Research Methods for

Social Science
FINDING THE RIGHT METHOD FOR YOUR RESEARCH
DR.PHIL- DEBORAH NAULI SIMORANGKIR

SHARON SCHUMACHER, M.A.

COMMUNICATION & PUBLIC RELATIONS STUDY PROGRAM

SWISS GERMAN UNIVERSITY

Agenda
1. Scientific Research
2. Types of Research Methods
3. Qualitative Research Methods
4. Quantitative Research Methods
5. Mixed Methodology
6. Conclusion
Scientific Research
Scientific Research
Theories and observations are the two pillars of science.
Scientific research operates at two levels:
1. The theoretical level: concerned with developing abstract concepts about a
natural or social phenomenon and relationships between those concepts
(i.e., build “theories”)
2. The empirical level: concerned with testing the theoretical concepts and
relationships to see how well they reflect our observations of reality, with
the goal of ultimately building better theories.
Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one of two
possible forms:

1. Inductive research: the goal is to infer

theoretical concepts and patterns from
observed data. A.k.a theory-building
research (although,
2. Deductive research: the goal is to test
concepts and patterns known from
theory using new empirical data. A.k.a
theory-testing research (although could
also refine, improve, and extend
theory).
 Research Paradigms: Positivist vs.
Interpretive
Positivist or functionalist
Interpretive paradigm:
paradigm:
• Assumes that social reality is • Assumes that the reality is
shaped by human experiences relatively independent of the
and social contexts (ontology) context.
• Best studied within its socio- • can be abstracted using
historic context by reconciling objective techniques such as
the subjective interpretations standardized measures.
of its various participants
(epistemology).
Characteristics of Interpretive Research
Naturalistic inquiry
Researcher as instrument
Interpretive analysis
Use of expressive language
Temporal nature
Hermeneutic circle
Types of Scientific Research
Descriptive research
Comparative research
Defining research
Evaluative/normative research
Explanatory/exploratory research
Predictive testing
Framing, problem-solving and advisory
Testing research
 Types of Scientific Research
Scientific research can be grouped into three types:
1. Exploratory research: Often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are:
(1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior, (2) to
generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of
undertaking a more extensive study regarding that phenomenon.
Example: To explore citizens general dissatisfaction with governmental policies regarding the Covid-19
pandemic.
2. Descriptive research: Directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a
phenomenon of interest. Based on the scientific method (i.e., must be replicable, precise, etc.), and
therefore, are more reliable than casual observations by untrained people.
Example: Demographic statistics by the Census Bureau
3. Explanatory research: Seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviors. Attempts
to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target
phenomenon.
Example: To understand the reasons behind gang violence.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative research
Refers to empirical or data-oriented considerations about the type of data to
collect and how to analyze them.

Qualitative research relies mostly on non-numeric data, such as interviews and

observations. Does not use statistical procedures such as regression analysis, but
is coded using techniques like content analysis.

Quantitative research employs numeric data such as scores and metrics.

Qualitative Methods
Interpretive Research Designs
Case research:
An intensive longitudinal study of a
phenomenon at one or more research
sites for the purpose of deriving detailed,
contextualized inferences and
understanding the dynamic process
underlying a phenomenon of interest.
Interpretive Research Designs
Action research:
A qualitative but positivist research design aimed at theory testing rather than
theory building.
The researcher is usually a consultant or an organizational member embedded
into a social context (such as an organization), who initiates an action in
response to a social problem, and examines how her action influences the
phenomenon while also learning and generating insights about the relationship
between the action and the phenomenon.

1. The researcher’s choice of actions must be based on theory, which should explain why and how such
actions may bring forth the desired social change.
2. The theory is validated by the extent to which the chosen action is successful in remedying the
targeted problem.
Ethnography
Emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its culture. The
researcher must be deeply immersed in the social culture over an extended
period of time (usually 8 months to 2 years) and should engage, observe, and
record the daily life of the studied culture and its social participants within their
natural setting.
The primary mode of data collection is participant observation, and data analysis
involves a “sense-making” approach. In addition, the researcher must take
extensive field notes, and narrate her experience in descriptive detail so that
readers may experience the same culture as the researcher.
◦ Example: Jane Goodall’s study of primate behaviors, where she lived with chimpanzees in their natural
habitat at Gombe National Park in Tanzania, observed their behaviors, interacted with them, and shared
their lives.
Phenomenology
Emphasizes the study of conscious experiences as a way of understanding the
reality around us. Human experience is regarded as the source of all knowledge.
Systematic reflection and analysis of phenomena associated with conscious
experiences, e.g. human judgment, perceptions, and actions.
The objective is to
1. appreciate and describe social reality from the diverse subjective
perspectives of the participants involved
2. Understand the symbolic meanings (“deep structure”) underlying these
subjective experiences.
Qualitative Analysis

Unlike quantitative analysis, which is statistics driven and largely

independent of the researcher, qualitative analysis is heavily
dependent on the researcher’s analytic and integrative skills and
personal knowledge of the social context where the data is
collected.
The emphasis in qualitative analysis is “sense making” or
understanding a phenomenon, rather than predicting or explaining,
based on an ethically enlightened and participant-in-context
attitude, and a set of analytic strategies.
Grounded Theory
An inductive technique of interpreting recorded data (from in-depth
interviews, focus groups, narratives of audio/video recordings, or
secondary documents) about a social phenomenon to build theories
about that phenomenon.
The interpretations are “grounded in” (or based on) observed
empirical data, hence the name.
Researchers must suspend any preexisting theoretical expectations or
biases before data analysis, and let the data dictate the formulation of
the theory.
Grounded Theory
Three coding techniques for analyzing text data:
oOpen coding is a process aimed at identifying concepts or key ideas that are
hidden within textual data, which are potentially related to the phenomenon of
interest.
oAxial coding, where the categories and subcategories are assembled into causal
relationships or hypotheses that can tentatively explain the phenomenon of
interest
oSelective coding, which involves identifying a central category or a core variable
and systematically and logically relating this central category to other categories.
 Content Analysis
The systematic analysis of the content of a text (e.g., who says what, to whom, why, and to what extent and with
what effect) in a quantitative or qualitative manner. Content analysis typically conducted as follows.
1. The researcher begins by sampling a selected set of texts from the population of texts for analysis. This
process is not random.
2. The researcher identifies and applies rules to divide each text into segments or “chunks” that can be treated
as separate units of analysis. This process is called unitizing. For example, assumptions, effects, etc.
3. The researcher constructs and applies one or more concepts to each unitized text segment in a process called
coding.For coding purposes, a coding scheme is used based on the themes the researcher is searching for or
uncovers as she classifies the text.
4. Finally, the coded data is analyzed, often both quantitatively and qualitatively, to determine which themes
occur most frequently, in what contexts, and how they are related to each other.
Example: sentiment analysis – a technique used to capture people’s opinion or attitude toward an object, person,
or phenomenon.
Hermeneutic Analysis
A special type of content analysis where the researcher tries to “interpret” the
subjective meaning of a given text within its socio-historic context.
Unlike grounded theory or content analysis, which ignores the context and
meaning of text documents during the coding process, hermeneutic analysis is a
truly interpretive technique for analyzing qualitative data.
This method assumes that written texts narrate an author’s experience within a
socio-historic context, and should be interpreted as such within that context.
Derived from religious studies and linguistics, traditional hermeneutics, such as
biblical hermeneutics, refers to the interpretation of written texts, especially in
the areas of literature, religion and law (such as the Bible).
Software Programs
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative Research Methodology
1.HYPOTHESIS ◦ Who? , Characteristics?
◦ Questionnaire/Experiment Design
2. Research Methods
◦ Surveys 4. Data Analysis technique
◦ Experiments ◦ Statistical Tests
◦ Secondary Data Analysis / Archival ◦ Sample Overview
Study

3. Data Collection Methods

◦ Sampling : Random // Non Random
Quantitative Methods

Focuses on gathering numerical data

and generalizing it across groups of people or
to explain a particular phenomenon.1
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Deductive method of knowledge acquisition
Falsify an existing theory
Generalize knowledge
Predict
Quantify phenomena → numbers
Standard measurements of Instruments
TIME
Large Sample
Goal : Quantitative Research
Determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and
another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population.

Quantitative Research designs are :

Descriptive
Descriptive [subjects usually measured once] Experimental
Experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]
subjects usually measured once subjects measured before and after a treatment

establishes only associations between variables establishes causality.

 Descriptive
Empirical
Research

Observational /
Descriptive Content Analysis Opinion Surveys
Surveys

Experimental
Research

Pre- Quasi- True-

Experimental Experimental Experimental
 Descriptive
Empirical Research

Observational /
Descriptive Content Analysis Opinion Surveys
Surveys

Observational/Descriptive Surveys :
Variables are not manipulated by researchers, though the methods of making observations
and measurements may be fully controlled.

How often do you read the news paper? , how often do you take your phone to the bathroom?
How happy are you?
 Descriptive
Empirical Research

Observational /
Descriptive Content Analysis Opinion Surveys
Surveys

Observational/Descriptive Surveys :
Variables are not manipulated by researchers, though the methods of making observations
and measurements may be fully controlled.
Content analysis:
“describe and systematically analyze the content of written, spoken, or pictorial
communication”- count the frequencies or the extent of various characteristics of messages.
Eg. The number of times president trump’s has said “ fake news” on TV
Eg. Compare how Kompas and Detik frame governments decisions in dealing with corona
 Descriptive
Empirical Research

Observational /
Descriptive Content Analysis Opinion Surveys
Surveys

Observational/Descriptive Surveys :
Variables are not manipulated by researchers, though the methods of making observations
and measurements may be fully controlled.
Content analysis:
“describe and systematically analyze the content of written, spoken, or pictorial
communication”- count the frequencies or the extent of various characteristics of messages.
Opinion Surveys:
Designed to identify how groups of people report their evaluations of various topics.
 Experimental
Research

Pre- Quasi- True-

Experimental Experimental Experimental

Pre-experimental Designs:
Follow the basic experimental steps ( Treatment, pre-test & post test) but
fail to include a control group.
 Experimental
Research

Pre- Quasi- True-

Experimental Experimental Experimental

Pre-experimental Designs:
Follow the basic experimental steps ( Treatment, pre-test & post test) but
fail to include a control group.
Quasi-Experimental Design:
With this design, both a control group and an experimental group is
compared, however, the groups are chosen and assigned out of
convenience rather than through randomization.
 Experimental
Research

Pre- Quasi- True-

Experimental Experimental Experimental

Pre-experimental Designs:
Follow the basic experimental steps ( Treatment, pre-test & post test) but fail to
include a control group.
Quasi-Experimental Design:
With this design, both a control group and an experimental group is compared,
however, the groups are chosen and assigned out of convenience rather than
through randomization.
True Experimental Design:
Randomization and the comparison of both a control and an experimental
group are utilized in this type of study..
 Determine the relationship between

one thing [an independent variable] and

another [a dependent or outcome variable]

within a population.
 MEASURE
BUILD
OPERATIONALIZE
YOUR VARIABLES
Research Question

How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?

Research Question

How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?

IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Research Question

How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?

IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

Different types of platforms?

- Facebook
- Instagram
- Youtube
- Tiktok
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

Different types of platforms?

- Facebook
- Instagram
- Youtube
- Tiktok

How will I measure “Social Media”?

Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

LITERATURE REVIEW
Findings of Previous Studies
Theories
Dissertations
Etc.
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

How are you going to

measure your
variables?
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

People’s
EXPOSURE to different types of
media

Instagram
Youtube
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types of (Washington,1991)
media Significance
Competence
Instagram Power
Youtube Virtue
 Research
What Question
would the question in your survey
look
Howlike?
does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types of (Washington,1991)
media Significance
Competence
Instagram Power
Youtube Virtue
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
How often do you use: _________? Feeling that you matter to someone

1.Never
7. Always
Research Question
How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)

Social Media Self Esteem

People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
How often do you use: _________? It is important for me to feel that I
matter to someone:
1.Never 1.Strongly disagree
7. Always 7. Strongly Agree
 How does Social Media Influence our Self Esteem?
IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Social Media Self Esteem
People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
How often do you use: _________? It is important for me to feel that I
matter to someone:
1.Never 1.Strongly disagree
7. Always 7. Strongly Agree
Low/High Exposure Low/High Level of Significance
Level of Self-Esteem
 IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Social Media Self Esteem
People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
Instagram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
Low/High Exposure Low/High Level of Significance
Level of Self-Esteem
Potential Hypothesis:
 IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Social Media Self Esteem
People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
Instagram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
Low/High Exposure Low/High Level of Significance
Level of Self-Esteem
Potential Hypothesis:
Exposure to social media influences Self-Esteem
 IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Social Media Self Esteem
People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
Instagram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
Low/High Exposure Low/High Level of Significance
Level of Self-Esteem
Potential Hypothesis:
Exposure to social media influences Self-Esteem
High exposure of Instagram influences Self-Esteem
 IV ( Independent Variable ) DV ( Dependent Variable)
Social Media Self Esteem
People’s Descriptive study
EXPOSURE to different types (Washington,1991)
of media Significance
Instagram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
Low/High Exposure Low/High Level of Significance
Potential Hypothesis: Level of Self-Esteem
Exposure to social media influences Self-Esteem
High exposure of Instagram influences Self-Esteem
Those exposed to Instagram more have a lower level of Self-Esteem than
those exposed to YouTube.
 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
1 Potential Hypothesis:
Exposure to social media influences Self-Esteem INFLUENCE
 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
2 Potential Hypothesis:
High exposure of Instagram influences Self-Esteem INFLUENCE
 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
3 Potential Hypothesis:
Those exposed to Instagram more have a lower level of Self-
Esteem than those exposed to youtube.
INFLUENCE
 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
4 Potential Hypothesis:
???????? INFLUENCE
 Hypothesis→ `recipe for data analysis

1.Association vs. Difference

2. Directional vs. Non Directional
Hypothesis types

Associations
There is a relationship between X and Y
X influences Y
The higher X is the lower Y will be
“celebrity brand ambassadors increase our willingness to buy”
Hypothesis types

Associations
There is a relationship between X and Y
X influences Y
The higher X is the lower Y will be
“celebrity brand ambassadors increase our willingness to buy”
TEST: Pearson Correlation, Spearman Correlation
Hypothesis types

Difference
X is higher than Y
There is a differences between X and Y
“People who smoke are friendlier than people who do not smoke.”
Hypothesis types

Difference
X is higher than Y
There is a differences between X and Y
“People who smoke are friendlier than people who do not smoke.”

TEST: T-test , ANOVA (3 or more groups)

 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
1 Potential Hypothesis:
Exposure to social media influences Self-Esteem INFLUENCE
 IV DV
Social Media Self-Esteem

Level of Exposure
Significance
Instragram Competence
Youtube Power
Virtue
3 Potential Hypothesis:
Those exposed to Instagram more have a lower level of Self-
Esteem than those exposed to youtube.
INFLUENCE
Do you remember the level of
measurements?
Data Analysis Methods & LOM
Statistical tests Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

Crosstabs nominal nominal

T-Test (independent) dummy interval
T-Test (paired) No IV/DV: all Variables interval

Anova nominal interval

Correlations (Pearson) interval interval
Correlations (Spearman) ordinal ordinal
Factor Analysis No IV/DV: all Variables interval

Regression Analysis interval/dummy interval

 MEASURE
BUILD
OPERATIONALIZE
YOUR VARIABLES
Mixed Methods
1. Sequential Explanatory
FOLLOWUP

Quantitative Qualitative Interpretation

Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and
analysis of qualitative data.
Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a
quantitative study.
2. Sequential Exploratory
BUILDING TO

Qualitative Quantitative Interpretation

Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase
of quantitative data collection and analysis.
Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and
testing a new instrument
3. Concurrent Triangulation

Qualitative Interpretation Quantitative

Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings
within a study. Data collection is concurrent.
Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with
the strengths of another.
Conclusion
oWhat are you SPECIFICALLY trying to learn about your topic?
oHow the concepts/ variables in your topic are related to each
other?
oSee differences between specific groups of people on a variable
of interest?
oHow phenomenon happens?
oThoughts, feelings and experiences of people regarding your
topic?
oWhat kind of study is most feasible to conduct?
oQuantitative : easier to conduct → require more participants
oLess time commitment from participants
oBuilding, measuring and operationalizing variables
oData analysis conducted quickly.
oQualitative: Intensive and time-consuming→ fewer
participants
oIn depth interviews, interview guideline, transcribed, reviewed and
coded.
References
1. Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research. 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010;
Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. 2nd edition. London: SAGE
Publications, 2010.
2. Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices. University of
South Florida.
Q&A