: the description of motion, ignoring the cause of the motion.
– Kinetics: the interaction of loading and motion on objects with mass.
• Categories of objects:
– Particles: objects treated as point masses since their size and shape isn’t im-
portant.
– Rigid Bodies: objects whose size and shape m their rotation is important to
how they move.
• Dynamics courses are often broken down into four parts:
– Particle Kinematics, Particle Kinetics, Rigid Body Kinematics, Rigid Body
Kinetics.
Figure 1: Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton by Godfrey Kneller with your course companions: Newt-
dog and Wormy (©E. Diehl).
Why is Dynamics so difficult? Many of the problem types require students to think differ-
ently than they’re used to: rely less on step-by-step procedures and instead recognize the nature
of a problem and navigate to a solution using concepts. Sometimes problems require working
backward or applying logic to generate an “ah-ha” moment, when the lightbulb goes off and the
path to a solution becomes clear. Students often describe some Dynamics assignments as “trick
problems.” This is true in a way: the solution will seem obvious once revealed. A good problem
solver doesn’t need to have worked through an identical problem in order to solve a new problem
they’ve never seen. Instead, with problem solving experience, they develop a skill to pick it apart,
identify the underlying principles, and formulate a path forward. Sometimes this is like a maze,
where going down one path leads to a dead end. Problem solvers know to reverse course a bit,
revaluate, and try a new approach. This text is intended to be your companion on that journey
to developing “ah-ha” skills.
Because this is a “course companion,” the book is written in a relatively casual tone com-
pared to most textbooks (note the frequency of the pronoun “we”) and includes Sir Isaac Newton
as a cartoon to add some levity to this often-dreaded course. The cartoons are intended to also
serve as “visual mnemonics.” That is, they are meant to be memorable with an aspect of them
associated with particular concepts as they’re presented. Solving problems in dynamics requires
0.2. NEWTDOG AND WORMY: YOUR COURSE COMPANIONS 3
recognizing the nature of a problem, identifying the key concepts, and applying a solution strat-
egy. The middle part is where these cartoons can help, especially if one can think “oh, this is just
like when ____________.” The blank being an aspect of the cartoon.
The 2 parts of this course companion consist of 12 “classes,” each coinciding with the
typical 2-class-a-week schedule of a semester-long Dynamics course. A common complaint of
Dynamics students is not having enough examples or that the available examples are much eas-
ier than the homework. Therefore, the examples within each class are progressively longer and
more challenging. Some textbooks skip steps within the example solutions, so this course com-
panion attempts to work through the solutions in exhaustive detail. Example exam questions are
also included in the appendices to provide opportunity for additional problem-solving practice.
This course companion is also intended to assist instructors seeking inspiration for their own
examples, homework problems and exam problems.
Other references:
Below are additional references used while writing Part 1.
• Newton, I. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687. DOI:
10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399.
• Meriam, J. L. and Kraige, L. G. 2012. Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, vol. 2, John
Wiley & Sons.
• To, Cho W. S. 2018. Engineering Dynamics. Synthesis Lectures on Mechanical Engineer-
ing 2.5, pp. 1–189. DOI: 10.2200/S00853ED1V01Y201805MEC015
• Nelson, E., Best, C. L., Best, C., McLean, W. G., McLean, W. G., and McLean, W.
1998. Schaum’s Outline of Engineering Mechanics, McGraw Hill Professional.
• Farrow, W. C. and Weber, R. 1993. Study Guide to Accompany Engineering Mechanics
Dynamics, Chichester, John Wiley.
• National Council of Examiners for Engineering, 2011. Fundamentals of Engineering:
Supplied-reference Handbook. Kaplan AEC Engineering.
• Diehl, E. J. Using Cartoons to Enhance Engineering Course Concepts. 2018 ASEE
Annual Conference & Exposition. https://peer.asee.org/authors/39810
10 0. INTRODUCTION
Table 0.3: Example Problem Reference Correlation for Classes 1–8 (* indicates problem was
inspired by)
Class 1 Class 2
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
1.1 11.3 12-39 13.10 2.1.13 2.1 11.36 12-29 13.18 2.1.14
1.2 11.13 12-26 13.33 2.1.19 2.2 11.40 12-32 13-82 2.1.22
1.3 11.17 12-18 13.52 2.1.5 2.3 11.52 12-198 - 2.5.5
1.4 11.22 12-16 13.49 2.1.17 2.4 11.55 12-205 - 2.5.8
2.5 11.59 12-200 - 2.5.25
2.6 11.56 12-208 - 2.5.28
Class 3 Class 4
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
3.1 11.90 12-72 13.87 2.2.2 4.1 - 12-137 13.159 2.2.7*
3.2 11.100 12-104 13.76 2.2.14 4.2 11.143 12-160 13.127 2.4.7
3.3 11.117* 12-218 13.176 2.5.11 4.3 11.15 12-136 13.124 2.4.26
3.4 11.111 12-234 13.162 2.2.16 4.4 11.151 12-121 13.125 2.4.18
Class 5 Class 6
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
5.1 11.161 12-168 13.14 2.3.18 6.1 12.15 13-3 14.36 3.1.17*
5.2 11.169 12-187 13.156 2.3.19 6.2 12.14 13-28 14.3 3.1.42
5.3 11.32 12.185 13.157* - 6.3 12.15* 13-11 14.28 3.1.26
5.4 11.166 12.182* 13.154 2.5.19 6.4 12.22* 13-35 14.4 3.1.45
Class 7 Class 8
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
7.1 12.47 13-62 14.133 3.3.9 8.1 13.12 14-4 15.4 4.1.4
7.2 12.27 13-60 14.85 3.3.23 8.2 13.20 14-8 15.26 -
7.3 12.68 13-90 14.97 3.2.5 8.3 13.41 14-66 15.37 4.2.44
7.4 12.71* - 14.1 3.2.7 8.4 13.12 14-21 15.27 4.1.20*
7.5 12.52 13-71 14.9 3.3.17 8.5 13.58* 14-84 15.127 4.2.13
7.6 12.37 13-83 14.76
0.7. TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES 11
Table 0.4: Example Problem Reference Correlation for Classes 9–12 and Appendix A (* indi-
cates problem was inspired by)
Class 9 Class 10
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
9.1 13.69* 14-36 15.52 4.2.25 10.1 13.122 15-10 16.2 3.4.11
9.2 13.45 14-16 15.85 4.2.19 10.2 13.133 15-28 16.20
9.3 13.51 14-54 - 4.3.36 10.3 13.136 15-22 16.13 3.4.20
9.4 13.54 14-51 15.146 4.3.11 10.4 13.139 15-29 16.39 3.4.23
10.5 12.91 15-108 16.93 3.5.1
Class 11 Class 12
Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4] Ex. [1] [2] [3] [4]
11.1 13.146* 15-38 16.55 3.4.17 12.1 13.164* 15-79 16.81 3.8.3
11.2 13.155 15-60 16.78 3.7.6 12.2 13.171 15-77 16.82 3.8.16
11.3 13.157 15-76 16.70 3.7.10 12.3 13.166 15-89 16.79 3.8.17
11.4 13.152 15-39 16.53 3.7.3 12.4 13.186* 15-81 16.136 3.8.22
Appendix A.1 Appendix A.2
Prob. [1] [2] [3] [4] Prob. [1] [2] [3] [4]
A.1.1 11.98 12-108 13.74 2.2.13 A.2.1 12.14 13-4 14.5* 3.1.36*
A.1.2 11.104 12-94 13.76 2.2.11 A.2.2 12.28 13-28 14.127 3.1.42
A.1.3 11.169* 12-136 13.115 2.3.34 A.2.3 12.36 13-65 14.77 3.3.23
A.1.4 11.166 12-175 13.183 2.3.20 A.2.4 12.37 13-71 14.76* 3.3.6
A.1.5 11.170 12-99 13.144 2.3.31 A.2.5 12.32 13-17 14.130 3.1.56
A.1.6 11.140 12-120 13.117* 2.4.24 A.2.6 13.20 14-14 15.57 4.1.20
A.1.7 11.167* 12-188* 13.141 2.3.21 A.2.7 13.69 14-36 15.59 4.2.25
A.1.8 11.186 12-205 - 2.5.28 A.2.8 13.122 15-10 16.2 3.4.11*
A.2.9 13.126 15-30 16.12 3.4.43
A.2.10 13.162* 15-64 16.61 3.7.4
A.2.11 13.163* 15-59 16.59 3.7.12
A.2.12 13.166 15-89* 16.83 3.8.19
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfxvqVnaD08
13
CLASS 1
dx dv d 2x dv
vD D xP aD D 2
D xR D v :
dt dt dt dx
0 5
We might ask why is this last acceleration relationship true? We can rearrange v D dx dt
into dt D dxv
and substitute it into a D dv
dt
to get a D v dv
dx
.
These fundamental kinematic equations are in differential form, so we can arrive at a
desired motion parameter by taking the derivative from position ) velocity ) acceleration
or by integrating from acceleration ) velocity ) position. We’ll demonstrate this with some
examples.
There are actually more kinematic relations beyond acceleration since it isn’t always con-
stant and can change with time. So what is the time rate change of acceleration? The answer
3
is the third time derivative of position, “jerk” d 3x . This is a very descriptive term that we
dt
can perhaps envision. This begs the question, “what’s the time rate change of jerk?” The
5 answer
d 4x d x
to this and the next logical progression are “snap” (also “jounce”) 4 , “crackle” 5 and
6 dt dt
“pop” d 6x . It would appear that someone with a sense of humor (and an affinity for a certain
dt
breakfast cereal) was involved in naming these. A practical application of this extended concept
is the design of cam profiles. Cams are used for the timing of combustion engine valve opening
and closing. The rise and fall of the cam follower depends on the cam profile/shape. That shape
can be described by a lift displacement vs. time graph. The time derivatives of this displace-
ment are graphs of velocity, acceleration, jerk, etc. Transitions occurring too quickly can result
in theoretically infinite accelerations which aren’t good for the equivalent forces on or by the
cam follower, so the profile development is carried further to analyze jerk as well.
16 1. RECTILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES
When applying these fundamental kinematic relations it is useful to visualize the motion
and these relationships, and graphing is an excellent way to understand what’s being described.
Remember:
• kinematics is the “geometry of motion,”
• a derivative is the slope of a curve,
• integration gives the area under a curve, and
• inflection points in a curve are related to the maximums and minimums of the deriva-
tives of the other curves.
We can check our work by graphing the results and looking for these properties. A simple
example of derivatives is presented to serve as a review. You should replicate the table and graphs
yourself in a spreadsheet.
Example 1.1
An object moves back and forth in a straight line as a function of time according to the equa-
tion x .t/ D 1 cos t . What are the velocity and acceleration relationships as functions of time?
Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration vs. time at 1 s intervals for 6 s.
dx d
vD D Œ1 cos t D sin t
dt dt
dv d
aD D Œsin t D cos t:
dt dt
We setup Table 1.2 below and find some position, velocity, and acceleration values at
each time. The plot of these values (ignoring units) is shown in Figure 1.3. We can see this is
a low resolution time increment but also note these sine and cosine functions have periods of
2 D 6:283 so we’ve nearly graphed a full cycle.
Look for inflection points (where the curves cross the horizontal axis) and the correspond-
ing maximums and minimums. For instance at about 3 s (3:142 s) position is at a maximum while
velocity is zero. Acceleration at this point is also a maximum. We can conclude that the object
is changing direction at this time, it has stopped moving, but is about to move. Here we ad-
dress a possible misconception: just because an object has no velocity doesn’t mean it has no
acceleration. We often refer to this acceleration as “impending motion.” Not only is there accel-
eration when something stops moving, it’s potentially the point of maximum acceleration. We
will encounter this situation in when applying Newton’s 2nd Law (N2L) in Kinetics.
In Figure 1.4, we graph column 3 vs. column 2, column 4 vs. column 2, and column 4 vs.
column 3. We can see some additional inter-relationships among the kinematic results.
Velocity vs. position and acceleration vs. velocity are nearly circles (they would be with
more data points and symmetric axes). Acceleration vs. position is a straight line. You should
try isolating a few points from Table 1.1 and find them on the graphs in Figure 1.4.
1.1. FUNDAMENTAL KINEMATIC EQUATIONS 17
Table 1.2: Example 1.1 data
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0 2 4 6
-1.0
-1.5
Time, t
Acceleration, a
Rewrite: dv D a .t/ dt
Z v Z t
Integrate: dv D a.t /dt D v v0 :
v0 t0
dv
2. The acceleration is a function of position, x . a .x/ D v dx
Rewrite: a .x/ dx D v dv
Z x Z v
1 2
Integrate: a.x/dx D v dv D v v0 2 :
x0 v0 2
dv
Rewrite: dt D
Z t a.v/Z v
1
Integrate: dt D dv D t t0 :
t0 v0 a.v/
dv
Case 3.2: Position is desired, use a.v/ D v dx
v
Rewrite: dx D dv
Z x a .v/
Z v
v
Integrate: dx D dv D x x0 ;
x0 v0 a.v/
where:
Example 1.2
A point is found to accelerate according to the relation a D 1:5 sin.2t / m/s2 . At a reference
starting time (t D 0), the position is x D 0 and the speed is v D 1 m/s. Find the position of the
point when t D 3:5 s.
Acceleration is a function of time, therefore this is “Case 1” from fundamental kinematics.
We use the known/initial values, but keep final as a variable, so a new function is written that
describes the velocity as a function of time:
Z Z
dv
aD ) dv D a dt ) dv D a dt
dt
Z v Z t
dv D Œ 1:5 sin.2t / dt
1 0
1:5 1:5
v 1D cos.2t /
2 2
v.t / D 0:75 cos.2t / 0:25:
1.5
1.0
x, v or a
0.5
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Time, t
This describes position as a function of time, which was our goal since we were asked for the
position at a particular time:
Remember to switch your calculator to radians, which we always assume is the unit used in sine,
cosine, and tangent functions (unless told otherwise).
Graphing the functions (Figure 1.5) helps get a better understanding of what’s really go-
ing.
This describes time as a function of position, which was our goal since we were asked for the
time at a particular position:
ˇ p ˇ
ˇ ˇ
t.x/ D .4:472/ ln ˇ.0:1/.40/ C .24/ C 2 .0:0025/.40/2 C .1:2/.40/ C 5ˇ 14:98
D 1:854 s :
Since we can find time, velocity and acceleration values for increments of position, we generate
a similar plot (Figure 1.6) as the previous examples.
Example 1.4
The device in the figure shown (Figure 1.7) is referred to as a “slider-crank” in mechanisms
and often represents the piston (A), connecting rod (AB), and crank shaft (BC) of an internal
combustion engine among other basic machines. We will use them extensively in rigid body
dynamics problems, but for particle kinematics we’ll limit this to the movement of the piston
which we assume we know. For a limited range p of motion (not the entire cycle), the acceleration
of A can be described by the relation a D 0:5 9 v 2 , where a and v are expressed in in=s2
and in=s, respectively. The piston starts from rest (t D 0 and v D 0) at x D 7 in. Determine the
position when t D 2 s.
Acceleration is a function of velocity, therefore this is “Case 3.” Let’s try “Case 3.1” to see
what happens:
Z t Z v
dv dv 1
aD ) dt D ) dt D dv
dt a t0 v0 a
22 1. RECTILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES
x(t) v(t) a(t)
50
45
40
35
30
x, v or a
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Time, t
A
C
Z t Z v
1
dt D p dv:
0 0 0:5 9 v2
Rh i
From http://integral-table.com we find the surprising form: p 1 dx D sin 1 x
a2 x 2 a
v
1 1 v 1
tD sin p D .2/ sin :
0:5 9 3
1.3. PARTING THOUGHTS AFTER FIRST CLASS 23
We now can rearrange to find velocity as a function of time:
t
v.t / D 3 sin
2
2
v.2/ D 3 sin D 2:524 in=s:
2
Use the definition of velocity to get the position. (Note: We might also find the position as a
dv
function of velocity from the acceleration function using a .v/ D v dx , which is Case 3.2. But
that is more complicated than is necessary.)
Z Z
dx
vD ) dx D v dt ) dx D v dt
dt
Z x Z t
t
dx D 3 sin dt
x0 0 2
ˇt
t ˇˇ
x x0 D .2/.3/ cos
2 ˇ
0
t t
x.t/ D x0 .6/ cos C .6/ D .7/ .6/ cos C .6/
2 2
t
D .13/ .6/ cos
2
t
x.t / D .13/ .6/ cos :
2
This describes position as function of time which allows us to find the desired result:
2
x.2/ D .13/ .6/ cos D 9:757 in :
2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WZUiC9W13k
25
CLASS 2
– Constant Acceleration
* * *
v D v 0 C v ct In one dimension: v D v0 C ac t
* * * *
r D r0C C 12 v c t 2
v 0t In one dimension: x D x0 C v0 t C 12 ac t 2
*2 * * * *
v D v 20 C 2ac .r r 0/ In one dimension: v 2 D v0 2 C 2ac .x x0 /
Z Z
dx
vD ) dx D vc dt ) dx D vc dt
dt
Z x Z t
dx D vc dt ) x D x0 C vc t :
x0 0
In terms of position: R R
dv
a D v dx ) vdv D ac dx ) vdv D ac dx
Z v Z x
1 2
vdv D ac dx ) v v0 2 D ac .x x0 /
v0 x0 2
) v .x/2 D v0 2 C 2ac .x x0 / :
y3
y2
4
1
We know this is a constant acceleration problem and therefore the appropriate equations
are all true between any two points. Using y as the variable and points 2 and 4 , find the
velocity at 2 , since we know the time between 2 and 4 is t D 10 s.
1
y 4 D y 2 C v 2 t C ac t 2 ;
2
where:
y4 D 0 when it hits the ground
y2 D 300 ft when the time starts
t D 10 s
ac D g D 32:2 ft/s2
(negative because upwards is positive)
1
0 D .300/ C v2 .10/ C . 32:2/ .10/2
2
v2 D 131:0 ft/s:
Now we can use another piece of information the sketch helps to recognize: the velocity at the
peak/zenith is zero. We can find the position where this happens:
v3 2 D v2 2 C 2ac .y3 y2 /
Figure 2.3: Newtdog and Wormy demonstrate relative motion (©E. Diehl).
O A B x A B x
xA/O xA
xB/O xB
Origin
x
A A B B
75 m
100 m
dv
Likewise the time rate change of the velocity equals acceleration a D dt
, so:
d .vB / d .vA / d vB=A
D C ) aB D aA C aB=A :
dt dt dt
This is shown for one dimension, but holds true for generalized vectors which will be covered
in Class 3:
* * * * * * * * *
rB D r A C r B=A vB D v A C v B=A aB D a A C a B=A :
This seemingly simple concept will be used extensively in rigid body motion to relate points on
a rigid body to one another.
Example 2.2
Two toy rocket cars capable of a different constant acceleration are aimed toward each other
starting 100 m apart. Released at the same time, toy rocket car A collides with B at 450 m/s
after it travels 75 m (Figure 2.5). Find the relative velocity and relative acceleration of car B with
respect to A.
Treat rocket car A’s starting point as the reference origin and apply what we know about
its motion to find its acceleration and the time when it reaches the collision point:
Datum
SB
SA WB
A B
Figure 2.6: Blocks linked by rope and dependent motion in one plane.
1
xA D .xA /0 C .vA /0 t C aA t 2
2
1
.75/ D .0/ C .0/ t C .6:000/ t 2 t D 5:000 s
2
Using this time and the remaining distance, find rocket car B ’s acceleration:
1
xB D .xB /0 C .vB /0 t C aB t 2
2
1
.75/ D .100/ C .0/ .5:000/ C aB .5:000/2 aB D 2:000 m/s2 D 2:000 m/s2
2
This is a very simple problem to demonstrate the relative motion concept. Obviously, we could
face more complicated problems reminiscent of those algebra word problems involving trains we
hated in high school. Here though we can use the simple relative motion equations to organize
the problems, along with fundamental kinematics to come up with a path to a solution.
Datum
tum
SA
Sp
Da
A
SB
Figure 2.7: Newtdog and Wormy depending on each other with multiple ropes.
SN SA SW
and as long as the rope can’t stretch are equal. Other examples of dependent motion might be the
height of a shadow as an object and/or the light source moves. Another instance of dependent
motion we’ll cover is rigid body motion where the motion of points on the body are dependent.
The objective is to find equations relating the particles motion which can be the extra equa-
tion(s) we need to solve for the unknowns. For pulleys we can think of this as “the conservation
2.3. DEPENDENT MOTION 33
of rope.” If the rope can’t extend, its overall length remains constant. The general procedure we
follow is to establish coordinates for reference points, add up segment lengths, and take deriva-
tives of the position relations to find how the velocities and accelerations relate (Figures 2.7 and
2.8). Even though we might have multiple directions of motion, these problems are still 1 DOF
since the motion can only be positive and negative along a line for each particle. What follows
is a more detailed procedure.
1. Create reference locations (aka “datum,” C= ), define position coordinates to each point
that moves, establishing a coordinate system.
2. Write an expression (equation) for the length of the cable in terms of position coordinates.
Make use of constant distances (like length of the block or the arc of rope around a pulley
that doesn’t change) to lump together with constant cable length into an overall constant.
The following references Figure 2.7:
sA C sp C sB D length
sA C sB D length sp D constant:
3. Take time derivatives of the expressions to get relationships in terms of velocity and accel-
eration:
d d
ŒsA C sB D Œconstant
dt dt
vA C vB D 0 vA D vB
aA C aB D 0 aA D aB :
4. Be careful to consider positive and negative results as referencing motion relative to the
datums (remember we are still treating motion as one-dimensional). Reference this simple
example to help interpret the results of future problems.
5. There are equations for each individual rope in more complex pulley arrangements.
Example 2.3
Find the velocity and acceleration relations between blocks A and B (Figure 2.9).
A methodical approach is to trace the path of each rope and find the length of every
segment in terms, which we’ll do for this example. But we’ll soon see that many of the constant
portions can be ignored because they go away when differentiated:
3
SA
2 SB
1
lp2 l2
d d
ŒsA C 2sB D Œconstant
dt dt
vA C 2vB D 0 vA D 2vB
aA C 2aB D 0 aA D 2aB :
We could have observed that there are three varying length segments, one of A and two of B ,
so: sA C 2sB D constant. We’ll take this short-cut for future problems.
Example 2.4
Find the velocity and acceleration of C in terms of blocks A and B (Figure 2.10):
sA C 2sB C sC D constant
d d
ŒsA C 2sB C sC D Œconstant
dt dt
vA C 2vB C vC D 0 vC D 2vB vA
aA C 2aB C aC D 0 aC D 2aB aA :
Note there are three “degrees of freedom” here, so you need to know motion of two points to
determine the motion of the third.
Example 2.5
Find the velocity relationship between blocks A and B (Figure 2.11).
2.3. DEPENDENT MOTION 35
Datum
SC
SB
SA
Datum
SA
SC
SB
SD
Rope 2: sD C sD sC D l2
d d
Œ2sD sC D Œl2
dt dt
2vD vC D 0
1 1
vD D vC D vA :
2 4
Rope 3: sB C sB sD D l3
d d
Œ2sB sD D Œl3
dt dt
2vB vD D 0
1 1 1
vB D vD D vA vB D vA :
2 8 8
Example 2.6
Block A starts from rest and moves downward with a constant acceleration. Knowing that after
5 s the velocity of Newtdog relative to Wormy is 8 ft/s downward, determine the acceleration
of block A (Figure 2.12).
Rope 1:
d d
sN C 2sA D l1 ŒsN C 2sA D Œl1
dt dt
vN C 2vA D 0 aN C 2aA D 0
aN D 2aA 1
2.3. DEPENDENT MOTION 37
SN SA SW
Rope 2:
d d
3sA C sW D l2 Œ3sA C sW D Œl2
dt dt
3vA C vW D 0 3aA C aW D 0
aW D 3aA 2
aN=W D aN aW 3
Combine 1 , 2 , and 3
An important Dynamics problem solving skill is keeping track of the direction of motion.
While using a coordinate system and being disciplined with your sign conventions is very key,
using logic to double check the results make sense is also critically important.
In this class we’ve looked at special cases where the fundamental kinematic relationships
are already integrated. We’ll use these again in the next class using more than one dimension,
specifically for projectile motion. We also introduced simple relative motion and dependent
motion. When solving complex problems with multiple degrees of freedom, these are often
38 2. KINEMATICS SPECIAL CASES: ONE-DIMENSIONAL RELATIVE MOTION
useful as additional equations when the application of other principles yields fewer equations
than unknowns.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0T8lhwqZ3C8
39
CLASS 3
• Relative Motion can use a reference vector to define position and motion of a
point.
* * * * * * * * *
rB D r A C r B=A vB D v A C v B=A aB D a A C a B=A
P
î
ry r⃗
rx x
O
*
To define the location of a particle (P ) we use a position vector, r , by establishing an
origin (O ), a reference coordinate system with unit vectors providing direction, and component
coefficients for magnitudes along each unit vector. The rectangular coordinates position vector
* *
in two-dimensions shown in Figure 3.1 is written r D rx Oı C ry Oȷ (or is often written as r D
xOı C yOȷ), where the component coefficients are also called just “components” or just “coordinates”
*
to plot the particle position. This could also be written as r D rx eO x C ry eOy if we were to be
consistent.
The unit vectors can be thought of as attached to the point. Each unit vector is parallel
to the coordinate axis. This orientation doesn’t change in rectangular coordinates but can rotate
with the particle motion in other coordinate systems. We denote rectangular coordinate unit
vectors as Oı, Oȷ, and kO because that’s the standard convention. Unit vectors are “orthogonal,” which
means perpendicular, and follow the “right-hand rule” where the thumb and index finger form
the x and y coordinates, respectively, when making an “L” shape and a third coordinate, z ,
follows the direction of the middle finger when it is extended away from the palm. In Figure 3.2,
Newtdog is demonstrating the right-hand-rule. This convention is also used for defining other
3-D coordinate systems and for defining positive rotation directions.
* * *
Vector addition (for instance: f D d C e ) can be done by either adding up the compo-
nents or by positioning representative vectors into triangles and working through the geometry.
Figure 3.3 depicts these vectors as arrows and shows how they add to form a new vector.
Addition using components: Break each vector up into components and add them to generate
the new vector. Smaller arrows in Figure 3.3 show the components and how they add to form
the new vector:
*
f D .dx C ex / Oı C dy C ey Oȷ:
Addition using triangles: Vector addition can be visualized by the triangle, as shown in
Figure 3.3. One convention is to place vectors nose to tail to add together to create new vector
which starts at the tail of the first vector and ends at the nose of the second. A way to remember
this is to think of the addition is “nose-tail” and the result is “tail-tail” and “nose-nose.”
3.1. VECTOR ADDITION REVIEW 41
ĵ
î
k̂
f⃗ ey
d⃗ e⃗ e⃗
dy ey d⃗
dy
dx
ex dx ex
The geometry of the vector triangle can be used to find the magnitude and direction of
the new vector. The Law of Sines (LoS) and Law of Cosines (LoC) are often useful to find
the angles (upper case letters for the angle opposite from the referenced vector) and lengths
(lowercase letters representing the vector magnitude) (Figure 3.4).
Recall:
d e f
LoS: D D
sin D sin E sin F
LoC: f 2 D d 2 C e 2 2de cos F:
There are a variety of scenarios of known magnitudes and/or angles we might encounter
where we can use LoS and/or LoC to find the unknowns. For instance, if we know the magnitude
* *
and direction of d and e , we use the lengths of d and e and angle F . To find the length
* *
of f from LoC and then the remaining angles from LoS. Sometimes we may know f and
42 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
f D
e
F
E
d
e⃗ f⃗
d⃗
* *
want to get find either d or e and therefore need to use the other two versions of LoC: d 2 D
e 2 C f 2 2ef cos D , and e 2 D d 2 C f 2 2df cos E .
You can also use a parallelogram (Figure 3.5) to visualize the new vector by putting the
two known vectors tail to tail to find the new vector, but the geometry from this can’t be easily
used to find the new vector. Still, the parallelogram method is useful to visualize the new vector
and confirm the results from the other methods. You should use multiple methods when time
permits to catch mistakes and gain confidence in your work.
* *
P D P .t/ D some vector function that changes with time
* *
d .f P / df * dP
D P Cf :
dt dt dt
**
d. P Q /
Derivative of a scalar product: dt
3.3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES 43
* *
Where Q D Q .t/ D some other vector function that changes with time
* * * *
d PQ dP * * dQ
D QCP :
dt dt dt
* *
d. P Q /
Derivative of a vector product: dt
* * * *
d P Q dP * * dQ
D QCP :
dt dt dt
Since within a vector the components are scalars and the unit vectors are vectors, written as
* *
P D P1 eO 1 C P2 eO 2 or P .t/ D P1 .t/ eO 1 .t/ C P1 .t/ eO 2 .t/ (where eO 1 and eO 2 are generalized unit
vectors), the derivative of any vector itself is:
*
dP dP1 d eO 1 dP2 d eO 2
D eO 1 C P1 C eO 2 C P2 :
dt dt dt dt dt
*
For rectangular coordinates ( P D Px Oı C Py Oȷ) this becomes:
*
dP dPx dOı dPy dOȷ
D Oı C Px C Oȷ C Py :
dt dt dt dt dt
dOı dOȷ
But since the unit vectors don’t change in rectangular coordinates, dt D 0 and dt D 0, this be-
comes a non-issue resulting in: *
dP dPx dPy
D Oı C Oȷ:
dt dt dt
So why bother describing this? Because the unit vectors in other coordinate systems do change
with time and will require us to consider the product rule when taking a time derivative. This
results in components with multiple parts.
∆r⃗ ∆s v⃗
r⃗’ P r⃗’ P P
r⃗ r⃗ r⃗
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.6: Position vectors used to explain velocity being tangent to path.
y y ∆v⃗ y
v⃗’
v⃗’
Pʹ v⃗ a⃗
v⃗ v⃗ v⃗
P P P
r⃗ r⃗ r⃗
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
a⃗ v⃗
ay vy
ax vx
P
r⃗
ĵ
x
î
Figure 3.8 shows the components of the acceleration vector included with the position
and velocity vectors.
Recall the other definitions of acceleration and there are even more ways to write out the
components in rectangular coordinates:
The important concept: in rectangular coordinates the acceleration components are the time rate
change of the components of the velocity vector.
Note again, this is unique to rectangular coordinates. In other coordinate systems the
acceleration components are NOT the time derivative of the velocity components.
Example 3.1
*
A particle travels according to the velocity v D 45t 2 C 20t Oı C .40 cos 5t/ Oȷ ft/s beginning at
*
r 0 D .2/ Oı C .1/ Oȷ ft. Determine the time, position vector, velocity, and acceleration when the
velocity is first completely horizontal? Plot the path and superimpose the velocity and accelera-
tion vector components onto the graph.
46 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
* *
The velocity is found by integration using v D ddtr
Z r Z t Z t
* *
dr D v dt D 45t 2 C 20t Oı C .40 cos 5t / Oȷ dt
r0 0 0
* *
r r 0 D 15t 3 C 10t 2 Oı C .8 sin 5t / Oȷ
*
r .t/ D 15t 3 C 10t 2 C 2 Oı C .8 sin t C 1/ Oȷ:
A plot of the path with velocity and acceleration vector components looks like Figure 3.9.
Two key things to note: velocity is tangent to the path, and acceleration is not.
y [ft]
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x [ft]
Figure 3.10: Newtdog pitches Wormy for projectile motion (©E. Diehl).
1 2
x D x0 C .vx /0 t y D y0 C vy 0 t gt :
2
2
Note, it can sometimes also be useful to use vy 2 D vy 0 2g .y y0 /, especially if the
peak of the motion (when vy is zero) is a useful aspect of the problem.
We can separate the motion into two simultaneous motions that are almost independent…
their position is linked by time. We can even think of these as two separate motions happening
simultaneously. In Figure 3.11 the arc of the path Wormy makes can be broken down into an up
and down vertical motion (where the velocity changes) and a horizontal motion with constant
velocity.
We can combine the projectile motion position equations to describe the path of the mo-
tion, resulting in a parabola. Solving the x position equation for time (t D x.vxx/00 ), substituting
48 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
v0
θ g
j
i
d
v0
y
θ x
Δy
Δx
Figure 3.12: Newtdog tosses Wormy into basket for Example 3.2 (©E. Diehl).
into the y position equation, and treating the original position as .x; y/ D .0; 0/ we obtain:
2 " # " #
x 1 x vy 0 g
y D vy 0 g D x 2
x2:
.vx /0 2 .vx /0 .vx /0 2.vx /0
The result is an equation with y as a function of x . A graph of y vs. x is the path the projectile
takes.
Example 3.2
Newtdog wants to toss Wormy into the center of an apple basket positioned 2 ft below his release
point and 6 ft away (Figure 3.12). Determine the required release speed in miles per hour if his
release angle is 45ı or 30ı .
Define coordinate system at the release point x0 D 0, y0 D 0
The end point is therefore x D 6 ft yD 2 ft
Initial velocity components .vx /0 D v0 cos .vy /0 D v0 sin
x -dir position relation at constant velocity x D x0 C .vx /0 t
3.4. PROJECTILE MOTION 49
x x0
Solve for time tD .vx /0
1
1
y -dir position relation at constant acceleration y D y0 C .vy /0 t 2
gt 2 2
.vy /0 2
1 .x x0 /
Plug 1 into 2 y D y0 C .x x0 / g
.vx /0 2 .vx /2
0
2
v0 sin 1 .x x0 /
Substitute the initial velocity components y D y0 C v0 cos
.x x0 / g
2 v 2 cos2
0
Enter the knowns (keep the angle variable): y D .0/ C tan .x .0//
.0//2
1
2
.32:2/ .x
v 2 cos2
0
r
1 2
2 .32:2/x
Solve for initial velocity magnitude (speed): v0 D .x tan y/ cos2
r
1 2
ı 2 .32:2/.6/
Find the initial speed at 45 v0 D ..6/tan.45ı / . 2//cos2 .45ı /
D 12:04 ft/s D
8.207 mph
r
1 2
ı 2 .32:2/.6/
Find the initial speed at 30 v0 D ..6/tan.30 / . 2//cos2 .30ı /
ı D 11:89 ft/s D
8.109 mph
v0 D 8:21 mph or 8:11 mph :
It’s a good idea to convert answers into units you can relate to. In this case we can get a
better sense of how fast these speeds are by converting them into miles per hour because we have
several ways to reference how much that is, for example a major league pitcher who is very good
can throw a 100 mph fast ball or the record 40-yard dash speed is about 19.4 mph.
It’s also useful to plot the path of each result to see how two different angle and speed
combinations will achieve the same results as in Figure 3.13. It’s critical to keep track of what’s
actually taking place in all dynamics problems. Visualizing is a key part of this.
While projectile motion problems may seem simple based on the provided examples, vari-
ations of knowns, unknowns, and arrangements can make them quite challenging because it
requires us to think through the scenarios rather than memorize all of the permutations of this
fundamental problem. Consider the things you might want to use projectile motion to accom-
plish or know about. Below is a list of some possibilities.
• The distance a projectile will travel.
• The peak height a projectile will go.
• The angle(s) required at launch to land at a particular spot (there are often two).
• The velocity required to land at a particular spot.
50 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
3
y [ft]
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
x [ft]
This is not a complete list; there are other possible projectile motion problems. Consider-
ing the potential complexity of a projectile motion problem, it is remarkable when athletes train
themselves to make split second adjustments to hit a target with a sports ball, as in Newtdog’s
drop kick in Figure 3.14. The important take away from the above list: you can’t simply memo-
rize a step-by-step solution method in Dynamics, you will have to think through problems and
figure out a solution strategy.
Figure 3.14: Newtdog drop kicks a football centuries before his time (©E. Diehl).
y
B
r⃗B/O r⃗B/A
A
r⃗A/O
x
O
The origin is often a fixed point, so we leave off this reference and write the position vector
of point B as:
* * *
r B D r A C r B=A :
The derivative of this position vector leads to the velocity vector:
* * *
vB D v A C v B=A :
In all of these cases, point A is used as a reference to determine point B . The vector
addition discussed in Section 3.1 is especially useful here. We will use this concept extensively
for rigid body kinematics.
52 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
v⃗A
v⃗B/A
v⃗B
v⃗B
25° v⃗A
10°
10º
v⃗A
β
65º θB/A
v⃗B φ
v⃗B/A
25º
Example 3.3
Two snow boarders are traveling down a hill that changes slope from 25ı –10ı (Figure 3.16).
Newdog (snowboarder B ) is traveling at 14 m/s on the steeper slope while his new friend is
going 10 m/s. Determine the relative velocity of Newtdog with respect to the other skier.
There are always two ways to approach vector relative motion problems: coordinates or
triangles:
*
v A D 10 m/s & 10ı D .10/ cos 10ı Oı C .10/ sin 10ı Oȷ D .9:848/ Oı C . 1:736/ Oȷ
*
v B D 14 m/s & 25ı D .14/ cos 25ı Oı C .14/ sin 25ı Oȷ D .12:69/ Oı C . 5:917/ Oȷ
* * *
v B=A D v B v A D Œ.12:69/ Oı C . 5:917/ Oȷ Œ.9:848/ Oı C . 1:736/ Oȷ
D .2:840/ Oı C . 4:181/ Oȷ
ˇ* ˇ q 4:181
ˇ v B=A ˇ D .2:840/2 C . 4:181/2 D 5:054 m/s B=A D tan 1
D 55:81ı
2:840
*
v B=A D 5:05 m/s & 55:8ı :
Another approach is to use vector triangles (Figure 3.17). The geometry can be frustrating,
but this is a very good way to visualize the results. By inspection the interior angle is ˇ D 15ı .
3.5. RELATIVE MOTION WITH VECTORS 53
v
v
θB
θA
y2
y1
∆x
ˇ* ˇ
Law of Cosines to get magnitude of ˇ v B=A ˇ:
c 2 D a2 C b 2 2ab cos C
ˇ* ˇ q
ˇ v B=A ˇ D j* * * *
v A j2 C j v B j2 2 j v A j j v B j cos ˇ
ˇ* ˇ q
ˇ v B=A ˇ D .10/2 C .14/2 2 .10/ .14/ cos .15ı / D 5:054 m/s:
a c
Law of Sines to get angle: sin A
D sin C
.10/ .5:054/
D ' D 30:80ı :
sin ' sin .15ı /
The angle of the vector is D 25ı C 30:80ı D 55:80ı which confirms the vector addition.
Example 3.4
Twin brothers shoot basketballs simultaneously from the half court, as shown in Figure 3.18.
Both make the basket launching with the same initial speed but brother B launches his ball
from a steeper angle than brother A, and therefore his ball goes into the basket after brother A’s
ball. Half court to the center of the basket in a professional basketball court is x D 41:75 ft,
and the rim is y2 D 10 ft high. The brothers launch the ball from y1 D 6 ft above the floor at
54 3. CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES (RECTANGULAR COORDINATES)
a speed of v1 D 40 ft/s. What is the relative velocity of ball B to ball A when ball A enters the
hoop.
We start by setting up equations for just one basketball.
x -dir position relation at constant velocity x2 D x1 C v1 cos t
x2 x1
Solve for time tD v1 cos
1
1
y -dir position relation at constant acceleration y2 D y1 C v1 sin t 2
gt 2 2
2
v1 sin 1 .x2 x1 /
Plug 1 into 2 y2 D y1 C v1 cos
.x2 x1 / g
2 v1 2 cos2
1 .x2 x1 /2
y2 D y1 C tan .x2 x1 / g :
2 v1 2 cos2
A bit of digging into trigonometry identities uncovers that cos12 D sec2 D 1 C tan2
" #
1 .x2 x1 /2
y2 D y1 C tan .x2 x1 / g 2
1 C tan2 :
2 v1
25
20 v⃑B
y [ft]
15
10
v⃑A
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x [ft]
.vA2 /y D .vA1 /y gt2 D .40/ sin 36:43ı .32:2/ .1:282 / D 17:53 ft/s:
The velocity components of ball B at this time are
.vB /x D v1 cos B D .40/ cos 59:11ı D 20:54 ft/s
.vB2 /y D .vB1 /y gt2 D .40/ sin 59:11ı .32:2/ .1:282/ D 6:954 ft/s:
The relative velocity is found from:
*
vA D .32:18/ Oı C . 17:53/ Oȷ
*
vB D .20:54/ Oı C . 6:954/ Oȷ
* * *
v B=A D vB vA D Œ.32:18/ Oı C . 17:53/ Oȷ Œ.20:54/ Oı C . 6:954/ Oȷ
D .11:64/ Oı C . 10:58/ Oȷ
ˇ* ˇ q 10:58
ˇ v B=A ˇ D .11:64/2 C . 10:58/2 D 15:73 ft/s B=A D tan 1
D 42:27ı
11:64
*
v B=A D 15:7 ft/s & 42:3ı :
Figure 3.19 shows the paths of each ball and the location of the balls when ball A enters
the hoop. Graphing the trajectory of both balls, the location of ball B when ball A goes through
the hoop, and the tangents to represent the velocity directions confirms the numeric calculations.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vr5ZudtUhD0
57
CLASS 4
Non-Rectangular Coordinate
Systems: Path Coordinates
B.L.U.F. (Bottom Line Up Front)
• Coordinate Transformation: project existing unit vectors onto new unit vectors by
using sines and cosines in a matrix.
• Path Coordinates (a.k.a. “Tangential and Normal”): attached to the particle.
*
• Velocity is expressed in Path Coordinates as: v D v eO t .
2
*
• Acceleration is expressed in Path Coordinates as: a dv dt
e
O t C v
eO n .
Figure 4.1: Newtdog stays tangent to the path in path coordinates (©E. Diehl).
Figure 4.2: Newtdog takes Wormy for a spin in polar coordinates (©E. Diehl).
coordinates. It also turns out that we can often gain insight into the motion by using these other
coordinate systems.
ĵ ĵ
ê2
cos θ ĵ
sin θ ĵ ê1
î î
cos θ î – sin θ î
Assume we begin with rectangular coordinates with unit vectors Oı and Oȷ and want to switch
to a new set of orthogonal unit vectors eO 1 and eO 2 , which make up the new generic coordinate
system. We over-lay the two sets and find the angle formed between them, as in Figure 4.3.
Remember that while unit vectors are often associated with a point (such as the origin or the
moving particle as we’ll see in the two coordinate systems discussed in this class), they only define
directions and are not actually fixed onto points, so they can be moved around and overlaid as
shown.
Take each new unit vector separately and project the new unit vector onto the old ones as
in the equations below corresponding to Figure 4.4. We see there is a portion in each of the old
coordinate system. The equations for each new vector are:
This is a step-by-step explanation, and it isn’t necessary to draw each of the vectors this
way each time, but it’s good to think of them this way. We can rearrange these equations into a
matrix equation:
( ) " #( )
eO 1 cos sin Oı
D :
eO 2 sin cos Oȷ
The 2 2 matrix is the “transformation matrix” and has a few noteworthy traits. It is almost sym-
metrical diagonally except one of the values is the opposite sign of the others. There are several
possible variations depending on the situation, so it’s best to think through the formulation of
the matrix rather than memorize each version.
60 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
Table 4.1: Coordinate transformation array example
î ĵ
e⃑1 cos θ sin θ
e⃑2 – sin θ cos θ
B P⃑
ê2
ĵ
ê1
î
A θ
It is often convenient to follow a procedure whereby you construct a table called a “coor-
dinate transformation array,” as in Table 4.1, which can be read either by columns to transform
into the row coordinate system, or by rows to transform into the column coordinate system.
The following example will help demonstrate the procedure and show that the transfor-
mation isn’t always identical to the above, especially if one avoids using angles greater than 90ı
to define the rotation.
Example 4.1
*
Vector P D .4/ Oı C .2/ Oȷ is associated with linkage AB shown in Figure 4.5. Find the coordinate
* * *
transformation array from Oı and Oȷ to e 1 and e 2 and express vector P in this new coordinate
system when D 75ı .
* *
We find the new coordinate system unit vectors, e 1 and e 2 , in terms of the original unit
vectors (Oı and Oȷ) and then arrange these into the transformation array in Table 4.2:
î
θ ê2
θ
ê1
î ĵ
e⃑1 – cos θ – sin θ
e⃑2 sin θ – cos θ
Py
θ
θ
Px
ê2
ê1
*
PD .4/ cos 75ı .2/ sin 75ı eO 1 C .4/ sin 75ı .2/ cos 75ı eO 2
*
P D . 2:967/ eO 1 C .3:346/ eO 2 :
One could have also broken this vector into its components and projected them onto the
new coordinate system as depicted in Figure 4.7:
*
PD Px cos Py sin eO 1 C Px sin Py cos eO 2
*
PD .4/ cos 75ı .2/ sin 75ı eO 1 C .4/ sin 75ı .2/ cos 75ı eO 2
*
P D . 2:967/ eO 1 C .3:346/ eO 2 :
62 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
y
êt
P
Path
ên Radius of Curvature
Center of Curvature
o x
Either method can be used, so when time permits it’s advisable to double check your
results by using both since it is easy to get signs reversed and sines and cosines mixed. Again,
coordinate transformation is often done within computer codes since there can be many frames
of reference to consider.
As you’ll recall, velocity is ALWAYS tangent to the path, so the magnitude of the velocity
(a.k.a. “speed”) v , times the tangential unit vector, is the velocity. You should also recall that
acceleration is NOT ALWAYS tangent to the path. When is it tangent to the path? When the
path is a straight line. Otherwise there is always a normal component of acceleration.
4.3. PATH COORDINATES (A.K.A. “TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL”) 63
êt
y
at
ên
v⃗
P a⃗
an
o x
Figure 4.10: Newtdog demonstrating the importance of having normal acceleration (repeat of
Figure 4.1) (©E. Diehl).
A note on “centrifugal” vs. “centripetal”… this is a semantic distinction made when dis-
cussing apparent vs. reaction forces due to this acceleration. Call it whatever you’d like as long
as you recognize what it is.
Let’s see mathematically why we get an extra unit vector with acceleration compared to
*
velocity. The velocity vector is v D v eO t , and acceleration is the time derivative of this. The
product rule of differentiation requires that both the magnitude (speed) and the unit vector are
differentiated if they change with time:
*
dv d .v eO t / dv d .Oe t /
D D eO t C v :
dt dt dt dt
.Oe t /
The question arises, what is d dt ? The unit vector does change with time, so is not zero. To figure
this out we consider the motion of two points along the path, P and P 0 . Figure 4.11 shows the
tangential unit vector for each point, eO t and eO 0t .
The change in the unit vectors after the point moves from P to P 0 is Oe t . A vector triangle
representation of this change is shown within the figure. We begin to see that the change of the
unit vector points inward of the curvature of the path.
Lines drawn perpendicular to the unit vector merge at a point with an angular change
between them of . The angular rate of change with the unit vector change, as it gets smaller
and smaller points the unit vector toward the center of the curvature, which we know is the
4.3. PATH COORDINATES (A.K.A. “TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL”) 65
y
êt
êt’
∆s P'
P
∆θ
êt ∆êt
ρ
êt’
o x
The above could be considered a “proof,” but those are generally more formal in math-
ematical lingo. Consider this an explanation that should help you understand and remember
these very important points about acceleration in path coordinates.
There are two parts to the acceleration:
dv
1. the change in speed acting along the tangent of the path: dt
; and
v2
2. the change in direction acting toward the center of curvature of the path:
.
We will discuss motion described in the polar coordinate system in Class 5 using the
same explanation process. Then we’ll compare these two coordinate systems to see that the same
motion can be described using either.
66 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
A
ρ an ĵ ê ay
a⃑ n a⃑
θ
î
θ êt ax
at
Example 4.2
A race car travels from point A to point B along a curved section of raceway with 100-yard radius
(Figure 4.12). The two points are 150ı apart if the curve is approximately an arc of a circle. The
race car speed is measured to be 100 mph at point A and 250 mph at point B. Determine the
acceleration in ft/s2 at point B in path and rectangular coordinates (looking down onto the race
track and assuming the arc is symmetric as shown). Assume the rate of speed change is constant
throughout.
î ĵ
e⃑t sin θ – cos θ
e⃑n cos θ sin θ
v2 .366:7/2
an D D D 448:2 ft/s2 :
.300/
*
a D .71:9/ eO t C .448/ eO n ft/s2 :
We’ll need the velocity at B in Cartesian coordinates for Example 5.2. In Path coordinates
*
the velocity is v D .366:7/ eO t ft/s. Using the coordinate array we find it to be:
*
v D .366:7/ sin 75ı Oı cos 75ı Oȷ D .354:2/ Oı .94:91/ Oȷ ft/s:
Last, it’s often good to check the magnitude and direction of the acceleration to see if they make
sense, especially the direction compared to the sketch:
q
* 1 .414:4/
j a j D .185:4/2 C .414:4/2 D 454:0 ft/s2 * a D tan D 65:90ı :
.185:4/
*
So the acceleration can also be written as: a D 454 ft/s2 % 65:9ı , which appears to be the
expected direction. Note that the magnitude of acceleration is over 14 times the acceleration of
gravity (g’s) which is ridiculously large, although driving 250 mph around a curve isn’t typically
done even in race cars.
68 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
Last, note that this form of the answer is sometimes called “polar notation” but this is
NOT the same as using the Polar coordinate system, as we’ll see in the next Class.
Example 4.3 A baseball is hit over a famous very tall outfield wall, barely making it over as
shown in Figure 4.13. The wall is 37 ft, 2 in tall and 310 ft from home plate. The ball leaves
the face of the bat 3 ft off the ground at a 30ı angle from horizontal. Determine the radius of
curvature of the ball’s path at its peak and as it clears the wall.
When we recognize this is a projectile motion problem, we note that we’re not given the
initial speed of the ball, so that is our first goal similar to Example 3.2.
Starting point: x0 D 0 ft y0 D 3 ft.
Finishing point: x1 D 310 ft y1 D 370 200 D 37:17 ft.
Initial velocity components: .vx /0 D v0 cos .vy /0 D v0 sin .
x -dir position relation at constant velocity: x D x0 C .vx /0 t .
Solve for time: t D x.vxx/00 1 .
y -dir position relation at constant acceleration: y D y0 C .vy /0 t 12 gt 2 2 .
.vy /0 2
Plug 1 into 2 : y D y0 C .v x /0
.x x0 / 12 g .x.v x/02/ .
x 0
v0 sin 1 .x x0 /2
Substitute the initial velocity component: y D y0 C v0 cos
.x x0 / g
2 v 2 cos2
.
0
Solve for initial velocity magnitude (speed):
v
u
u 1
u .32:2/.x x0 /2
t 2
v0 D
..x x0 / tan C y0 y/ cos2
v
u
u 1
u .32:2/.310/2
t 2
D D 119:4 ft/s D 81:38 mph:
..310/ tan.30ı / C .3/ .37:17// cos2 .30ı /
4.3. PATH COORDINATES (A.K.A. “TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL”) 69
The initial velocity components:
The velocity in the x -direction is constant. When the ball is at its peak its velocity is
entirely horizontal. The only acceleration in projectile motion, neglecting aerodynamic drag,
is from gravity. Since at the peak this acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity (which is
tangential to the path), the normal acceleration equals gravity. Using this we can find the radius
of curvature:
v2
an D Dg
v2 .103:4/2
D D D 331:8 ft:
g .32:2/
The velocity in the y -direction when the ball goes over the wall is:
To find the normal acceleration we need to break the acceleration of gravity into normal
and tangential components. Even though we could do this in a single step, we’ll get practice using
the coordinate transformation we introduced in this Class. Figure 4.14 shows the overlaid unit
vectors at the moment the ball goes over the wall. Table 4.4 is the corresponding transformation
matrix.
*
The acceleration of gravity expressed as a vector is: a D .0/Oı C . 32:2/Oȷ ft/s2 .
Applying the transformation matrix to this yields:
*
a D .0/Œcos eO t sin eO n C . 32:2/Œ sin eO t cos eO n
*
a D . 32:2/ sin.19:64/Oe t . 32:2/ cos.19:64ı /Oen
70 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
î ĵ
e⃑t cos θ – sin θ
e⃑n – sin θ – cos θ
*
a D .10:82/Oe t C .30:33/Oen ft/s2 :
To find the radius of curvature we use the normal component:
v2 v2 .109:8/2
an D D D D 397:5 ft:
g .30:33/
It makes sense that the radius at the wall would be larger than the at the peak.
The answers are: peak D 332 ft and wall D 398 ft.
Look back over this problem and reflect on the thought process required to formulate a
solution strategy and apply the things we know.
Example 4.4 The rocket in Figure 4.15 is traveling horizontally at 100 m/s when the first
stage falls away and the second stage ignites, propelling it along a path that follows y D 0:1x 2
and increases speed constantly by 20 m/s2 . Determine the relative acceleration of the second
stage, A, with respect to the falling first stage, B, after the second stage has moved x1 D 60 m
horizontally.
We need to find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for the second
stage. The tangential acceleration is equal to the increase in speed, which is constant. The normal
acceleration requires us to find the speed at this location (which requires us to find the distance
that rocket has traveled along the curve) and the radius of curvature at the instant desired. To
find both the distance along the curve and the radius of curvature we’ll need to use calculus
4.3. PATH COORDINATES (A.K.A. “TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL”) 71
techniques from resources such as our calculus textbook or a trustworthy internet website such
as Wolfram.
The length along the curve is found from https://mathworld.wolfram.com/
ArcLength.html to be:
Zx1 r
dy
sD 1 C . /2 dx
dx
x0
dy
D 0:2x
dx
Z60p
sD 1 C .0:2x/2 dx:
0
From here we can solve this using integral tables, plug it into our calculator or use Wolfram
Alpha. We type in “integral of sqrt(1+(0.2*x)^2)dx from x = 0 to 60” into https://www.
wolframalpha.com/ which returns the answer: s D 369:2 m.
72 4. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: PATH COORDINATES
The speed of rocket A can be found from:
dy d 2y
Plugging in dx
D 0:2x D 0:2.60/ D 12 and dx 2
D 0:2:
" 2 #3=2
dy
1C 3=2
dx 1 C .12/2
D ˇ 2 ˇ D D 8;730 m:
ˇd y ˇ j0:2j
ˇ ˇ
ˇ dx 2 ˇ
Figure 4.16 shows the overlaid unit vectors of rocket A’s path and rectangular coordinates.
Table 4.5 is the corresponding transformation matrix.
Applying the coordinate transformation array:
*
aA D a t Œcos Oı C sin Oȷ C an Œ sin Oı C cos Oȷ
*
aA D .20/Œcos.85:24ı /Oı C sin.85:24ı /Oȷ C .2:838/Œ sin.85:24ıOı C cos.85:24ı /Oȷ
4.3. PATH COORDINATES (A.K.A. “TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL”) 73
î ĵ
e⃑t cos θ – sin θ
e⃑n sin θ cos θ
*
aA D . 1:169/Oı C .20:17/Oȷ m/s2 :
The acceleration of the first stage, assuming no aerodynamic drag, is entirely gravity:
*
aB D .0/Oı C . 9:81/Oȷ m/s2 :
CLASS 5
Non-Rectangular Coordinate
Systems: Polar Coordinates
B.L.U.F. (Bottom Line Up Front)
• Polar Coordinates (a.k.a. “Radial and Transverse”): rotating about an origin to
follow a particle, based on distance from the origin and angle from horizontal.
* P e .
• Velocity is expressed in Polar Coordinates as: v D .r/O
P er C .r /O
*
• Acceleration is expressed in Polar Coordinates as: a D .rR r P 2 /Oer C .r R C
2rP P /Oe .
Figure 5.1: Newtdog demonstrating polar coordinates with Wormy on a fishing line (repeat of
Figure 4.2) (©E. Diehl).
y
êθ êr
P
r⃑P
θ
o x
the right-hand rule convention goes to the left, or counter-clockwise, from the radial direction.
This is because counter-clockwise rotation is treated as positive and clockwise as negative. It’s
important to note that eO r and eO are not tangent or perpendicular to the path (unless the path is
a perfect circle), as shown in Figure 5.3.
* *
The position vector(s) could be written as r P D r eO r and D eO but the latter isn’t
needed as the angle for the position is established by the radial direction position vector.
The velocity vector of a particle in polar coordinates is
* *
P eO r C r P eO
v D .r/ or v D vr eO r C v eO :
5.1. POLAR COORDINATES (A.K.A. “RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE”) 77
êr
y êθ ar
vr
v⃑
P a⃑
vθ
aθ
o x
R D rate of change of the rate of change of the angular position (units of rad/s2 )
In many problems using polar coordinates, a good place to start is to identify the known
and unknown V.o.I. so you can gather them to find the components of polar coordinates which
are:
vr D rP and v D r P
ar D rR r P 2 and a D r R C 2rP P :
A few things to emphasize with polar coordinates include: (a) the acceleration components
are NOT the derivatives of the velocity components (i.e., ar ¤ d .v dt
r/
and a ¤ d .v
dt
/
); (b) eO
always goes to the left (counter-clockwise) of eO r which is not true of the normal and tangential
78 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
y
êθ' êr'
êθ ∆êθ
P' êθ
r⃑P' êr êr' ∆êr
∆θ
r⃑P P êθ' ∆θ
êr
o x
unit vectors since the normal direction depends p on the path curvature; and (c) the magnitude
of velocity (speed) is found from jvj D v 2 C v 2 and the magnitude of acceleration from
p r
jaj D ar 2 C a 2 .
With introduction of the equations out of the way, we can mathematically investigate
where the velocity and acceleration components come from. We begin this time with the position
*
vector: r D r eO r . The velocity is the time rate change of this position vector so using the product
rule again we get:
* d .r eO r / dr d .Oer /
v D D eO r C r :
dt dt dt
.Oer /
Similar to what was done in path coordinates, we need to find d dt . We again pick two points
on a path and examine the changes in the unit vectors. This time we’ll pick a path and two points
where the rotation is counter-clockwise so it will be positive.
Figure 5.4 tracks the motion from point P to point P 0 their position vectors and associated
unit vectors. While the unit vectors are shown attached, they can be moved on top of each other
as in the right portion of the figure. When unit vector triangles are drawn, we observe that
eO 0r D eO r C Oer and eO 0 D eO C Oe . As points P get closer P 0 , the ’s get smaller. We note the
directions become:
Oer d .Oer / Oe d .Oe /
lim D D eO and lim D D eO r :
!0 d !0 d
This is an interesting result in that the changing radial unit vector aligns with the transverse
unit vector, BUT the changing transverse unit vector aligns with the radial unit vector in the
NEGATIVE direction.
This result is for unit vectors changing with an angular change, but we want to know how
they change with time, so we again use the chain rule, and note that d dt
D P :
To find the acceleration we differentiate velocity with respect to time, switch to dot notation,
and get:
*
* dv
a D D rR eO r C rP ePO r CrP P eO C r R eO C r P ePO :
dt „ƒ‚… „ƒ‚…
P eO P eO r
Note that because there are three terms in the eO part of the velocity we must use the product
rule three times. Also note that rP P eO appears twice. Gathering the terms we find the acceleration
equation in polar coordinates:
*
a D rR r P 2 eO r C r R C 2rP P eO :
We should keep in mind why there are multiple parts to this equation: the unit vectors change
position with time.
Within this equation are noteworthy parts. First, note that if the radius were constant
(which
is circular motion where: rP D 0 and rR D 0), then the radial component of acceleration is
P 2
r eO r . In this circular motion the velocity is only in the transverse direction and the speed
is v D r P . Next, we note that by rearranging P D vr and substituting into the radial component
2
of acceleration weget r P 2 eO r D vr eO r . We should recognize this as the normal component of
2
path coordinates, v eO n . We also note that in the case of circular motion eO n D eO r . It’s useful
to identify this term as “centrifugal.”
Another term of interest is 2rP P which is associated with “Coriolis Acceleration.” This is a
particular kind of acceleration that only exists when there is radial velocity and angular velocity.
It will be discussed further in rigid body kinematics in Class 18 (vol. 2), but it’s worth noting its
significance here. The Coriolis Acceleration phenomenon can be felt if one walks outward on a
rotating platform such as a playground merry-go-round. You can even feel the mysterious force
that pushes you in an odd direction.
The Coriolis Acceleration phenomenon even controls some weather patterns due to the
Earth’s rotational speed, notably hurricanes which rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern. A popular myth says Coriolis also controls the
direction water drains in sinks and toilet bowls, but the Earth’s relatively slow rotational speed
doesn’t create enough of this acceleration to have this effect. Also, eggs don’t balance any better
during the vernal equinox than any other day, and glass is not a very viscous liquid that continues
to flow.
80 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
z z
êr
êϕ
kˆ θ
êθ
r
êθ
z êr x x
θ r ϕ
x x
Example 5.1
A new design for an extendable crane (with the operator positioned at the end as shown in
Figure 5.6) rotates so D .2=/ sin . t / rad and extends with r D 3 2 C 2e 1:5t m. When
t D 2:25 s, determine: (a) the velocity of point A in polar coordinates (eO r and eO ); (b) the velocity
of point A in rectangular coordinates (Oı and Oȷ); (c) the acceleration of point A in polar coordinates
(eO r and eO ); and (d) the acceleration of point A rectangular coordinates (Oı and Oȷ). Plot the path
of this motion.
When we recognize a problem should use polar coordinates, looking for the V.o.I. is a
good first step.
5.2. POLAR COORDINATES EXTENDED TO THREE DIMENSIONS 81
êθ
êr
ĵ
êθ
θ
êr
θ
î
V.o.I.:
1:5t
r D 3 2 C 2e D .2=/ sin . t/
rP D 9e 1:5t
P D .2/ cos . t/
1:5t
rR D 13:5e R D .2/ sin . t /
@ t D 2:25 s:
r D 6:205 m D 0:4502 rad 25:79ı
rP D 0:3080 m/s P D 1:414 rad/s
rR D 0:4619 m/s2 R D 4:443 rad/s2 :
*
(a) v A D . 0:308/ eO r C .8:78/ eO m/s
82 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
Table 5.1: Coordinate transformation matrix for Example 5.1
î ĵ
êr cos θ sin θ
êθ – sin θ cos θ
Using the unit vectors of Figure 5.7 and coordinate transformation in Table 5.1 we change
from polar to rectangular coordinates.
*
v A . 0:3080/ cos.25:79ı / .8:776/ sin.25:79ı / Oı
C . 0:3080/ sin.25:79ı / C .8:776/ cos.25:79ı / Oȷ
*
vA D . 4:096/ Oı C .7:767/ Oȷ m/s
*
(b) v A D . 4:10/ Oı C .7:77/ Oȷ m/s :
*
(c) a A D . 12:0/ eO C .26:7/ eO m/s2
*
aA D . 11:95/ cos.25:79ı / C .26:70/ sin.25:79ı / Oı
C . 11:95/ sin.25:79ı / C .16:70/ cos.25:79ı / Oȷ m/s2
*
aA D . 22:38/ Oı C .18:84/ Oȷ m/s2
*
(d) a A D . 22:4/ Oı C .18:8/ Oȷ m/s2 .
What does this motion look like? Figure 5.8 shows a graph of the motion described by
the above. We note that the arm starts on the horizontal axis at 12 m and moves to the orange
square after 2.25 s along the path shown. The graph helps confirm the velocity as it is tangent,
that is upward and to the left based on the results in part (b).
5.2. POLAR COORDINATES EXTENDED TO THREE DIMENSIONS 83
6
y Position
0
0 5 10 15
-2
-4
-6
x Position
ρ = 250 yards
ρ = 100 yards
75˚
a⃗B êr
êθ
v⃗B
B
Example 5.2
The race car from Example 4.2 is being tracked by a radar unit positioned in the center of the
track which uses polar coordinates. Given the location of the radar as shown in Figure 5.9,
determine the radial and angular (transverse) parameters (variables of interest: r , rP , rR , , P , R ) it
will report when the car is at point B.
84 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
Table 5.2: Coordinate transformation of Example 5.2
î ĵ
êr – cos θ – sin θ
êθ sin θ – cos θ
î
θ
êr
θ êθ
.289:8/
The angle is B D tan 1 .452:7/ D 32:63ı clockwise from the horizontal.
Before we can proceed with the other variables of interest, we need to put the acceleration
into polar coordinates. In Example 4.2 we found them in both Path and Cartesian coordinates,
so we could perform the transformation in either. It is easier to use Cartesian. The results of
Example 4.2 were:
*
v D .354:2/ Oı .94:91/ Oȷ ft/s2
*
a D .185:4/ Oı C .414:4/ Oȷ ft/s2 :
With the unit vectors shown in Figure 5.10, we generate the transformation array in Table 5.2.
We use the column direction to get the vectors into Polar:
*
v D .354:3/ Œ cos eO r C sin eO C . 94:91/ Œ sin eO r cos eO
*
v D .354:2/ cos 32:63ı . 94:91/ sin 32:63ı eO r
C .354:2/ sin 32:63ı . 94:91/ cos 32:63ı eO
5.2. POLAR COORDINATES EXTENDED TO THREE DIMENSIONS 85
*
v D . 247:1/ eO r C .270:9/ eO ft/s
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
vr v
*
a D .185:4/ Œ cos eO r C sin eO C .414:4/ Œ sin eO r cos eO
*
a D .185:4/ cos 32:63ı .414:4/ sin 32:63ı eO r
C .185:4/ sin 32:63ı .414:4/ cos 32:63ı eO
*
a D . 378:6/ eO r C . 249:0/ eO ft/s2 :
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
ar a
rP D vr D 274:1 ft/s:
Next, we use v to find P , which is the rotational speed of the radar at this instant if it were a
rotating dish following the car, which isn’t really how radar tracks things, but it’s a good visual:
v D r P D 270:9 ft/s
v .270:9/
P D D D 0:5040 rad/s:
r .537:5/
The acceleration terms require a bit more effort. For the radial acceleration, we use the angular
speed we just found to isolate it from the radial component:
ar D rR r P 2 D 379:6 ft/s2
Example 5.3 A cam is a machined piece that controls a desired motion, usually having another
piece in contact with and following along a curved edge. In Figure 5.11 a small ball (treated as
86 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
a particle) is constrained within a bar that rotates while the three lobed cam is stationary. A
spring within the follower holds it against the cam which has a shaped described by r. / D
2:5 C 0:5 cos 3 in. The follower bar rotates at a constant 150 rpm. Determine the acceleration
in polar, path and Cartesian coordinates when D 105ı .
D 105ı
.2 rad/rev/
P D .100 rpm/ D 15:71 rad/s:
.60 s/min/
R D 0:
The radial V.o.I. require that we take the time derivative of the given shape function, but we note
it is a function of angular position rather than time. We need to use the chain rule to account
for this dr./
dt
D dr. / d
d dt
D P dr.
d
/
:
Figure 5.12: Unit vectors for Polar coordinate transformation of Example 5.3.
î ĵ
êr cos θ sin θ
êθ – sin θ cos θ
Note for the second time derivative above it is necessary to use the product rule.
The acceleration in polar coordinates is:
*
a D rR r P 2 eO r C r R C 2rP P eO
*
a D .. 785:3/ .2:854/.15:71/2 /Oer C ..2:854/.0/ C 2.16:66/.15:71//Oe in/s2
*
a D . 1;490/Oer C .523:5/Oe in/s2 :
The coordinate transformation into Cartesian coordinates is done using the unit vectors shown
in Figure 5.12 and the resulting transformation matrix in Table 5.3. To avoid some confusion,
the unit vectors overlaid are drawn with an acute angle even though the actual angle is obtuse:
*
a D Œ. 1; 490/ cos.105ı / .523:5/ sin.105ı Oı
C Œ. 1; 490/ sin.105ı / C .523:5/ cos.105ı / Oȷ in/s2
*
a D . 120:0/Oı C . 1; 575/Oȷ in/s2 :
In order to transform the acceleration into path coordinates, we need to know the direction of
the tangential component (and from that we can find the direction of the normal component).
88 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
Figure 5.13: Unit vectors for path coordinate transformation of Example 5.3.
î ĵ
êt – cos θv sin θv
ên – sin θv – cos θv
We know that velocity is tangent to the path, so we use that knowledge, transform the velocity
in polar coordinates into rectangular coordinates and from that find the angle of the velocity
vector:
*
v D rP eO r C r P eO D .16:66/Oer C ..2:854/.15:71//Oe
*
v D .16:66/Oer C .44:84/Oe in/s
*
v D Œ.16:66/ cos.105ı / .44:84/ sin.105ı /Oı
C Œ.16:66/ sin 105ı / C .44:84/ cos.105ı /Oȷ in/s
*
v D . 47:62/Oı C .4:487/Oȷ in/s:
The velocity magnitude and direction are:
p
v D . 47:62/2 C .4:487/2 D 47:83 in/s
.4:487/
v D tan D 5:383ı - :
.47:62/
The coordinate transformation into path coordinates is done using the unit vectors shown
in Figure 5.13 and the resulting transformation matrix in Table 5.4:
*
a D Œ . 120:0/ cos.5:383ı / C . 1;575/ sin.5:383ı /Oe t
C Œ . 120:0/ sin.5:383ı / . 1;575/ cos.5:383ı /Oen in/s2
5.2. POLAR COORDINATES EXTENDED TO THREE DIMENSIONS 89
*
a D . 1;552/Oe t C . 291:7/Oen in/s2 :
Answers:
*
Polar coordinates: a D . 1;490/Oer C .523:5/Oe in/s2
*
Path coordinates: a D . 1;552/Oe t C . 291:7/Oen in/s2
*
Rectangular coordinates: a D . 120:0/Oı C . 1;575/Oȷ in/s2
Example 5.4 The mechanism in Figure 5.14 has a small ball (treated as particle B) constrained
between two slotted bars, one stationary and the other rotating at 3 rad/s and 1 rad/s2 (both
counter-clockwise) at the instant shown. The bases of the bars are LAC D 0:5 m apart. Determine
the acceleration of the particle at the instant shown ( D 120ı ).
This is a type of dependent motion problem somewhat different than what was introduced
in Class 2. In this case we recognize that the radius, r , is dependent on the angle, . We can
find this relationship from simple trigonometry:
LAC D r sin
90 5. NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS: POLAR COORDINATES
LAC
r. / D D LAC csc
sin
r./ D .0:5/ csc.120ı / D 0:5774 m:
To find the radial variables of interest we take the time derivative of this relationship:
To find the radial acceleration, we need to remember to take the time derivative of each
part based on the product rule:
h i
rR D LAC R csc cot P 2 csc cot cot P 2 csc csc2
h i
rR D LAC R csc cot P 2 csc cot2 P 2 csc3
rR D .0:5/ .1/ csc.120ı / cot.120ı / .3/2 csc.120ı / cot2 .120ı /
.3/2 csc3 .120ı / D 38:42 m/s2 :
*
a D ..38:42/ .0:5/.3/2 /Oer C ..0:5/.1/ C 2. 1:732/.3//Oe m/s2
*
a D ..33:92/Oer C . 9:892/Oe m/s2 :
Answer:
*
a D .33:9/Oer C . 9:89/Oe m/s2 :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZ9wi8jwe5c
91
CLASS 6
In the latter case, we note that if mass is constant (which is typically the case in Dynamics,
although not always in Fluid Mechanics or Thermodynamics), we arrive at the same place as the
first version: *
X* d * dv *
FD .m v / D m D ma:
dt dt
So why bother mentioning it? As we’ll see, the other two kinetics methods, Work-Energy
and Impulse-Momentum, are closely related to N2L because of the “time rate change of mo-
mentum” concept.
The cartoon shown in Figure 6.1 is a humorous portrayal of Newtdog doing his homework.
He’s stuck while solving his most famous problem until his own “ah-ha” moment strikes him
(lightbulbs aren’t invented yet, so he has a “candle light up,” that’s why it’s funny).
This is more than just a sad attempt at humor. Developing your “ah-ha”’ moment skills is
really important to becoming an engineer. Solving Dynamics problems is difficult and requires
effort and determination. Bear in mind that Newton, while incredibly groundbreaking, was a
real person like you and me, who struggled but persevered. He’s quoted as saying “If I have ever
made any valuable discoveries, it has been owing more to patient attention, than to any other
talent.”
FBD
FB y IBD
IB
x
W may
Fx max
Fy
Figure 6.2: The Freed Body Diagram (FBD) and Inertial Body Diagram (IBD) pair
P* *
F D ma.
The rules for FBDs still apply: isolate the object (we’re using particles right now, so their
shape doesn’t matter yet) and draw all of the EXTERNAL forces acting ON the object. If these
forces balance, there is no acceleration, but if the forces don’t balance, we have acceleration. To
address this we include the new IBD. Some textbooks call this the “inertial response diagram”
or the “kinetic diagram.” Regardless of what you call it, this is a convenient way to represent
N2L because it is a graphical representation of the equation. Unfortunately, there exist other
conventions in various textbooks that can add some confusion to the struggling student who
runs across them. You are of course encouraged to look for additional resources, but keep in
mind you may run into other ways to approach N2L problems.
Take special note of some of the features of the FBD/IBD diagram pair. First, note that
it matches the N2L equation below it. You should draw the FBD/IBD first thing, every time,
and then write the N2L equations below it. Note that the weight (which equals mass times the
acceleration of gravity) belongs on the FBD side, since gravitational force is an external force.
Even though the acceleration of gravity has the word “acceleration” in it, we do not include
that acceleration on the IBD. Other things to note include the coordinate axis label, the forces
drawn acting on the center of mass of the particle (whose size and shape don’t matter, yet), the
inertial motion drawn as vectors acting from the center of mass of the particle, and especially
how the forces and motion vector are proportional. This last part isn’t 100% necessary in your
diagrams but is done here to emphasize that force and acceleration are proportional (by mass)
and the coordinate directions are independent of one another (for now). This means we can
write individual equations for each direction (be sure to declare the positive direction):
X X
! Fx D max and " Fy D may :
Separating the directions like this is useful when applying N2L to other coordinate sys-
tems as we’ll do in the next classes. We’ll also see that kinetics can be tied to kinematics on the
right hand side of the equation.
When the equations are written like this they are often referred to as the “equations of
motion” which are commonly used in other courses such as vibrations and control systems.
94 6. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
It’s best to avoid memorizing step-by-step solutions in Dynamics because there are just
too many variations. But there are procedures you should follow to keep organized and avoid
common mistakes. The FBD/IBD convention (Figure 6.3) is an important one to follow:
• Sketch the isolated object twice side by side and label them, just like Newtdog has in
Figure 6.3.
• Draw your axis system (Cartesian, polar, or path).
• Draw in the applied forces acting on the left diagram (including weight).
• Replace supports with forces as these also act on the body (example: normal force).
• Draw in mass times acceleration on the right diagram in each direction of motion.
• Assume the positive direction motion when unknown.
When you want the weight force in SI, you multiply kilograms by the standard acceleration of
gravity which engineers use as g D 9:81 m/s2 (most engineering texts use this three significant
digit value as standard, while you may have used other values in physics classes). So with our
FBD/IBD diagrams we use Newtons on the left and Kilograms times acceleration in m/s2 on
the right.
In U.S. Customary Units there is a bit more confusion, especially since there is an on-
going disagreement in how to address mass units. In Thermodynamics there are units called
“pounds mass” and “pounds force,” and they’re not treated the same way as is commonly done
in Dynamics.
For this course we’ll use a unit called the “Slug” for mass, named this because mass resists
motion and is therefore “sluggish.” Figure 6.4 shows Wormy getting introduced to a slug who
is sluggish and can be measured in Slugs. We find the mass of an object by dividing its weight
by the engineers’ acceleration of gravity g D 32:2 ft/s2 (again, this is the engineering accepted
value). So 1 slug D 1 lb 2 . Note that slugs are based on 32:2 ft/s2 not 386:4 in/s2 , so it is often
32:2 ft/s
best to use feet rather than inches as the base unit for the rest of U.S. units problems to avoid
confusion.
For units conversion, always remember “F D ma” so when you see the combination of
units slug sft2 (mass times acceleration) it converts into lb (force). This is the same approach as
SI units when the combination kg sm2 (mass times acceleration) converts into N (force). Study
the summary and Figure 6.5 (with a frictionless block) to help resolve any confusion you might
have with the mass units convention used here.
SI: General Force conversion: N D kg m=s2
Weight: 1 kg 9:81 m=s2 D 9:81 N
U.S. Customary Units: General Force conversion: lb D slug ft=s2
Weight: 1 slug 32:2 ft=s2 D 32:2 lb:
X X
! Fx D max ! Fx D max
96 6. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
y y
FBD IBD FBD IBD
x x
W = mg = 32.2 lb W = mg = 9.81 N
max max
Fx = 1 lb Fx = 1 N
1 slug 1 slug 1 kg 1 kg
Ff = 0 Ff = 0
FN = 32.2 lb FN = 9.81 N
∆s
P
θ2
θ1
.1 lb/ D 1 slug ax .1 N/ D 1 kg ax
ax D 1 ft=s2 ax D 1 m=s2 :
Example 6.1
A constant P D 50 lb force is applied to a box weighing 25 lb in Figure 6.6, starting from
rest, and positioned on a 1 D 25ı inclined surface with s D 0:25 and k D 0:2 static and
kinetic coefficients of friction, respectively. The force is applied to box 2 D 15ı from horizontal.
Determine the distance up the slope the box travels (s ) when it reaches a speed of v D 3 ft/s.
The nature of the question implies the box will move, but does it? We should check that
the force is sufficient to overcome the static friction. Quite often a problem will tell you to
assume it moves, but we should show due diligence and check.
We first draw the FBD/IBD’s set in Figure 6.7. Tilting the reference axis to x ’ and y ’ will
help isolate the directions, making y’ a Statics problem to determine the normal force. Note we
should be careful to keep track of the angles:
X
- Fy 0 D may 0 D 0
6.4. MASS UNITS 97
FBD y′ IRD
x′
θ1
P
W
θ2 max'
θ1
Ff
FN
FN D .50/ sin 40ı C .25/ cos 25ı D 54:80 lb:
The static friction force is:
Ff;s D s FN D .0:25/ .54:80/ D 13:70 lb:
This is the force that must be overcome before there is motion, not necessarily the force
due to friction.
The dynamic friction force is:
Ff;k D s FN D .0:20/ .54:80/ D 10:96 lb:
This will be the friction force if the block moves.
If we assume motion up the slope, N2L in the x ’s direction is:
X
% Fx 0 D max 0
ax 0 D 21:61 ft/s2 :
We use kinematics to determine the distance traveled to reach v D 3 ft/s:
v 2 D v0 2 C 2as
v2 v0 2 .3/2 02
s D D D 0:2083 ft D 2:499 in
2a 2 .21:61/
s D 2:50 in :
Note: We are treating this box as a particle, that is: its size and shape don’t matter to us so all
of the forces are assumed to act at one point. If it had shape, it would be a rigid body that could
potentially rotate (or possibly tip over) and the normal force on the bottom (and consequently
the friction force) wouldn’t be constant.
Example 6.2
Two blocks (block A, mA D 20 kg, and block B , mA D 35 kg) connected by ropes and pulleys,
as shown in Figure 6.8, are released from rest and begin to move. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between block A and the surface is k D 0:25. The pulleys are assumed to be massless
and frictionless. Determine the acceleration of each block and the tension in the cable.
This problem is a reminder that Dynamics topics build upon each other, since here we
have dependent motion from Class 2. This problem also introduces multiple particles which
will require FBD/IBD sets for each. Last, we note “The pulleys are assumed to be massless and
frictionless.” is included in the problem statement to let us know that the cable tension is the
same everywhere along its length. If the pulleys had mass, they would resist rotation (as we’ll
see in rigid body kinetics) and if they had friction there would be losses and the cable tension
would vary in between pulleys.
6.4. MASS UNITS 99
Datum
SA
SB
A
Ff
FN
WB = mBg mBaB
It’s often good practice to take care of the kinematics first when we recognize it’s needed.
Figure 6.9 shows the dependent motion labels to keep track of the lengths of rope segments
which we use to find the relation of accelerations between blocks:
sA C 3sB D constant
d d
ŒsA C 3sB D Œconstant
dt dt
vA C 3vB D 0
ˇ ˇ
aA C 3aB D 0 aAx D ˇ3aBy ˇ 1 :
mA g C FN D 0
X
! FAx D mA aAx
Ff C FT D mA aAx
FT D mA aAx C Ff
X
FBy D mB aBy mB g C 3FT D mB aBy
1 1
FT D mB g mB aBy D .35/ .9:81/ .35/ aBy
3 3
We can substitute this result into equations 3 and 4 to find the remaining desired
unknowns:
Note that the force doesn’t get an arrow here, but instead is labeled with “(T)” to represent
tension. This is because the direction is dependent on where you cut the rope and to which side
of the cut end you refer. We should be very careful to communicate answers to eliminate possible
confusion.
6.4. MASS UNITS 101
A A B A B
P
(a) (b) (c)
FBD y IBD
x
FT
mAaA
WA
Example 6.3
The three setups shown in Figure 6.11 begin at rest. In setup (a) the force (P D 50 lb) is applied
on a cable attached to block A (WA D 75 lb). Setup (b) has the same block A and is connected to
block B (WB D 50 lb). Setup (c) has larger blocks with the same difference between them (WA D
175 lb and WB D 150 lb). The pulleys are assumed to be massless and frictionless. Determine
for each setup the acceleration of block A.
This problem is meant to demonstrate the effect of different masses on the results. It is
especially useful to dispel a common misconception that the cable tension will equal the weight.
If the blocks are accelerating the cable tension will be either less or more than the weight(s).
Generally, an FBD/IBD pair is required for each particle. Remember that if the pulley is massless
and frictionless, the cable tension is the same throughout. We’ll assume, based on observation,
that block A is moving downward. If we were unsure, we’d assume it was upward (the positive
direction) and learn it was opposite if the results were negative.
For configuration (a) the only FBD/IBD pair is for block A in Figure 6.12:
X
" FAy D mA aAy
102 6. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
FBD y IBD
x
FT mBaB
WB
FT WA D mA aAy 1
.75/
.50/ .75/ D aAy
.32:2/
*
(a) aA D 10:73 ft/s2 # :
For configuration (b) we can use the FBD/IBD of Figure 6.12 and 1 from part (a)
ˇ Aˇand include a new FBD/IBD pair for block B in Figure 6.13. We recognize that
for block
aAy D ˇaBy ˇ without having to work through a the dependent motion problem. We use the
absolute value because the FBD/IBD’s address the directions of the accelerations:
X
" FBy D mB aBy
FT WB D mB aBy
FT D mB aBy C WB 2 :
ˇ ˇ
Combining 1 and 2 and replace aAy D ˇaBy ˇ
mB aAy WB WA D mA aAy 3
.50/ .75/
aAy C .50/ .75/ D aAy
.32:2/ .32:2/
*
(b) aA D 6:440 ft/s2 # :
We find that using a 50 lb mass on the other end of the cable rather than a 50 lb force
causes lower acceleration. Why? Because now there is more mass overall to accelerate, so the
motion is more “sluggish.” We weren’t asked, but let’s see what the cable tension is now using
equation 2 :
.50/
FT D mB aBy C WB D .6:440 / C .50/ D 60:00 lb:
.32:2/
The tension has increased but is still less than the weight of block A, which makes sense
that it is still moving downward if we look at the first FBD/IBD.
For configuration (c) we don’t need new FBD/IBD’s as only the weights have changed, so
we can use equation 3 again. Note the difference in weights are the same, so we might conclude
(wrongly!) before beginning that the acceleration should be the same:
mB aAy WB WA D mA aAy
.150/ .175/
aAy C .150/ .175/ D aAy
.32:2/ .32:2/
*
(c/ aA D 2:477 ft/s2 # :
Once again, with increased mass we have less acceleration. Check the tension in this
configuration using equation 3 :
.150/
FT D mB aBy C WB D .2:477 / C .150/ D 161:5 lb:
.32:2/
This also makes sense since it is less than the 175 lb of block A which is moving downward.
This problem will be revisited in Work-Energy and Impulse-Momentum to demonstrate
that we can sometimes solve kinetics problems in multiple ways in conjunction with kinematics.
We will also revisit the same problem in rigid body motion to see the effect when pulleys have
mass.
Example 6.4
A basket of apples with mass of 15 kg is on the back of the wagon in Figure 6.14 with a sloped
surface of D 15ı . The center of the basket is s D 2 m from the edge. The wagon begins from
rest and accelerates. The coefficients of friction between the basket and the surface are s D 0:35
104 6. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
and k D 0:30. Determine the maximum acceleration the wagon can have without the basket
sliding off and the acceleration required for the basket to slide off in 1 s.
For the first part of the question the wagon and basket accelerate at the same rate until the
motion overcomes static friction. The wagon is redrawn in Figure 6.15 to define the geometry.
The FBD/IBD pair in Figure 6.16 shows the basket isolated and has the horizontal acceleration
of the wagon broken into components of a coordinate system aligned with the sloped surface:
X
% Fy 0 D may 0 mg cos C FN D maW sin FN D m . aW sin C g cos /
Ff D s FN
6.4. MASS UNITS 105
FBD y IBD
W
θ x
maWx'
Ff maWy'
FN
We use static friction here because of we’re being asked for the acceleration when static
friction is overcome:
X
& Fx 0 D max 0 mg sin s m . aW sin C g cos / D maW cos :
„ ƒ‚ …
Ff
Note that the mass cancels out which means the amount of apples doesn’t affect the results.
This isn’t necessarily intuitive, but we will see this is often the case in other kinetics situations:
*
a W D 0:736 m/s2 :
For the second part of the question, the wagon and basket accelerate at different rates
and directions, so we need to consider the relative motion. The relative acceleration (basket with
respect to wagon, aB=W ) can be found from kinematics:
1 1
x D xo C vo t C aB=W t 2 xo D 0; vo D 0; 2D aB=W .1/2 aB=W D 1:000 m/s2 :
2 2
The actual acceleration of the basket is a combination of the acceleration of the wagon
and this relative acceleration:
* * *
aB D a W C a B=W :
Note that it will be more convenient to apply both the wagon acceleration and the relative
acceleration to the IBD of the basket in Figure 6.17:
106 6. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
FBD y′ IBD
W
θ x′
maWx'
maB/W
Ff maWy'
FN
X
% Fy 0 D may 0 mg cos C FN D maW sin FN D m . aW sin C g cos /
Ff D k FN
X
& Fx 0 D max 0 mg sin k m . aW sin C g cos / D maW cos C maB=W :
„ ƒ‚ …
Ff
g .k cos sin / C aB=W .9:81/ ..0:30/ cos 15ı sin 15ı / C .1:000/
aW D D D 1:249 m/s2
.cos C k sin / .cos 15ı C .0:30/ sin 15ı /
*
aW D 1:25 m/s2 :
This is the acceleration of the wagon that will result in a relative acceleration of the basket
down the slope.
The “trick” of using both the wagon acceleration (broken into the rotated component
directions) and the relative acceleration on the IBD probably isn’t obvious to most of us. Then
how do we know to do it? We just have to work through as much of the problem as we can
until we get stuck and then try some things we know until the “ah-ha” moment hits us. We
6.4. MASS UNITS 107
will see many more “trick” problems, but a key solution strategy is to work through as much
as we can, applying what we know and persevere by trying various things we know about the
situation until we find the right approach. With practice this becomes less daunting, especially
as your confidence grows and your ability to recognize when to apply concepts improves with
the experience.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjTBAvWGfuM
109
CLASS 7
Radius of curvature
Center of curvature
man
+
r1 +
r2
normal and tangential directions. Figure 7.1 demonstrates a generic path coordinates FBD/IBD
pair. The path has been super-imposed here but is not necessary in your diagrams:
X dv X v2
& F t D ma t D m and % Fn D man D m :
dt
Remember,
the acceleration component in the tangential direction is due to the change
in speed
dv v2
a t D dt and in the normal direction is due to the change in direction an D . The force
corresponding with the normal direction is the source of the centrifugal force, although, as men-
tioned, we’re actually feeling the reaction which is in the opposite direction.
There is often some type of constraint causing the curved motion. A train or roller coaster
following a track, a car traveling on a hill, or a ball tied to a string are examples. A space craft
might use multiple thrusters to achieve a curved path. In any of these cases, the FBD/IBD
procedure is to break the forces and accelerations into these components. Roller coasters are fun
examples of using N2L in path coordinates.
Example 7.1
In the coaster shown in Figure 7.2, the car reaches 35 mph at the bottom of a curved drop (with
radius r1 D 60 ft) at just before a short, flat portion. The car then travels into a r2 D 25 ft loop-
d-loop. For a 50 lb kid, how much does he perceive he weighs at the bottom of the drop, and
how fast does the car need to travel around the loop so he doesn’t fall out without a harness?
7.2. PATH COORDINATES FBD/IBD 111
n
FBD IBD
t
W
man
Ft mat
Fn
The kid’s perceived weigh is the force of the seat pushing against him. Note that the
problem states the car has reached the bottom of the curve “just before” the flat portion, so it is
still in the curve but nearly horizontal. We draw the FBD/IBD pair of the kid alone to do the
analysis in Figure 7.3. We’ve drawn forces in the positive tangential direction (the roller coaster
could be accelerating or decelerating, we don’t know) but these won’t be needed:
X
" Fn D man
v2
Fn W Dm
v2 50 .51:33/2
Fn D W C m D .50/ C D 118:2 lb
32:2 .60/
Fn D 118 lb :
To find the minimum speed to go around the loop-d-loop we need to analyze when the kid
is completely inverted at the top. We draw a new FBD/IBD pair in Figure 7.4. The minimum
speed will be when the normal force equals zero:
X
# Fn D man
v2
Fn C W D m
2
50 v
.0/ C .50/ D
32:2 .25/
112 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
FBD t IBD
n
Fn
Ft
mat
man
W
You could make a pretty good case that “centrifugal force” is what makes roller-coasters fun.
Getting lifted off our seats (like Newtdog in Figure 7.5) when the curve is convex and pushed
into our seats when it’s concave is fun part. But we engineers know that this isn’t a real force, but
instead we’re feeling the reaction forces pushing against us making it feel like we’re being lifted
and pushed. We have to be careful to not mis-use our intuition sometimes. The FBD/IBD pair
can really help to resolve our false impressions on the directions forces are acting.
7.2. PATH COORDINATES FBD/IBD 113
Example 7.2
Newtdog has tied Wormy’s large apple (W D 0:5 lb) to a 2 ft string to make a pendulum as
shown in Figure 7.6. He starts it in motion, and the maximum speed (when the apple is at the
bottom of the arc) is 1 ft/s. What is the maximum tension in the string and the maximum angle
it will rise (measured from the vertical axis)?
The first part of the question is relatively easy since the maximum tension will occur when
the normal acceleration is maximum: at the bottom of the swing. We draw the FBD/IBD pair
of the apple at the bottom of the swing (Figure 7.7). Notably, there cannot be a tangential force
in this position so we conclude there is no acceleration as well. We already knew this because of
kinematics: acceleration is zero when velocity is a maximum:
X
" Fn D man
v2
FT W Dm
v2 0:5 .1/2
FT D W C m D .0:5/ C D 0:5311 lb
32:2 .2/
FT D 0:531 lb :
114 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
n
FBD IBD
t
FT man
mat = 0
W
n
FBD IBD
t
FT man
θ
W mat
The second part of the question is considerably more difficult. We’ll need to use some kinematics
and even some integration to get the maximum angle. We begin the N2L method with an
FBD/IBD pair drawn at an arbitrary angle in Figure 7.8. We note that the tension of the string
isn’t provided, so we’ll avoid it by using only the tangential direction:
X
. F t D ma t
W sin D ma t
mg sin D ma t :
It is interesting that mass cancels, leaving a relationship between tangential acceleration as a
function of angle:
a t D g sin :
We don’t know the acceleration at the point but we can apply some kinematics to find how it
relates to angle. Acceleration along an arc is the tangential acceleration and can be written as
a t D v dv
ds
. As shown in Figure 7.9, we know the arc length of a short segment is ds D r d . If we
replace this into the tangential acceleration we get a t D vr d
dv
. Rearranging we get v dv D a t rd .
7.3. N2L IN POLAR COORDINATES 115
+
r
dθ at
ds
1 2
0 v D gr cos max C gr
2 max
" # " #
1
1 2
v
2 max
gr 1
1
2
.1/2 .32:2/ .2/
max D cos D cos D 71:44ı
gr .32:2/ .2/
max D 71:4ı :
In the Work-Energy topic we’ll revisit this problem and see it’s a much easier approach
that returns the same answer.
When applying Newton’s Second Law we take the force in the radial direction and equate it with
mass times the acceleration in the radial direction and do the same for the transverse direction.
Figure 7.10 shows a typical FBD/IBD pair in polar coordinates. The x –y axes are shown here
for reference but aren’t necessary each time we draw an FBD/IBD pair:
X X
% Fr D mar D m rR r P 2 and - R rP P :
F D ma D m r C2
116 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
FBD êθ êr IBD
y y
maθ mar
Fr Fθ
r r
θ θ
o x o x
Figure 7.12: Newtdog with Wormy on a fishing line, repeat of Figure 4.2 (© E. Diehl).
7.3. N2L IN POLAR COORDINATES 117
r
θ
Remember that any coordinate system can be used when solving problems, but some
situations are better suited to certain coordinate systems. For polar coordinates (Figure 7.2) that
usually means there is a reference point about which a mass is spinning and possibly moving
toward or away from. When approaching a new N2L problem, pay close attention to which
coordinate system is most appropriate for the circumstances just like Newtdog is in Figure 7.11.
By choosing the right coordinate system you can often save yourself some mathematical steps.
There might also be situations where problems can only be solved using a particular coordinate
system.
Example 7.3
Newtdog is spinning on a stool while holding a 6 ft fishing rod with an apple (W D 0:5 lb) tied
to the end of the line as shown in Figure 7.12. He is spinning at a rate of P D 20 rpm counter-
clockwise but is slowing down. At the instant shown the line is 3 ft long from the tip of the
rod, and he is allowing the line to pay out at rP D 1 ft/s, increasing at a constant rR D 0:5 ft/s2 .
Assume the rod and line are all in the horizontal plane and there is no air resistance on the apple.
Determine the angular acceleration or deceleration (if any) of the spinning stool and the tension
in the fishing line.
It’s good to try to imagine what the motion looks like. If the fishing line is payed out, the
path will be like a spiral when looked at from above as sketched in Figure 7.13.
Just as we did in polar coordinates with kinematics, we’ll try to find/summarize the vari-
ables of interest: r , rP , rR , , P , R :
FT mar
20 rpm
D unkown; P D .2 rad/rev/ D 2:094 rad/s; R D unknown:
.60 s/min/
From here we know that we’ll need to somehow figure out what and R are. Let’s draw
an FBD/IBD pair and see if that can help (Figure 7.5).
A few things become clear from the FBD/IBD pair we draw in Figure 7.14. The force of
the fishing line on the apple must be in the negative r direction since you “can’t push a rope.”
We also know there is no force in the transverse ( ) direction because the problem states there
is no air resistance and the fishing line can only be in tension which is in the radial direction.
Last, we note that the angle doesn’t matter:
X
- F D ma
0 D ma D m r R C 2rP P :
Similar to Example 7.2, the mass cancels here:
r R C 2rP P D 0
R D 0:465 rad/s2 CW :
The spin rate is therefore decreasing in order to have no transverse (eO ) component of
force or acceleration. The tension in the fishing line can be found from the radial direction on
the FBD/IBD: X
% Fr D mar
FT D mar D m rR r P 2
7.3. N2L IN POLAR COORDINATES 119
B r
ĵ
θ
A
êr
θ î
êθ θ
0:5
FT D .0:5/ .9/ .2:094/2
32:2
FT D 0:6050 lb:
It might be possible to achieve this result using path coordinates, but it would require us
to write the equation for the spiral shown in Figure 7.13 since the normal acceleration is NOT
along the fishing line since the center of curvature is not at the origin. This would also require a
coordinate transformation.
Example 7.4
Newtdog is flying Wormy’s apple (m D 0:2 kg) on a kite in Figure 7.15. He accelerates to the
right at 4:5 m/s2 and is going 1 m/s at the instant shown. The kite string is at D 25ı from
horizontal, increasing at 0:25 rad/s and 0:1 rad/s2 . The kite string has a tension of 40 N, is 5 m
long, and is unspooling at 0:5 m/s, although the rate of unspooling is reducing at 1 m/s2 . What
forces are being exerted by the kit on the apple? Provide the answer in Cartesian coordinates.
There is a lot of information provided so let’s summarize what we know. We’ll call the
location of the spool point A and the apple point B. We recognize this uses polar coordinates,
120 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
Table 7.1: Transformation matrix
î ĵ
êr – cos θ sin θ
êθ – sin θ – cos θ
The acceleration described using polar coordinates is in reference to the spool which is
also moving. So the acceleration of B is with respect to A:
*
a B=A D rR r P 2 eO r C r R C 2rP P eO
D . 1/ .5/ . 0:25/2 eO r C ..5/ . 0:1/ C 2 .0:5/ . 0:25// eO m/s2
*
a B=A D . 1:313/ eO r C . 0:75/ eO m/s2 :
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
ar a
In order to add the acceleration of the spool, that too should be in polar coordinates. We
construct a transformation matrix to help (Table 7.1):
*
aA D .4:5/ Oi D .4:5/ . cos / eO r C . 4:5/ .sin / eO
*
aA D .4:5/ cos 25ı eO r C .4:5/ sin 25ı eO
*
aA D . 4:078/ eO r C . 1:902/ eO m/s2 :
The total acceleration of the apple is therefore:
* * *
aB D a A C a B=A
D . 4:078 1:313/ eO r C . 1:902 0:75/ eO D . 5:391/ eO r C . 2:652/ eO m/s2 :
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
ar a
Accelerations in the FBD/IBD in Figure 7.16 are drawn in the positive directions and
given signs as appropriate in the equations:
7.3. N2L IN POLAR COORDINATES 121
FBD r IBD
Fθ maθ
Fr θ mar
FT
θ
W
X
. F D ma
F C W cos D ma
F D .0:2/ .9:81/ cos 25ı .0:2/ . 2:652/ D 2:309 N
X
- Fr D mar
Fr W sin FT D mar
Fr D .0:2/ .9:81/ sin 30ı C .40/ C .0:2/ . 2:563/
Fr D 40:32 N
*
F D .40:32/ eO r C .2:309/ eO N:
Transformed into Cartesian Coordinates:
*
FD .40:32/ cos 25ı .2:309/ sin 25ı Oı
C .40:32/ sin 25ı .2:309/ cos 25ı Oȷ N:
*
F D . 37:52/ Oı C .14:95/ Oȷ N
Magnitude:
q
*
jFj D . 37:52/2 C .14:95/2 D 40:38 N:
122 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
Direction:
1 .14:95/
tan D 21:73ı CW w.r.t. x -axis
.37:52/
* ı
F D 40:4 N - 21:7 :
In Figure 7.18 we see the view from above uses the path coordinates normal and tangential
components. Instead of using this view, we’ll find more meaningful information from the front
view which is the normal and vertical components. We’ve used “y ” to designate the vertical axis.
We’ll see in Example 7.5 that it’s advantageous to rotate these axes to align with the banked
surface.
Example 7.5
The bicycle racing track shown in the previous figure (Figure 7.18) has a turn with radius of
curvature D 45 m. The typical racing speed is 40 km/hr. What banking angle is required so no
friction is required to keep a bicycle at this speed from slipping outward or inward (making this
the “rated speed”)? What is the minimum speed a cyclist would need in order to not slip inward
on the curve on this track if the coefficient of static friction is s D 0:20 on a wet day?
First, we’ll convert the speed into base units:
We’ll draw the FBD/IBD pair in Figure 7.19 and align the axes with the slope by rotating it
at an arbitrary angle and designating the new directions as x 0 and y 0 . This is for convenience
since we can write just one equation in the x 0 direction to solve this rather than two equations
with FN in them.
124 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
y'
FBD IBD
x'
θ
W
may'
an
θ
max'
FN
Note here that mass cancels out, which means the angle for this is independent of mass.
This is one of those instances where our intuition might not coincide with the actual dynamics:
sin an
D tan D
cos g
an .2:744/
D tan 1 D tan 1 D 15:62ı D 15:6ı :
g .9:81/
If a cyclist travels less than 40 km/hr they might slip toward the center of the curve except
that friction acts on the side of the tires. We re-draw a new FBD/IBD set in Figure 7.20 to
show the friction force in this direction:
X
% Fy 0 D may 0
FN W cos D man sin
FN D m .g cos C an sin /
7.4. 3-D PATH COORDINATES 125
y'
FBD IBD
x'
θ
W
may'
an
θ
max'
θ
Ff
FN
Figure 7.20: FBD/IBD of Example 7.5 with friction to prevent sliding down bank (© E. Diehl).
Ff D s FN D s m .g cos C an sin /
X
& Fx 0 D max 0
Ff C W sin D man cos :
We replace the friction force and note that once again we can cancel out mass:
v D 20:7 km/hr :
126 7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW (N2L) IN NON-RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
Example 7.6
In Figure 7.21, Newtdog is playing tetherball with an old rope that has a breaking strength of
10 lb. The tetherball weighs 1 lb, and the rope is 6 ft long. How fast does the ball have to travel
to break the rope?
A sketch (Figure 7.22) helps us to see the movement is like a cone shape. If we looked
down on it we see a circular path where path coordinates can be used. But if we used that view,
the weight of the ball wouldn’t be considered. So instead we draw an FBD/IBD pair of the
tetherball in Figure 7.23 from a side view at an arbitrary angle:
X
" Fy D may D 0
W C FT sin D 0
W
sin D
FT
1 W 1 .1/
D sin D sin D 5:739ı :
FT .10/
7.4. 3-D PATH COORDINATES 127
θ
r
v
FBD n IBD
W FT
man
We can use this angle to find the radius of the circle the ball travels. r D l cos D
.6/ cos.5:739ı / D 5:970 ft: X
! Fn D man
v2
FT cos D m :
1 v2
.10/ cos.5:739ı / D
32:2 .5:970/
v D 43:73 ft/s D 29:82 mph
v D 29:8 mph :
This problem didn’t provide the angle of the tetherball rope, and for many students this can cause
confusion. It’s when you draw the FBD/IBD pair and look the vertical direction that an “ah-ha”
moment would likely occur. The first step though is to draw the FBD/IBD and look for clues.
The importance of Free Body Diagrams in engineering cannot be overstated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6pkngaXc8Yc
129
CLASS 8
• Kinetic Energy: KE D 12 mv 2 .
PE
KE
Figure 8.1: Newtdog discovers gravity as Potential Energy (PE) is converted into Kinetic Energy
(KE) (©E. Diehl).
where
The Work-Energy equation might seem familiar to students who have taken or are taking
Fluid Mechanics or Thermodynamics. You can think of this as the solid mechanics form of
energy accounting. It’s good to use the following grouping to organize how you think of energy
accounting:
KE1 C PE1 C U1!2 D KE2 C PE2 :
„ ƒ‚ … „ƒ‚… „ ƒ‚ …
Initial Energy Outside Work Final Energy
Happens
Note that this equation can be used in multiple locations in between, not just initial and final.
We can break problems apart into stages, and this can be a very useful solution strategy in many
problems.
8.2. WORK (U) 131
F F
∆x
∆y
Figure 8.2: Newtdog works by applying forces in the direction of motion (©E. Diehl).
Energy methods are powerful tools to solve many kinds of engineering problems, often
as an alternative to other solution techniques that become excessively complicated. We’ll see
that the kinetic energy change is closely related to N2L since it’s derived from it. We’ll start the
derivation/explanation with the definition of work.
Recall other consequential aspects of the scalar product include the “projection” of one vector
onto another. Figure 8.3 shows a force applied to a particle that is moved from points 1 to 2
along a path. The work is the magnitude of the force times the magnitude of the displacement
132 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
y
F⃑
dr⃑1→2 dr⃑1→2
1
Path
r⃑1 2 θ
F⃑
r⃑2
o x
Figure 8.3: Work is the projection of the force on the change in position.
The important thing to note here is that energy doesn’t have a direction after this dot
product. This is especially important since although the Work-Energy method can simplify
(often by reducing algebra and/or trigonometry), the results don’t give us direction.
Taking the integral of the incremental work equation between two points gives us the
work accomplished:
Z 2
U1!2 D F dr :
1
If the force doesn’t change with position (is constant) then: U1!2 D Fx (again, only if F and
x align).
Work that is dependent on the path is said to be caused by a “non-conservative force.”
We’ll see there are at least two common instances where we have “conservative forces,” meaning
that the path taken between two points doesn’t matter (in other words it’s path independent).
We make a special case for this kind of work and call it “potential energy” as we’ll discuss in an
upcoming section.
Another important thing to note about the dot product is the scenario when the angle
between vectors is D 180ı . This means, of course, the force is in the opposite direction of the
movement. The result is a negative value of work. An example of this is friction. Negative work
means energy is leaving due to an external force (such as friction).
In Figure 8.4, we revisit the FBD/IBD pair used in path coordinates and follow the path
from positions 1 to 2 to track the energy exerted. The tangential component of the force travels
along the path, so the work is:
X
F t D ma t :
Following this path must be done in small increments, so we setup N2L in path coordinates
with differentials. We know that a t D dv
dt
but also a t D v dv
ds
.
dv
F t D mv
ds
F t ds D mvdv
Z 2 Z 2
1 1
F t ds D mvdv D mv2 2 mv1 2 :
1 1 2 2
The force travels along the path, so it is always in the direction of motion, therefore U1!2 D
R2
1 F t ds . We call the motion energy caused by this work a change in “Kinetic Energy” (KE ):
1 2
KE D mv :
2
The important take-away here is the link between N2L and Work-Energy.
mg
1
2 3
y1 y
2 y3
Datum 0
Figure 8.5: Gravitational potential energy depends on vertical position with respect to a datum.
PEg D mgy D Wy :
Note we can use mg and W interchangeably. Again, note that we chose the letter “U” for Work
rather than “W” to avoid any confusion there might be with weight.
To keep track of gravitational potential energy we need to establish a datum (reference) to
measure the vertical position. We’ll often find it convenient to set one of the potential energies
to zero, to avoid negative potential energy. To keep track of this it’s best to keep in mind whether
the stored energy has increased or decreased between states. For instance, when PEg1 is larger
than PEg2 we might choose PEg2 to be equal to zero, thereby making it the datum. Or, since
we have another energy state at point 3 later, we might choose to make PEg3 zero as the datum.
ı1 D l0 l1 and ı2 D l0 l2 :
On the plot of force vs. deflection in Figure 8.6, stiffness is represented by the slope of the
straight line (and therefore “linear”).
The force required to stretch a spring to any deflection, ı , is:
F D kı:
8.5. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 135
F
0
F2
δ1
F1
k
1
F1 δ2
F2
0 δ1 δ2 δ 2
This work is stored energy and is also the area under the curve of the plot in Figure 8.6.
We define “spring potential energy” at any state as:
1 2
PEsp D kı :
2
We’re careful to avoid this common mistake: PEsp D 12 k ı2 2 ı1 2 ¤ 12 k.ı2 ı1 /2 .
To represent deflection, the variable lowercase Greek delta (ı ) is purposefully used here
instead of the letter “x” used by many texts. This is to emphasize that it isn’t dependent on
direction but is dependent on change in length as depicted in Figure 8.7.
This situation often occurs when a system is frictionless and no external forces are applied in
line with the motion. For example, normal forces can be acting on an object but don’t constitute
external work because there is no motion in the normal direction. We can see from the above
136 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
F1
1
δ1
F2
δ2 2
l0
l
θ θ
1
3
y1 r y3
Datum
2 v
equation that conservation of energy is a trade off between kinetic energy and potential energy
just like the apple in Figure 8.1. Consequently, kinetic energy is at a maximum when potential
energy is at a minimum and vice versa.
A pendulum is an excellent example of this concept, as shown in Figure 8.8.
In position 1, the ball is released from rest. Before it moves it has no kinetic energy, only
potential. When it reaches the bottom, position 2, it is at its maximum velocity and therefore
maximum kinetic energy but has reached the datum so has zero potential energy. When it rises to
position 3, it again momentarily stops moving (no kinetic energy) but has regained the potential
energy it had in position 1. This depends on there being no external losses such as air resistance
8.6. SOLVING WORK-ENERGY METHOD PROBLEMS 137
on the ball or friction at the pivot point. In equations we’d write this as:
7. List the forms of energy as KE1 ; PE1 ; U1!2 ; KE2 ; and PE2 , and write out the equations
for each as they apply, setting several to zero where appropriate. Note that when U1!2 D 0
the problem is Conservation of Energy.
8. Enter in the knowns and identify the unknown parameter(s)
9. If necessary, apply the dependent motion from step 2 to link unknowns and solve.
138 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
∆s
P
θ2
θ1
θ1
Ff
FN
2
∆s
P
θ2
1
y2
Datum
θ1
FN D .50/ sin 40ı C .25/ cos 25ı D 54:80 lb
PE1 D 0 At datum
140 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
U1!2 D P cos .1 C 2 / s Ff s . Only the portion of the external force that’s in
the direction of motion causes work. The work due to friction is negative because the
friction force is in the opposite direction of motion
KE2 D 12 mv2 2
s D 0:2083 ft D 2:500 in
s D 2:50 in :
A A B A B
P
(a) (b) (c)
2
∆y
B
1
1
yA1 A
P
2
Datum
U1!2 D Py The external force is in the opposite direction of the motion so this is
negative external work
aA D 10:73 ft/s2
*
(a) a A D 10:73 ft/s2 # .
We compare this back to Example 6.3 and see we get the same result.
We know the direction based on the setup of the problem, not the signs in the answer.
This is because the velocity in Kinetic Energy is squared, so the direction of velocity can’t be
established from sign conventions as is can in N2L. This might be considered a weakness of the
Work-Energy Method which also holds true for other types of Dynamics that rely on energy
principles.
We’ll finish the remainder of the examples without labeling steps (Figure 8.14).
8.6. SOLVING WORK-ENERGY METHOD PROBLEMS 143
yB2
1 1
yA1 A B Datum
2
Datum
Part (b)
KE1 C PE1 C U1!2 D KE2 C PE2 ;
where
KE1 D 0 Starts from rest
PE1 D WA yA1 A starts above its datum, B starts at its datum
U1!2 D 0 No external work, (conservation of energy)
KE2 D 12 mA vA2 2 C 12 mB vB2 2
PE2 D WB yB2 A finishes at the datum
There is no external work in scenario (b) as there was in (a), and there are two datums,
one for each block:
1 1
.0/ C WA yA1 C .0/ D mA vA2 2 C mB vB2 2 C WB yB2
2 2
1 75 2 1 50
.0/ C .75/ yA1 C .0/ D vA2 C vB2 2 C .50/ yB2 :
2 32:2 2 32:2
Set vB2 D vA2 and yA1 D yB2 D 1 ft
1 75 1 50
.0/ C .75/ .1/ C .0/ D vA2 2 C vA2 2 C .50/ .1/
2 32:2 2 32:2
vA2 D 3:589 ft/s:
2
Apply kinematics: vA2 2 D .vA1 / C 2aA yA
.3:589/2 D .0/2 C 2aA .1/
144 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
aA D 6:440 ft/s2
*
(b) a A D 6:44 ft/s2 # .
Part (c) We can reuse most of part (b) because the only differences are the weights:
1 1
.0/ C WA yA1 C .0/ D mA vA2 2 C mB vB2 2 C WB yB2
2 2
1 175 2 1 150
.0/ C .175/ yA1 C .0/ D vA2 C vB2 2 C .150/ yB2 :
2 32:2 2 32:2
Set vB2 D vA2 and yA1 D yB2 D 1 ft
1 175 2 1 150
.0/ C .175/ .1/ C .0/ D vA2 C vA2 2 C .150/ .1/
2 32:2 2 32:2
vA2 D 2:226 ft/s:
aA D 2:477 ft/s2 :
*
(c) a A D 2:48 ft/s2 # .
We see that parts (b) and (c) have the same results as found in Example 6.3. Remember to
consider the implications of these results: mass causes the motion to be more sluggish. We can
also appreciate the exchange of potential energy and kinetic energy within this system.
where
KE1 D 12 mv1 2 At maximum speed
PE1 D 0 At datum
8.6. SOLVING WORK-ENERGY METHOD PROBLEMS 145
vmax
θ 2
y2
1 Datum
v
1
mv1 2 C .0/ C .0/ D .0/ C mgl .1 cos / :
2
146 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
Example 8.4
Two blocks are connected by a rope over a massless and frictionless pulley (Figure 8.17). The
bottom of block B (m D 60 kg) is h D 0:5 m above the ground. Block A (m D 35 kg) is on
a horizontal surface with a coefficient of friction of k D 0:30. The blocks are released from
rest and begin to move. Determine the distance block A will travel before coming to rest. This
problem demonstrates a scenario where more than two states are needed.
Blocks A and B will move together until block B hits the ground and the rope becomes
slack. The initial position is state 1, when block B hits the ground is state 2, and when Block A
stops is state 3.
We should find the friction force on block A using an FBD/IBD pair in Figure 8.18. Note
that we don’t technically have to use the IBD since we’ll only use the vertical direction which
has no acceleration, but it’s good practice to not take short cuts.
8.6. SOLVING WORK-ENERGY METHOD PROBLEMS 147
y
FBD IBD
x
WA = mAg
FT mAaA
Ff
FN
x3
x2
1
2 3
A
2, 3 y1 Datum
X
" Fy D may D 0
mA g C FN D 0
FN D .35/ .9:81/ D 343:4 N
Ff D k FN D .0:30/ .343:4/ D 103:0 N:
1 1
.0/ C mB gy1 Ff x2 D mA vA2 2 C mB vB2 2 C .0/ :
2 2
The relations we can use are: x2 D y1 D 0:5 m and vA2 D vB2
1 1
.0/ C .60/ .9:81/ .0:5/ .103:0/ .0:5/ D .35/ vA2 2 C .60/ vA2 2 C .0/
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ … 2 2
294:3 51:51
1
mA vA2 2 C .0/ Ff .x3 x2 / D .0/ C .0/
2
x2 D 0:5 m
1
.35/ .2:261/2 C .0/ .103:0/ .x3 .0:5// D .0/ C .0/
2
x3 D 1:368 m
xA D 1:37 m :
8.6. SOLVING WORK-ENERGY METHOD PROBLEMS 149
Could this have been found directly from states 1 to 3?
where
KE3 D 0 Blocks kinetic energy the instant before block B hits the ground
x3 D 2:857 m…. Not the same…why? The kinetic energy in B is lost when it hits the ground
and the rope goes slack. Recognizing that more than two states are necessary is the key to solving
this problem.
In order to do this problem using N2L you’d need to take FBD/IBD pairs of each block
to find the accelerations linked by the rope tension and then use kinematics to find the velocity
of A when B strikes the ground. Then you’d recalculate the deceleration of block A alone and
use kinematics to find how far it would travel to reach zero speed.
Example 8.5
A block (m D 1 kg) connected to two springs (both k D 100 N/m) rides on a frictionless rod
in the vertical plane. In the position shown (Figure 8.20) the springs are in their undeformed
lengths. The dimensions are a D 0:6 m, b D 0:9 m, and c D 0:8 m. The block is raised into
position 1 and released. Determine the block’s speed when it strikes D in position 3 .
From Figure 8.21 we see that spring AB is stretched to length l1 at state 1 and l3 at state
3. We also see that spring BC is compressed at state 1. We can find the deflections of each by
the difference from the undeformed length:
p q
ıAB1 D l1 c D a2 C c 2 c D .0:6/2 C .0:8/2 .0:8/ D 0:2000 m
ıBC1 D a D 0:6 m
p q
ıAB1 D l3 cD 2
b Cc 2 c D .0:9/2 C .0:8/2 .0:8/ D 0:4042 m:
150 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
a
B A
2
c
3
D
1
l1
a
B A
2
c
l3
3 Datum
D
1 1 1
.0/ C mg .a C b/ C kıAB1 2 C kıBC1 2 C .0/ D mv2 2 C mgb C .0/
2 2 2
v2 D 7:196 m/s:
States 2 ) 3
KE2 C PE2 C U2!3 D KE3 C PE3
where
KE2 D 12 mv2 2 Kinetic energy at state 2
PEg2 D mgy2 D mgb Block is still above datum
PEsp2 D 0 Springs are undeformed
U2!3 D 0 No external forces, conservation of energy
KE3 D 12 mv3 2 Kinetic energy just before block hits the bottom
152 8. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 1)
PEg3 D 0 Block is at datum
PEsp1 D 12 kıAB3 2 Spring AB is stretched
1 1 1
mv2 2 C mgb C .0/ C .0/ D mv3 2 C .0/ C kıAB3 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
.1/ .7:196/2 C .1/ .9:81/ .0:9/ C .0/ D .1/ v3 2 C .0/ C .100/ .0:4042/2
2
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚
8:826
… 2 2
„ ƒ‚ …
25:89 8:169
v3 D 7:287 m/s:
Could this have been found directly from states 1 to 3?
In the next class we will do more Work-Energy examples with a variety of added com-
plexities.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3fciZ3eOAU
153
CLASS 9
Without the external energy change, this reduces to the Conservation of Energy principle:
We also demonstrated that in many instances Work-Energy combined with kinematics could be
used instead of N2L to get the same solution. Since the topic is important, a second class/chapter
is included here to demonstrate a few more complex examples.
Types of Work-Energy Problems:
• Conservation of Energy: balance between potential and kinetic energy (no external
energy)
• External Work Applied
154 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
• Frictional Energy Loss
• Multiple Particles
• Power and Efficiency
9.2 EFFICIENCY
The first law of thermodynamics can be phrased in a variety of ways, including “energy cannot
be created or destroyed” which is also the Conservation of Energy principle we’ve been using. A
fun way to say this is “you can’t get something for nothing.” Along the same lines, we can phrase
the second law of thermodynamics as “you can’t even break even.” It’s this second law that leads
us to the topic of “efficiency”: the ratio of output to input. The second law of thermodynamics
tells us that ratio will always be less than 1. We can define this mathematically using the lower
case Greek letter “eta” as:
energy output
D :
energy input
In the spirit of the fun way to phrase things, we can use the following to remember how to
calculate efficiency:
what you want WYW
D D :
what you paid for WYPF
If we perform a simple energy balance we see: energy input energy loss D energy output.
So we can rewrite the efficiency in terms of losses:
energy loss
D1 :
energy input
Example 9.1
A spring (k D 25 kN/m) is used to stop a m D 75 kg package that is moving down a D 60ı
incline with initial speed v0 D 3 m/s when it is d D 10 m from the spring (Figure 9.1). The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the package and the incline is k D 0:20. What is the
maximum distance up the incline (from the spring) the package will travel after it bounces off
the spring? What is the efficiency of this process?
We need N2L for the normal force in the y 0 direction so we can find the friction force
from an FBD/IBD pair (Figure 9.2):
X
- Fy 0 D may 0 D 0
mg cos C FN D 0
FN D .75/ .9:81/ cos 60ı D 367:9 N
9.2. EFFICIENCY 155
v0
d
k
FBD x′ IBD
y′
θ
W
Ff
FN max'
KE1 D 12 mv02
PE1 D mgy1 D mg .d C ı/ sin
156 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
y1
2 d
Datum
δ
θ
U1!2 D Ff x 0 D Ff .d C ı/
KE2 D 0
PE2 D 12 kı 2
1 2 1
mv C mg .d C ı/ sin Ff .d C ı/ D .0/ C kı 2
2 0 2
1 1
.75/ .3/2 C .75/ .9:81/ ..10/ C ı/ sin 60ı .73:58/ .10 C ı/ D .0/ C .25;000/ ı 2
2
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ … 2
„ ƒ‚ …
.6;372/C.637:2/ı .735:8/ .73:58/ı
337:5 Nm .12;500/ı 2
2
y3
d3
Datum
δ
θ
where
KE2 D 0
PE2 D 12 kı 2
U2!3 D Ff .d3 C ı/
KE3 D 0
1
.0/ C kı 2 Ff .d3 C ı/ D .0/ C mg .d3 C ı/ sin
2
1
.0/ C .25;000/ .0:7142 /2 .73:58/ .d3 C .0:7142//
2
„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
.73:58/d3 .52:55/
.6;376/
D .0/ C .75/ .9:81/ .d3 C .0:7142// sin 60ı
„ ƒ‚ …
.637:2/d3 C.455:1/
d3 D 8:256 m
d3 D 8:26 m :
This problem needed to be done in stages because the deflection of the spring is part of
the distance within the frictional energy loss.
158 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
r
θ
Energy losses:
Losses D Ff .d C ı/ C Ff .d3 C ı/
D .73:58/ .10C .0:7142// C .73:58/ ..8:256/ C .0:7142// D 1;448 Nm
D 79:8% :
Example 9.2
Wormy’s apple (m D 0:25 kg) is on top of a smooth cylinder (r D 0:5 m) initially at rest as shown
in Figure 9.5. It begins to slide off down and at some location the apple loses contact with the
surface. What is the apple’s speed when it loses contact?
We will pretend the apple is very small and smooth and slides rather than rolls. Remember
we are still dealing with particle kinetics so size and shape are ignored. The apple will begin to
9.2. EFFICIENCY 159
FBD IBD
W θ t
n
mat
FN
man
leave the surface when the normal force between it and surface is zero. We use an FBD/IBD
pair in path coordinates with the apple at an arbitrary angle to setup a relationship (Figure 9.6):
X
. Fn D man
v2
FN C mg cos D m
r
2
v
FN D m g cos :
r
It leaves the surface when FN D 0. Mass cancels and we have a relationship between
velocity and angle:
v 2 D gr cos :
Apply Work-Energy
y1 D r .1 cos /
KE1 D 0
PE2 D 0
160 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
1
.0/ C mgr .1 cos / C .0/ D mgr cos C .0/ (Mass cancels out here too)
2
3
1 D cos
2
2
D cos 1 D 48:19ı :
3
Enter this angle into the velocity as a function of angle equation:
p p
v D gr cos D .9:81/ .0:5/ cos .48:19ı / D 1:808 m/s
v D 1:81 m/s :
This is a common problem asked in Dynamics courses because it presents a good visual-
ization of motion and challenges a likely misconception that the apple (often a ball) will remain
in contact with the surface till it hits the ground. It’s interesting that the mass cancels out in
both places above.
9.3 POWER
Power is the time rate change of work. In other words, it’s how quickly work is performed.
We’ll use a stylized capitol letter “P” to distinguish it from other uses of that letter in problems
(lowercase “p” is often used for pressure, and some books use uppercase “P” for forces). We can
write the definition of power in a number of ways:
Work dU d
PD D D Fr DFv :
time dt dt
The latter form is quite useful in particles. We’ll see another useful form when we cover
Work-Energy for rigid bodies that relates power to torque and rpm. But for the current topic,
force times velocity is a useful concept. It’s important to note that power is a scalar (has no
direction) measure of an instantaneous state. The dot product in the above equation also reminds
us that only the force in line with the velocity matters.
The units of power in SI are: 1 Watt D 0:001 kW D 1 J/s D 1 Nm/s.
The units of power in U.S. Customary are: 1 horsepower D 1 hp D 550 ft lb/s.
The conversion rate between SI and U.S. Customary is: 1 hp D 746 W D 0:746 kW.
It’s often useful to have a frame of reference so we can compare the results in problems
asking for power to something we know roughly the size. Here is a brief list of some typical
power ratings (maximum) examples gathered from internet searches to keep in mind:
9.3. POWER 161
• Weed Wacker: 1:5 hp D 1:12 kW
These are all power ratings which means the maximum power each can achieve. The actual
used power for standard operation is usually much less than this value and may never come close
to this maximum except for brief periods when the engine is pushed such as acceleration or on
a dynamometer by the manufacturer.
Example 9.3
An SUV is rated at 25 mpg (miles per gallon) during highway operation. Make some assump-
tions, use information from other engineering topics, and approximate the power and overall
efficiency.
We assume the speed is
We’ll ignore the road resistance and only look at the wind resistance due to aerodynamic
drag. Drag force is often covered in Fluid Mechanics class and can be found from:
1
FD D CD v 2 A:
2
The average drag coefficient for an SUV is CD D 0:4 (based on internet search results),
where D air density and A D front area.
Density of air at 60ı F and standard barometric pressure is D 0:00238 slugs/ft3 .
162 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
Figure 9.7: Newtdog with one horsepower (actually 14.9 hp) (© E. Diehl).
The front view dimensions of a mid-size SUV are approximately 4:5 ft from bottom of
chassis to top of roof and 5:5 ft wide.
The front area (projected area facing direction movement) is therefore A D .4:5/ .5:5/ D
24:75 ft2 .
The air resistance/drag is therefore, approximately:
1 1
FD D CD v 2 A D .0:4/ 0:00238 slugs/ft3 .95:33 ft/s/2 24:75 ft2
2 2
D 107:1 slugs ft/s2 D 107:1 lb:
P D 18:6 hp :
This may seem very small compared to a typical SUV engine rating (250 hp), but remember
this is just cruising on the highway not accelerating or pulling a heavy load up a slope where more
instantaneous power is required. Also note that this is different than engine power because it’s
“delivered power.” In the efficiency equation, this power is What You Want (WYW).
9.3. POWER 163
To find What You Paid For (WYPF) we use the mileage rating to find the energy rate of
the fuel.
The energy in gasoline is measured in “heating value” using British Thermal Units (BTU)
in U.S. Customary Units. The typical heating value of gasoline is 114;000 BTU/gal. The con-
version into equivalent mechanical energy is 1 BTU D 778 ft lb.
At 65 mph and 25 mpg, the fuel flow is:
.65 mi/hr/
D 2:600 gal/hr:
25 mi/gal
ovr D 15:9% :
This is remarkably low, but not unexpected because first the mileage rating includes some speed
changes on the highway, so the instantaneous fuel rate during constant speed is likely much
lower. Second, there are energy efficiencies for each stage of energy conversion and transmission.
Each efficiency can also be thought of as a loss, or an “inefficiency.” For example, combustion
efficiency ( 95%) converting chemical potential energy of fuel into heat in the engine, ther-
modynamic efficiency ( 60%) as you’ll cover in thermodynamics idealized as the Otto cycle
in a four-stroke engine, mechanical efficiency ( 75%) which is friction losses and internal gas
flow losses, and the drive train efficiency ( 65%) from the transmission and power to wheels
losses. There are also auxiliaries like pumps, fans, and air conditioning that use energy and can
therefore be treated as losses ( 95%). We could estimate the overall efficiency by multiplying
all of these:
est D comb therm mech trans aux D .0:95/ .0:60/ .0:75/ .0:65/ .0:95/ D 26%:
This example is just an exercise for concept demonstration purposes and gets us into the ballpark
quantifying efficiency for a real life application.
Example 9.4
The make-shift horse-powered elevator (m D 90 kg) in Figure 9.8 using rope and pulleys is used
to lift a basket of apples (m D 25 kg). The elevator is to go up 3 floors (9 m) in 6 s with constant
164 9. WORK-ENERGY METHOD AND THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (PART 2)
acceleration till the midway point and then constant deceleration until it reaches the top and
stops. Determine the peak power (in horsepower) and the horse’s efficiency if she requires a bale
of hay after performing this lift 200 times.
Assume: 1 hay bale D 20 kg, alfalfa hay estimated at 900 cal /lb.
We use kinematics to determine the accelerations and peak velocity of the elevator. We’ll
find the acceleration to the midway point in half the time and assume the deceleration is the
same except negative:
1
y D y0 C v0 t C at 2 :
2
1
.4:5/ D .0/ C .0/ .3/ C a.3/2
2
2
a D 1:000 m/s :
The peak velocity at the midway point is:
For the constraint relationships between the elevator and horse, (Figure 9.9) we cut the
focus on a point on the rope we’ll call “B” (we can ignore the rest of the rope since it’s length is
constant):
Cable length: 4SA C SB D l
9.3. POWER 165
Time derivative: vB D j4vA j
2nd derivative: aB D j4aA j
Just before the midway point, the elevator is still accelerating, so this will be the time of
the maximum cable tension and maximum velocity. We draw an FBD/IBD pair of the elevator
at that instant (Figure 9.10):
X
" Fy D 0
4FT mg D ma
1
FT D m .g C a/
4
1
FT D .90 C 25/ .9:81 C 1/ D 621:6 N:
4
This is also force of tension of the rope the horse pulls. The peak velocity of horse is
P D 10:0 hp :
KE1 D 0
PE1 D 0
U1!2 D‹
KE2 D 0
Datum
SA
SB
FBD y IBD
4FT x
ma
W
horse D 12:2% :
REFERENCES:
Gerhart, P. M., Gerhart, A. L., and Hochstein, J. I. Munson, Young and Okiishi’s Fundamentals
of Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower
https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml
CLASS 10
Impulse-Momentum Method
B.L.U.F. (Bottom Line Up Front)
* Rt *
• Linear Impulse: IMP D t12 F dt .
* *
• Linear Momentum: L D mv.
* Rt * *
• Impulse-Momentum: m v 1 C t12 F dt Dm v 2 .
• Impulse-Momentum involves vectors while Work-Energy uses scalars.
• Impulse-Momentum with kinematics can be used in lieu of N2L or Work-Energy
in some situations.
or
Momentum Before C Applied Impulse D Momentum After:
In the moving apple wagon above, Newtdog is imparting the impulse on the wagon with his
pushing force multiplied by the time he pushes. The same would be true to stop the wagon, but
he’d need to push it in the other direction. This reminds us that Impulse-Momentum depends
on direction because it is a vector equation.
To visualize this process and to keep track of what’s going on when solving problems, we
use an Impulse-Momentum diagram such as Figure 10.2. This diagram corresponds to elements
of the linear Impulse-Momentum equation broken down into components:
x -dir:
Z t2
mvx1 C Fx dt D mvx2
t1
y -dir:
Z t2
mvy1 C Fy dt Dmvy2 :
t1
10.2. IMPULSE WITH LARGE FORCE AND SMALL TIME 171
y
Initial Impulse Final
mvy1 x mvy2
t2
mvx1 Fx dt mvx2
t1
t2
Fy dt
t1
In Figure 10.3 we show Newtdog imparting impulse onto Wormy’s apple. So we can
* * *
rewrite the Impulse-Momentum equation as: m v 1 C IMP 1!2 D m v 2 .
For short duration impulses, the weight is often neglected since its magnitude is relatively
small compared to the other impulsive forces and multiplied by a very small time duration as
shown in Figure 10.4.
y
Initial Impulse Final
x
mvy2
mv1
IMPx
mvx2
IMPy Wdt ≈0
equation:
*
X* *
mv1 C F AVG t D m v 2 :
Examples of this situation are the impulse thrust of space craft (the real thing, not just in
science fiction) where a timed release of gases propels the craft in a direction, therefore changing
its momentum.
10.3. CONSTANT FORCE OR AVERAGE FORCE IMPULSE 173
F F F
0 t1 t2 0 t1 t2 0 t1 t2
t t t
∆s
P
θ2
θ1
We’ll use constant force impulse for several examples, including two examples that previ-
ously used both N2L and Work-Energy in order to demonstrate that Impulse-Momentum is a
related Kinetics method.
FBD y′ IRD
x′
θ1
P
W
θ2 max'
θ1
Ff
FN
y′
Initial x′ Impulse Final
θ1
mvx' 1 = 0 P∆t W∆t mvx' 2
θ2
θ1
Ff ∆t
FN ∆t
A A B A B
P
(a) (b) (c)
.0/ C FT t WA t D mA vAy2 1
176 10. IMPULSE-MOMENTUM METHOD
y
Initial Impulse IBD
x
FT ∆t mAvAy2
mAvAy1 = 0
WA ∆t
FT D P D 50 lb
75
.0/ C .50/ t .75/ t D vAy2
32:2
.25/ t D .2:329/ vAy2 :
We are left with two unknowns, neither of which are acceleration. But since we know accelera-
tion must be constant, we can choose an arbitrary increment of time and find the velocity. Let’s
use t D 1 s:
.25/ .1/ D .2:329/ vAy2
vAy2 D 10:73 ft=s:
Acceleration can be found from:
v D v0 C at
.10:73/ D .0/ C a .1/
a D 10:73 ft=s2
*
(a) a A D 10:73 ft=s2 # This matches the answers in Examples 6.3 and 8.2.
Part (b)
We can re-use the Impulse-Momentum diagram from Part (a) for block A. We need a separate
Impulse-Momentum diagram for block B (Figure 10.11). This is an important aspect of this
problem to point out: we CANNOT omit any external forces from the impulses so we CAN-
NOT do this problem with one diagram since we’d need to include the pulley whose reaction
force we don’t know. Instead, we use separate diagrams linked with the tension of the rope:
Z t2
mvy1 C Fy dt D mvy2
t1
.0/ C FT t WB t D mvBy2 2 :
10.3. CONSTANT FORCE OR AVERAGE FORCE IMPULSE 177
y
Initial Impulse IBD
x
FT ∆t mBvBy2
mBvBy1 = 0
WB ∆t
ˇ ˇ
We can use equations 1 and 2 , and the dependent relation vAy2 D ˇvBy2 ˇ.
From equation 1 :
mA vAy2
FT t WA t D mA vAy2 FT D WA 3 :
t
From equation 2 :
mB vBy2
FT t WB t D mB vBy2 FT D WB C 4 :
t
ˇ ˇ
Equating equations 3 and 4 and replacing vAy2 D ˇvBy2 ˇ:
mA vBy2 mB vBy2
WA D WB C
t t
mA vBy2 mB vBy2
WA WB D C
t t
.WA WB / t D .mA C mB / vBy2
.WA WB / t
vBy2 D 5 :
.mA C mB /
Inputting values and the assumption of t D 1s we get:
..75/ .50// .1/
vBy2 D 75
50
D 6:440 ft=s:
32:2
C 32:2
Acceleration from:
v D v0 C at
.6:440/ D .0/ C a .1/
a D 6:440 ft=s2 :
178 10. IMPULSE-MOMENTUM METHOD
Left Thruster
45°
45°
Right Thruster
*
(b) a A D 6:44 ft=s2 # This too matches the answers in Examples 6.3 and 8.2.
Part (c)
We can re-use the results of part (b) and input the new values of the weights into equation
5:
.WA WB / t
vBy2 D
.mA C mB /
..175/ .150// .1/
vBy2 D 175
150
D 2:477 ft=s:
32:2
C 32:2
Acceleration from:
v D v0 C at
a D 2:477 ft=s2 :
*
(c) a A D 2:48 ft=s2 # This also matches the answers in Examples 6.3 and 8.2.
Example 10.3
A spaceship (m D 1000 kg) is traveling in a straight line at 2000 m/s, when the pilot applies
the right thruster (arranged to provide both forward and side thrust as shown in Figure 10.13)
for t D 10 s. The thruster ramps up the applied force as shown in the graph, peaking at 200 kN
(Figure 10.12). Determine the velocity after the thrust has been applied.
Apply impulse and linear momentum
Z t2
* * *
mv1 C F dt D m v 2 :
t1
10.3. CONSTANT FORCE OR AVERAGE FORCE IMPULSE 179
250
200
Thrust [kN]
150
100
50
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Time [s]
mvx1 β
mvx2
t2
t2
Fx dt
t1 Fy dt
t1
Noting that force changes with time, we can’t just use the force times t , but we do know the
integral of this curve will be the area under the triangle, so instead of writing an equation for
the sloped line and integrating, we can just say:
Z t2
* 1 1 ı
F dt D Fmax t D .200;000/ .10/ D 1;000;000 N s % 45 :
t1 2 2
x -dir: Z t2
mvx1 C Fx dt D mvx2 .1000/ .2000/ C .707;100/ D .1000/ vx2
t1
y -dir: Z t2
mvy1 C Fy dt D mvy2 .1000/ .0/ C .707;100/ D .1000/ vy2
t1
Example 10.4
A baseball is thrown at 95 mph, and the batter hits it over an outfield fence where it lands
500 ft away (on the ground at the same level as the batter). The baseball reaches a zenith of 90 ft
(Figure 10.15). A high-speed camera shows that the ball remains in contact with the bat for
t D 0:015 s. Estimate the average force and angle that the bat exerts onto the baseball during
impact. (Note: a typical baseball weighs 5 oz.)
We can use projectile motion to find the velocity (speed and angle) of the ball as it leaves
the bat. We can find the initial vertical velocity from the peak distance:
2
vy 2 D vy 0 2gy
2
.0/2 D vy 0 2 .32:2/ .90/
10.3. CONSTANT FORCE OR AVERAGE FORCE IMPULSE 181
vy 0
D 76:13 ft=s:
We can find the time of flight by the time to reach this peak and doubling it:
vy D vy 0 gt
.0/ D .76:13/ .32:2/ t
t D 2:364 s:
The ball lands at 2t D 4:729 s.
The initial horizontal velocity is found from:
x D x0 C .vx /0 t
.500/ D .0/ C .vx /0 .4:729/
.vx /0 D 105:7 ft=s:
.v /
The angle of the initial velocity is D tan 1 .vyx /00 D tan 1 .76:13/
.105:7/
D 35:76ı . This is for
information since the bat’s impulse angle won’t match this value, which is an interesting result
and dispels a common misconception that you must hit the baseball in the direction you want
it to go. We’ll switch the designation to help with the rest of the problem, so vx2 D 105:7 ft=s
and vy2 D 76:13 ft=s.
The ball’s speed is
.95 mi=hr/ .5280 ft=mi/
vx1 D D 139:3 ft=s:
.3600 s=hr/
Mass of ball:
.5/ = .16/
mD D 9:705 10 3 slugs:
.32:2/
Using the Impulse-Momentum diagram (Figure 10.16)
x -dir:
mvx1 C Fx t Dmvx2
3
3
9:705 10 .139:3/ C Fx .0:015/ D 9:705 10 .105:7/
Fx D 158:5 lb !
y -dir:
mvy1 C Fy t D mvy2
3
.0/ C Fy .0:015/ D 9:705 10 .76:13/
Fy D 49:26 lb "
q
* 49:26
jFj D .158:5/2 C .49:26/2 D 166:0 lb tan 1
D 17:26ı
158:5
* ı
F D 166:0 lb % 17:26 :
182 10. IMPULSE-MOMENTUM METHOD
y
Initial Impulse Final
x mvy2
mvx1
Fx ∆t mvx2
Fy ∆t
Scalar or
Method Equation Key Parameters
Vector
N2L F⃑ = ma⃑ Vector Force and Acceleration
Force, Velocity, and
Work-Energy KE1 + PE1 + U1→2 = KE2 + PE2 Scalar
Displacement
Linear Impulse- t2
mv⃑1 + F⃑ dt = mv⃑2 Vector Force, Velocity, and Time
Momentum t1
From Examples 10.1 and 10.2 we have confirmed it is possible to use any of the three meth-
ods we’ve covered in particle kinetics to solve some problems. There are many other scenarios,
where it is either inconvenient or even impossible to solve using multiple methods (as we’ll
see in the next two classes on impact collisions). One such situation is the pendulum problem
in Examples 7.1 and 8.3 where the linear impulse method can’t be used to solve it. Angular
Impulse-Momentum (covered in more detail Rigid Body Kinetics), however, can be used to
solve the pendulum problem.
Table 10.1 is a summary of the particle kinetics methods and the key parameters of each.
Kinematics can, in some cases, link these methods, but some problems are much more difficult
to solve this way. Note that Work-Energy removes the direction since it is a scalar method which
can have advantages and disadvantages.
10.5. ANGULAR IMPULSE-MOMENTUM 183
10.5 ANGULAR IMPULSE-MOMENTUM
*
When particles rotate about an axis they also possess angular momentum defined as H O D
* * *
r m v , where the position vector r is the particle distance from the reference axis O . Angular
impulse occurs from a moment applied for a short duration or can be thought of as linear impulse
with a moment arm. This is written as
Z 2 Z t2
* * * *
ANGIMP 1!2 D MO dt D . r F / dt:
1 t1
When there is no external moment applied to a particle rotating about a fixed axis, and
therefore no angular impulse, angular momentum is conserved. A system of particles can have
a total angular momentum which is conserved if no external influence changes it. Angular mo-
mentum of a system of particles is quite similar to angular momentum of rigid bodies and the
topic is often included in textbooks as a transition to discussing rigid body angular momentum.
A simple example follows, and more discussion of angular momentum is contained in Class 23
(vol. 2) as applied to rigid bodies.
Example 10.5
Two apples are on a stick that is about to be spun as shown in Figure 10.17. Apple A is mA D
100 g and rA D 100 mm from the pivot point, and is Apple B is mB D 70 g and rB D 150 mm
from the pivot point.
2. If after the moment is removed, Apple A slips to rA D 150 mm while Apple B remains at
rB D 150 mm, what is the final speed of Apples A and B?
184 10. IMPULSE-MOMENTUM METHOD
A B
rA rB
z mBvB2
M∆t
rA rB
mAvA2
The velocity of Apple A after the moment is removed is found from kinematics:
vB2 .100/
vB2 D rB !2 !2 D D D 666:7 rad/s
rB .0150/
vA2 D rA !2 D .0:100/ .666:7/ D 66:67 m/s:
Figure 10.18 shows the Impulse-Momentum diagram in the x –z plane:
X* *
XZ 2
* X* *
r mv1 C MO dt D r m v 2:
1
R2 *
Because the moment is constant, the angular impulse integral is simply 1 MO dt D Mt
M D 0:1717 Nm:
10.5. ANGULAR IMPULSE-MOMENTUM 185
Initial x Impulse Final
m z
mBBvvB2
B2
mBvB3
rA rB rB rB
mAvA2 mAvA3
After the moment is removed, Apple A slips to rA D rB D 150 mm. Since there is no external
impulse, this is a conservation of angular momentum problem. From kinematics we know that
the final velocities will be equal when the distances from the pivot point are equal. Figure 10.19
shows the Impulse-Momentum diagram of this scenario.
X* *
X* *
r mv1 D r mv2
rA mA vA2 C rB mB vB2 D rA mA vA3 C rB mB vB3
.0:100/ .0:100/ .66:67/ C .0:150/ .0:070/ .100/ D .0:150/ .0:100/ vA2 C .0:150/ .0:070/ vB2
vA2 D vB2 D 67:32 m/s:
Answers:
(a) M D 0:172 Nm
CLASS 11
• CoR is similar in concept to the efficiency of collisions since energy is not always
conserved.
Most often the impulses are due to the interaction (collisions) of the particles. When this
is the case, we can treat impulsive forces as “internal” to the system (and therefore equal and
opposite), so momentum is conserved. The Linear Impulse-Momentum equation reduces to
the “Conservation of Linear Momentum”:
X * X *
mv1 D mv2 :
As shown in Figure 11.2, the collision impulses are equal and opposite which cancel each
other out when both particles are included in the analysis.
188 11. DIRECT IMPACT OF PARTICLES AND THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
y
Initial Impulse Final
x
Fx dt Fx dt
mAvA1 mBvB1
mAvA2 mBvB2
Figure 11.2: Impulse Momentum of a collision demonstrating internal impulses cancel when
both particles are included in the analysis.
mAvA1 mBvB1
(mA + mB)v2
Figure 11.3: Impulse Momentum of a collision demonstrating where particles stick together.
For the first example we will use Conservation of Momentum for the special case where
particles stick together, as shown in Figure 11.3.
We will also check the initial and final energy so we can compare the Conservation of
Linear Momentum with the Conservation of Energy. We note that it’s possible that momen-
tum is conserved while energy is not conserved. This is because the collision loses energy and,
consequently, an efficiency.
Example 11.1
A car accident at an intersection results in both vehicles stuck together and sliding as one particle,
as shown in Figure 11.4. Truck A (mA D 3;175 kg) is traveling at 65 mph in 25ı South of East.
11.1. IMPULSE-MOMENTUM OF MULTIPLE PARTICLES 189
vA1
v2
25° θ
vB1
mAv⃑A1 x FA dt
mBv⃑B1 (mA + mB)v⃑2
FB dt
Car B (mB D 1;250 kg) is traveling at 90 mph North. Determine the velocity the two cars move
afterward and the efficiency the collision.
Note that Figure 11.4 shows the final motion as North-East which isn’t necessarily the
case. It’s simply assuming the positive direction.
A bit of housekeeping:
(Actually don’t need to do this as the units would work out anyway.)
The Impulse-Momentum diagram is shown in Figure 11.5.
Applying the Conservation of Momentum
X *
X *
mv1 D mv2
190 11. DIRECT IMPACT OF PARTICLES AND THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
x -dir:
mA vA1 cos 25ı C mB .0/ D .mA C mB / vx2
.3; 175/ .29:06/ cos 25ı C .1; 250/ .0/ D ..3; 175/ C .1; 250// vx2
.3; 175/ .29:06/ sin 25ı C .1; 250/ .40:23/ D ..3; 175/ C .1; 250// vy2
q q
*
j v 2j D vx2 2 C vy2 2 D .18:90/2 C .2:552/2 D 19:07 m/s
1 vy2 1 .2:552/
D tan D tan D 7:690ı :
vx2 .18:90/
Since we were given the speed in mph, we can infer the answer should be given in the
same units:
* .19:07 m/s/ .3600 s/hr/ .3:281 ft/m/
j v 2j D D 42:66 mph
.5280 ft/mi/
*
v2 D 42:7 mph % 7:69ı :
Energy Before:
1 1 1 1
KE1 D 2
mA vA1 2
C mB vB1 D .3;175/ .29:06/2 C .1;250/ .40:23/2 D 2;352;000 Nm:
2 2 2 2
Energy After:
1 1
KE2 D .mA C mB / v2 2 D ..3;175/ C .1;250// .19:07/2 D 804;600 Nm:
2 2
The difference between these is energy lost to a variety of places including heat, plastic
deformation of metal, and sound.
The efficiency is the resulting energy (“what you want”) divided by the input energy (“what
you paid for”):
Fx dt Fx dt
mAvA1 mBvB1
mAvA2 mBvB2
Figure 11.6: Impulse Momentum of a collision demonstrating internal impulses canceling (re-
peat of Figure 11.2).
FA dt FB dt RB dt RA dt
⟹ ⟹ ⟹ ⟹
Particles Particles Maximum Particles Particles Separate
Touch Deform Deformation Rebound (Momentum Exchanged)
(Collide) (Stored Strain Energy) (Restitution)
vB2 vA2
eD :
vA1 vB1
We note that the numerator is the relative velocity after the collision and the denominator
is the relative velocity before the collision with the order of the velocity difference reversed. So
another way to think of CoR is:
• Perfectly Elastic Collision: What happens if there is no loss during restitution (e D 1)?
CoR is also often written as: vB2 vA2 D e .vA1 vB1 /. So when e D 1, vB2 vA2 D
vA1 vB1 which means the relative velocity reverses. This makes sense if you consider
the situation where both particles in Figure 11.6 have the same mass and e D 1. The
velocity of A becomes the velocity of B and vice versa after the collision. We call this
“perfectly elastic.”
We use the two equations below to find the two unknowns: vA2 and vB2 .
An important strategy is to assume both vA2 and vB2 are moving in the positive direction
in both equations. In this way we will know the direction of a particle is negative when the
results are negative. In Example 11.2 we demonstrate that the direction of the results can change
depending on the value of CoR.
Example 11.2
Ball A (mA D 2 kg) moves (vA1 D 6 m/s) toward ball B (mB D 6 kg) moving (vB1 D 4 m/s) in
the opposite direction as shown in Figure 11.8. Determine the velocities of the balls and the
11.2. DIRECT IMPACT OF PARTICLES AND THE COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION 193
vB
vA
y
Initial Impulse Final
x
Fx dt Fx dt mAvA2
mAvA1
mBvB1 mBvB2
efficiencies if the CoR varies from e D 0 to e D 1 in increments of 0:25. Graph the results of
efficiency vs. CoR.
Note: We assume the positive direction for both resulting velocities (Figure 11.9).
X *
X *
mv1 D mv2
x -dir:
mA vA1 mB vB1 D mA vA2 C mB vB2
.2/ .6/ .6/ .4/ D .2/ vA2 C .6/ vB2
. 12/ D .2/ vA2 C .6/ vB2 1
CoR:
vB2 vA2 D e .vA1 vB1 /
vB2 vA2 D e ..6/ . 4//
vB2 vA2 D e .10/ 2 :
Combining equations 1 and 2 , we can find the relations:
. 12/ e .60/ .12/ e .20/
vA2 D and vB2 D :
.8/ .4/
If we plug in the varying CoRs we get the results in Table 11.1.
194 11. DIRECT IMPACT OF PARTICLES AND THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Table 11.1: Velocities after collision in Example 11.2
e vA2 vB2
0 -1.500 -1.500
0.25 -3.375 -0.875
0.5 -5.250 -0.250
0.75 -7.125 0.375
1 -9.000 1.000
e KE2 η
0 9.000 10.7%
0.25 13.69 16.3%
0.5 27.75 33.0%
0.75 51.19 60.9%
1 84.00 100%
We note that ball A always reverses direction, going to the left (negative x -direction). Ball
B keeps moving to the left until the CoR increases enough so it bounces backward to the right.
We calculate that at e D 0:6 ball B will simply stop since 0 D .12/.4/e.20/ .
The efficiency can be found from the ratio of kinetic energy:
WYW KE2
D D :
WYPF KE1
Energy Before:
1 1 1 1
KE1 D 2
mA vA1 2
C mB vB1 D .2/ .6/2 C .6/ . 4/2 D 84:00 Nm:
2 2 2 2
Energy After:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
KE2 D mA vA2 C mB vB2 D .2/ vA2 C .6/ vB2 :
2 2 2 2
We present the results in Table 11.2 and Figure 11.10.
We can see there is a relationship between CoR and Efficiency, but they are not the same
thing.
11.3. IMPACT OF PARTICLES WITH IMMOVABLE BARRIERS 195
100%
Collision Efficiency
75%
50%
25%
0%
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
CoR
vA
Fx dt
4
y1
y4
2 3
So what do we do? We’ll apply the CoR instead, noting that the velocity of the wall is
zero:
vB2 vA2 D e .vA1 vB1 /
vA2 D evA1 :
The result here says the velocity will reverse and be less which makes sense. Example 11.3
demonstrates a scenario we could test ourselves.
Example 11.3
A ball is dropped from a height of 6 ft (Figure 11.13). How high will it bounce if the CoR is
e D 0:8? What is the efficiency of this bounce?
11.3. IMPACT OF PARTICLES WITH IMMOVABLE BARRIERS 197
We first find the velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground using kinetics:
v2 2 D v1 2 2g .y2 y1 /
2 2
v2 D .0/ 2 .32:2/ ..0/ .6//
v2 D 19:66 ft/s:
Energy Before:
PE1 D mgy1 D mg .6/ (This is “what you paid for”):
Energy After:
PE4 D mgy4 D mg .3:840/ (This is “what you want”):
vA B
∆y
A
Example 11.4
A 0.25-oz bullet travels toward a 10 lb steel plate supported by a cable and starting at rest. The
CoR is e D 0:75. The plate rises to a maximum height of y D 1 inch. Determine the speed of
the bullet before and after it hits the plate (Figure 11.14).
We’ll call the plate in motion (just after the bullet strikes it) state “2” and the final position
of the plate (when it pauses at the top) state “3”.
From Conservation of Energy, using state 2 as the datum:
Fy dt
W dt
We also should take note that we made certain assumptions about the behavior of the
plate. First, we treated it like a particle which means its rotation isn’t considered. This kept the
plate in line with the cable which we can imagine wouldn’t be true unless it was a very stiff
cable attached to the plate in a way that wouldn’t allow it to pivot. In a real ballistic pendulum,
the object might be supported by multiple cables so rotation isn’t a factor or it might be a rigid
connection and therefore require rigid body motion calculations, as is covered in Class 24 (vol. 2).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=waHV1ghuktI
201
CLASS 12
• Oblique Impact uses normal (aligned by the center of particles) and tangential
coordinates.
• Tangential velocity remains constant for each particle.
• Conservation of momentum is applied in the normal direction as if it were a direct
impact problem.
.vB2 /n .vA2 /n
• Coefficient of Restitution in the normal direction is: eD .vA1 /n .vB1 /n
.
vA vB vA vB vA vB
Figure 12.1: Particle impacts: (a) direct, (b) oblique directions aligned, and (c) oblique directions
not aligned.
t ”
act
n fImp
n eo
“Li
(vA)t
(vB)n
vA
vB
(vA)n (vB)t
Figure 12.2: Oblique impact coordinates and velocity components of (c) in Figure 12.1.
t t
Initial n
Impulse Final Initial n
Impulse Final vB2
mB(vB2)t
mA(vA1)t
mB(vB1)n
mB(vB2)n
Fn dt
vA1 mA(vA2)n
vB1
mA(vA1)n mA(vA2)t mB(vB1)t Fn dt
vA2
mA .vA1 / t D mA .vA2 / t
mB .vB1 / t D mB .vB2 / t :
Our conclusion is that .vA1 / t D .vA2 / t and .vB1 / t D .vB2 / t . So the velocity in the tangential
direction is unchanged.
There could be an impulse in the tangential direction if the balls had friction. But most
often we assume the balls are very smooth and therefore the impact frictionless.
In the normal direction we see from Figure 12.3 that the impulse cancels out, and we can
use the Conservation of Linear Momentum, just like the direct central impact from Class 11.
We need to revise the CoR to make it specific to the normal direction velocities:
.vB2 /n .vA2 /n
eD :
.vA1 /n .vB1 /n
Figure 12.5: Newtdog plays billiards with Wormy (repeat of Figure 11.1) (© E. Diehl).
θ
B
vA1
θ
https://www.real-world-physics-problems.com/physics-of-billiards.html
https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/OluwoleOwoseni.shtml
Example 12.1
The cue ball (mA D 0:17 kg) is struck toward the 1-ball (mB D 0:16 kg) at 10 m/s on a felt pool
table with negligible friction. The angle between the balls is D 45ı , as shown in Figure 12.6.
The coefficient of restitution between the two balls is e D 0:9. Determine the velocity of each
ball after impact (magnitude and angle with respect to horizontal of the page) and the efficiency
of the collision.
12.1. OBLIQUE IMPACT 205
Initial Impulse Final
n
t
vA2 vB2 ĵ
Fn dt
êt
mB(vB2)n θ
ên
mA(vA2)t θ
î
mA(vA1)n
mA(vA1)t Fn dt mA(vA2)n
vA1
Step 6: CoR
î ĵ
êt – sin θ cos θ
ên cos θ sin θ
Step 8: Transform the results into horizontally aligned coordinates (Table 12.1).
*
v A2 D .7:701/ eO t C .0:5568/ eO n
*
v B2 D .0/ eO t C .6:921/ eO n :
*
v A2 D .7:701/ sin 45ı C .0:5568/ cos 45ı Oı
C .7:701/ cos 45ı C .0:5568/ sin 45ı Oȷ
*
v A2 D . 5:052/ Oı C .5:839/ Oȷ m/s
1 .5:839/
A D tan D 49:13ı CW from horizontal
.5:052/
*
v B2 D .0/ sin 45ı C .6:921/ cos 45ı Oı
C .0/ cos 45ı C .6:921/ sin 45ı Oȷ
*
v B2 D .4:894/ Oı C .4:894/ Oȷ m/s
12.1. OBLIQUE IMPACT 207
1 .4:894/
B D tan D 45ı (this is an obvious result)
.4:894/
* *
v A2 D 7:72 m/s - 49:1ı v B2 D 6:92 m/s % 45ı :
where
KE1 D 12 mvA1
2
C 21 mvB1
2
D 1
2
.0:17/ .10/2 C 1
2
.0:16/ .0/2 D 8:500 J
PE1 D 0
U1!2 D Losses
KE2 D 12 mvA2
2
C 21 mvB2
2
D 1
2
.0:17/ .7:093/2 C 1
2
.0:16/ .6:921/2 D 8:108 J
PE2 D 0
D 95:4% :
Example 12.2
The cue ball from Example 12.1 continues at 7.721 m/s - 49:13ı and banks off the rail as shown
in Figure 12.8. The coefficient of restitution between the ball and rail is e D 0:6. Determine the
velocity (speed and direction) of the cue ball after the collision and the efficiency of the collision.
Steps 1 and 2: We draw the Impulse-Momentum diagram (Figure 12.9) even though we recall
that we can’t use the Conservation of Linear Momentum in the normal direction. Drawing
the diagram helps us think through the collision velocity components. In this case, the normal
direction aligns with the vertical of the page and the tangential the horizontal. In this case we
know the normal component of the ball’s velocity will reverse direction so we draw it this way.
Step 3: Break the initial velocity into normal and tangential components
.vA1 /n D .7:721/ sin 49:13ı D 5:839 m/s "
.vA1 / t D .7:721/ cos 49:13ı D 5:052 m/s :
208 12. OBLIQUE IMPACT OF PARTICLES
θ B
vA1
θ
A
n
Initial Impulse Final
t
Fn dt
mA(vA1)t mA(vA2)t
mA(vA1)n Fn dt mA(vA2)n
vA1 vA2
Step 4: We can apply the Conservation of Linear Momentum in the tangential direction to the
ball alone and conclude:
1 .3:503/
B D tan D 34:74ı :
.5:052/
Step 8: The components are already aligned with the page coordinates.
*
v A2 D 6:15 m/s . 34:7ı :
where
KE1 D 12 mvA1
2
D 1
2
.0:17/ .7:721/2 D 5:067 J
PE1 D 0
U1!2 D Losses
KE2 D 12 mvA2
2
D 1
2
.0:17/ .6:148 /2 D 3:213 J
PE2 D 0
D 63:4% :
The low CoR of the ball and rail indicates that energy is lost/absorbed during the collision,
and this efficiency confirms it.
210 12. OBLIQUE IMPACT OF PARTICLES
Example 12.3
We revisit Example 10.4 where a baseball was hit out of the ballpark. Now we want to investigate
the bat and ball interaction like Newtdog hitting Wormy’s apple in Figure 12.10. Recall the
ball in Example 10.1 was pitched at 95 mph (139.3 ft/s horizontally), and its weight was 5 oz
(9:705 10 3 slugs). We concluded that the ball had to travel 105.7 ft/s horizontally and 76.13
ft/s vertically (for an angle of 35:76ı from horizontal) to land out of the park. We treat the
baseball bat as a particle (B) with a weight of 33 oz (6:405 10 2 slugs) and swung horizontally,
striking the ball with an oblique angle. The CoR of bat on ball is estimated to be e D 0:6.
Determine the speed of the bat to achieve these results.
We won’t label the steps for this example, but we are still using them. Figure 12.11 is the
Impulse-Momentum diagram for the baseball bat and ball.
We write out the given velocities in Cartesian coordinates:
*
v A1 D . 139:3 / Oı ft/s
*
v A2 D .105:7/ Oı C .76:13/ Oȷ m/s
12.1. OBLIQUE IMPACT 211
t
Initial n Impulse Final
mA(vA1)t Fn dt vA2
mA(vA2)t
vA1 mA(vA2)n ĵ
mB(vB2)n êt
mB(vB1)n θ
ên
vB1mA(vA1)n
Fn dt
θ
î
mB(vB1)t mB(vB2)t
î ĵ
êt – sin θ cos θ
ên cos θ sin θ
The known velocities need to be transformed into normal and tangential coordinates using
the unit vectors shown in Figure 12.3 to create the Transformation matrix in Table 12.2. We
don’t know the angle to transform it yet, so we’ll keep this as an unknown parameter, theta:
*
v A1 D . 139:3/ sin eO t C . 139:3/ cos eO n
*
v A1 D .139:3/ sin eO t C . 139:3/ cos eO n ft/s
*
v B1 D vB1 sin eO t C vB1 cos eO n
*
v A2 D Œ .105:7/ sin C .76:13/ cos eO t C Œ.105:7/ cos C .76:13/ sin eO n :
We know the velocity in the tangential direction of each particle remains the same be-
fore and after the impact. We can set the tangential coordinates of particle A equal to find the
necessary line-of-action angle:
.vA1 / t D .vA2 / t
.vA1 / t D .139:3/ sin D .vA2 / t D .105:7/ sin C .76:13/ cos
.139:3/ sin D .105:7/ sin C .76:13/ cos
sin .76:13/
D tan D
cos .139:3/ C .105:7/
D 17:26ı
212 12. OBLIQUE IMPACT OF PARTICLES
Apply Conservation of Momentum
X *
X *
mv1 D m v 2:
In the n-direction:
3
9:705 10 . 139:3/ cos 17:26ı C 6:405 10 2 vB1 cos 17:26ı
D 9:705 10 3 .105:7/ cos 17:26ı C .76:13/ sin 17:26ı C 6:405 10 2
.vB2 /n
. 1:29103/ C 6:117 10 2 vB1 D .1:19884/ C 6:405 10 2 .vB2 /n
.vB2 /n D . 38:87/ C .0:9550/ vB1 1 :
CoR:
.vB2 /n .vA2 /n .vB2 /n .105:7/ cos .17:26ı / C .76:13/ sin .17:26ı /
eD D D 0:6
.vA1 /n .vB1 /n . 139:3/ cos .17:26ı / vB1 cos .17:26ı /
.vB2 /n .105:7/ cos 17:26ı C .76:13/ sin 17:26ı
D .0:6/ . 139:3/ cos 17:26ı .0:6/ vB1 cos 17:26ı
Example 12.4
Ball A (WA D 5 lb) is releasted from rest at the top (y1 D 8 ft) of a slope ( D 35ı ) that ends
at y2 D 6 ft. It strikes block B (WB D 20 lb) which is moving upward at its maximum speed at
12.1. OBLIQUE IMPACT 213
A
1
2
θ
y1
3 4
y2 B δ
y3 5
xfinal
y3 D 2 ft after having had its spring (k D 200 lb/ft) compressed ı and released. The block and
ball impact with perfect timing to send the ball through the air to land at xfinal D 40 ft as shown
in Figure 12.12. The coefficient of restitution between the ball and block is e D 0:8. Determine
the amount the block needs to be compressed (ı ) to achieve this distance.
This problem purposely has multiple concepts, so we have to think through and then
recognize the principles we need. We’ll first need to know the velocities from Work-Energy and
Projectile Motion so we can analyze the oblique impact of the ball and block. We numbered the
locations/events on Figure 12.12 to keep track of them.
Work-Energy of the ball from 1 ! 2:
PE 1 D WA y1 D .5/ .8/ D 40 ft lb
2
2
.0/ C .40/ C .0/ D 7:764 10 vA2 C .30/
214 12. OBLIQUE IMPACT OF PARTICLES
vA2 D 11:35 ft/s & 30ı :
We might be tempted to find the velocity at point 3 directly using Work-Energy, but
remember this would only give us the magnitude and we need to know the components:
.vA2 /x D vA2 cos D .11:35/ cos 30ı D 9:829 ft/s !
.vA2 /y D vA2 sin D .11:35/ sin 30ı D 5:675 ft/s # :
From Projectile Motion:
mB(vB3)n Fn dt
CoR:
.vB4 /n .vA4 /n .vB4 /n .25:90/
eD D D 0:8
.vA3 /n .vB3 /n . 17:02/ .vB3 /n
.vB4 /n D .12:28/ .0:8/ .vB3 /n 2
.vB3 /n .10:73/ D .12:28/ .0:8/ .vB3 /n
.vB3 /n D 12:79 m/s " :
We will re-use the “position 2” designation for when the block is compressed and apply
Work-Energy:
Work-Energy of the block from 2 ! 3:
where:
KE2 D 0 block starts from rest
PE2 D 12 kı 2 D 1
2
.12 200/ ı 2 D .1;200/ ı 2
216 12. OBLIQUE IMPACT OF PARTICLES
U2!3 D 0 no losses
KE3 D 12 mB vB3
2
D 1
2
20
32;2
.12:79/2 D 50:77 ft lb
PE3 D WB ı D .20/ ı
APPENDIX A
2,500 ft
400 ft/s
10 ft/s2
r
3,000 ft
θ
4,000 ft
(a) rR .
(b) R .
0.2 rad/s r
1.5 ft/s2
θ
at v
r
ρ
θ
F
θ
m
(b) The velocity of the box after it has traveled 12 m, starting from rest.
A F
θ
B
∆xB
is applied to block A and movement begins. See Figure A.10. Two properly labeled FBD and
IBD sets are required as part of the answer to this problem. Determine the velocity (m/s) of
block B after it moves up the slope xB D 2 m.
A.2.6 WORK-ENERGY 1
Block A (mA D 25 kg) is connected to block B (mB D 45 kg) by an inextensible cable and
*
massless, frictionless pulley. Both are at rest and begin to move when a F D 25 N % 30ı force
is applied to Block A. A spring (k D 10 N/m) is connected to block A and is at its free length
(no compression or extension) in the initial position. The coefficient of friction between block
A and the surface is D 0:25. See Figure A.14.
Determine:
226 A. PARTICLE DYNAMICS SAMPLE EXAM PROBLEMS
F
θ
(a) The velocity of block B when it has moved 1.5 m down using Work-Energy.
(b) Will the tension in the cable: be constant, increase, or decrease during this motion?
Explain why.
A.2.7 WORK-ENERGY 2
Block A (mA D 20 kg) on a slope ( D 60ı ) is connected to block B (mB D 40 kg) by an inex-
tensible cable and massless, frictionless pulley. Both are released from rest and begin to move.
A.2. PARTICLE KINETICS SAMPLE EXAM PROBLEMS 227
k yB
F
θ
m
A spring (k D 10 N/m) connected to block A is at its free length (no compression or extension)
in the position shown. The coefficient of friction between block A and the sloped surface is
D 0:2. See Figure A.15. Using Work-Energy, determine the velocity of block B when it has
moved 3 m down.
A.2.8 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM 1
The box from exam 1 is back. Its mass is m D 10 kg, and the applied force is F D 100 N to
the right at D 25ı from horizontal as shown. See Figure A.16. The coefficients of friction are
s D k D 0:25. If the box is already moving at v1 D 50 m/s before the force is applied, what
is its speed after the force has been applied for t D 10 s? (Use linear impulse and momentum
to solve this problem.)
A.2.9 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM 2
A spaceship (m D 500 kg) is traveling at 1,000 m/s in a straight line along the x -axis. The pilot
*
will apply the right and rear thrusters to change velocity to v D 2000 m/s % 30ı , where the
angle is measured CCW from the x -axis. The front and rear thrusters produce constant 15 kN
228 A. PARTICLE DYNAMICS SAMPLE EXAM PROBLEMS
Left Thruster
x
Right Thruster
vA vB
while the side thrusters produce constant 10 kN. See Figure A.17. Determine the times each
thruster must be applied, tx and ty .
mAvA mBvB
mB
mA
vB
θ
vA
coefficient of restitution between bumper cars is e D 0:5. See Figure A.19. Find the velocity of
each brother after the collision.
Author’s Biography
EDWARD DIEHL
Dr. Edward Diehl obtained his doctoral degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of Connecticut in Decem-
ber 2016. He is currently an Assistant Professor at the Uni-
versity of Hartford in the Mechanical Engineering Depart-
ment. Prior to joining UHartford, he was a lecturer (2009–
2017) at the United States Coast Guard Academy in both the
Mechanical Engineering section and Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering section. He worked as a Principal En-
gineer (2006–2009, 1996–2000, and 1992–1995) for Seawor-
thy Systems, Inc., self-employed (2000–2006), and an analyst
(1995–1996) for General Dynamics/Electric Boat. He is a reg-
istered Professional Engineer in Connecticut. He obtained a Master of Science in Mechanical
Engineering from Rensselaer at Hartford in 1996. He is a proud graduate of the United States
Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, class of 1992, with a Bachelor of Science degree
in Marine Engineering Systems. His research interests include solid mechanics pedagogy, gear
vibration and fault modeling, and mechanism design.