Education - and - Modernity - Amman Madan - Eng

Education and Modernity
Some Sociological Perspectives
Amman Madan
Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives
Author: Amman Madan
Illustrations: Abira Bandyopadhyay
Design: Ishita Debnath Biswas
Cover Design: Kanak Shashi
Editors: C N Subramaniam, Lokesh Malti Prakash
Text: Amman Madan

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Also available in Hindi as शिक्षा और आधुनिकता: कुछ समाजशास्त्रीय नज़रिए
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Contents
Preface 04
1. Introduction to the Sociology of Education 09
2. Education in Complex Societies 25
3. Education, the Growth of Markets and Social Conflicts 43
4. Capitalism and Education in India 61
5. Education through Formal Organisations 87
6. Modernity, Identity and Education 105

PREFACE
Education is expected to respond to its times. In a society

with increasing hatred between communities, we turn to
education as one process which can soothe bruised egos and
foster love for humanity. In a time when old occupations are fast
disappearing or no longer appear attractive, we expect education
to show a path to new ones. When the children of farmers move
to cities, they may find that the culture and values they were
familiar with no longer seem to be of any help to them, and we
turn again to education to help them learn the newer ways. There
are many deep dilemmas that people face today. Increasingly, we
find advertisements and consumerism telling us that the meaning
of life comes from a new mobile phone or the latest trend in
clothes. The desire to buy them motivates people to seek new
jobs, and even friendships are formed around a shared taste in
consumer goods. Education is called upon to take a stand on
these new trends as well.
This little book explores some of the basic changes happening

in our times and the questions they pose for education. Many
of the changes lead to an intense questioning of the older ways.
Many changes may also lead to new problems. This book may
4
help in understanding these changes better. It aims mainly to help
the reader grasp some of the key changes shaping this country
and the world. These are discussed with reference to education
and how they have influenced it, and also the new challenges
that they pose for education in India and other countries. The
three broad areas the book deals with are: (i) the emergence of
complex societies in today’s world, (ii) the impact of capitalism
and commodified exchange on society and education, and (iii)
the growing rationalisation and bureaucratisation of society and
education. Many social scientists consider these the three pillars
of a very important global trend, which is called the growth and
expansion of modernity. A number of today’s debates actually
rage around whether these are good or bad. Or whether they are
essentially beneficial but need to be done in a very different way.
The stands we take regarding these three themes deeply affect how
we see education and what to do in it. Getting a better understanding
of them therefore affects our actions and strategies in almost every
aspect of school and university education, and actually in the rest
of contemporary social life too.
While trying to introduce these basic questions of our times,

this book tries not to force answers or push a single ideologically
driven stance. Instead, it tries to indicate some of the different
kinds of solutions which people have sought. Undoubtedly, I
have my own stands and they continue to evolve and change.
I have tried not to let them dominate these pages. Perhaps an
emphasis on the issues and their dynamics rather than on
proposed solutions will be of more use to the reader. A grasp of
the changes and their dilemmas may better help readers think
and find their own directions and their own answers to the some
of the pressing issues of our times. Accordingly, I have tried
not to stress too much on finding just the single best solution to
every problem. To the reader who is used to hearing people say
that they have just the answer to everything, this may appear a
5
disconcerting style of writing. But I feel that presenting multiple
ways of seeing the world may be of more help in the long run.
This book is the first of a series that will introduce how sociology
and social anthropology look at education and its dilemmas in
today’s times to readers who have never studied these disciplines
before. Or perhaps who studied them only as subjects to pass
exams and not as sources of insight and guidance for everyday
life. This particular book initiates this series by talking about the
pillars of modernity and the opposition to them. But this is just
the beginning, sociology and social anthropology have much
more to offer to educationists. If the book sparks in the reader
a desire to read more of what various social scientists have had
to say about education in our times, then perhaps this will have
been worth the effort. It is not claimed here that social science
provides all answers to everything under the sun. However, the
reader may well find that using the theories and methods of
social science to investigate educational concerns throws light
on some of their very important dimensions.
The pages that follow are intended to be easy to read. The ideas
they contain, of course, are not all that easy. Indeed, some of them
will challenge many commonly held beliefs and perspectives and
may call for thought and a fresh look at the world around us. To
keep things simple very few references have been given within
the text. At the end of every chapter a small number of further
readings have been suggested. There is voluminous research
and writing on the themes of every chapter and the reader is
encouraged to look for more detailed expositions of the themes,
eventually. Here, many complex issues have been presented in a
simple and hopefully clear manner. This unavoidably means that
many aspects have been skipped or touched only in passing. If
this book were to fall into the hands of experts in this area they
would no doubt feel that many important things are missing in it.
6
However, the purpose has been to only provide an introduction,
not a complete and full study. It is hoped that this will serve
to invite the reader to explore sociology and anthropology of
education at greater length.
This book is about things which I have been talking about for
many years with participants of workshops at Digantar and with
my students at IIT Kanpur, TISS Mumbai and Azim Premji
University. I am grateful to all of them for continually challenging
me and for helping me see the world from their eyes as well.
It was N Venu who first persuaded me to seriously consider
writing a book like this, which non-sociologists could read. A
lot of the material here appeared initially in Hindi as a series of
articles in Shiksha Vimarsh, the periodical published by Digantar
from Jaipur. The invitation to write for it by the then editor
Vishwambhar Vyas forced me to get down to work. Eklavya’s
publications now offer a way of conveying these writings to a
wider audience. Advice from the Eklavya editorial team and its
reviewers has helped me to rewrite the original articles and try to
make them more accessible and well -rounded. I am particularly
grateful to CN Subramaniam and Lokesh Malti Prakash for this.
Ishita Debnath Biswas has given the book an elegant design
and Abira Bandyopadhyay’s passionate illustrations have made
many of the its ideas come to vivid pictorial life. I am grateful to
Alex M George for his ideas and suggestions on the illustrations.
Amman
Bengaluru, 18th November 2018
7
Introduction to
the Sociology of Education 1
It was an early winter morning, misty and cold. I was sitting
with a group of farmers wrapped in shawls, sipping hot tea. I
was trying to speak about my interest in understanding what
school meant to them, why they sent their children to study
in schools. One farmer contemptuously said “Education! It
is worthless, what can it do for us. Here, look at my son,”
he gestured towards an embarrassed lanky young man.
“Passing class tenth has made him useless. He thinks he is
too good for the village now. Neither can he work in the fields
any more and nor can he get a job in the town. What does
such an education mean to us!”
Developing countries like India are changing very rapidly.

New ways of life are emerging which need to be understood,
even if we do not always embrace them. We seem to be faced
with fresh and difficult questions at every turn. We ask ourselves
whether we should retain older traditions and, if so, which ones
to retain and which ones to discard. School and college education
do not teach us the old culture of our families and actually may
lead us into careers and values quite different from those of our
9
forefathers. On the other hand, there is a sense of unease about the
kind of values which education imparts and the tensions it creates
with the older ways. There is taking place a commercialisation
of society at large which appears to be weakening the bonds of
family and community. The better paying jobs often entail moving
to live far away from the family. There is a common complaint
that young people are becoming rash and disrespectful. They are
said to spend so much time on their mobile phones that they have
no time for the family. Most students are told to aim towards a
technical and professional education. It is said that that is where
the jobs are. At the same time, the promise of professional jobs is
fulfilled for only a small number of them. Agriculture stagnates
in most of India and education is seen as a way of escaping it.
Meanwhile, subjects like philosophy and the arts, which are
supposed to make people more sensitive and thoughtful, languish
for want of takers. Education is thus connected with many of the
basic dilemmas of developing countries. Women are saying that
they want to study and take up jobs and not just become dutiful
wives and mothers. Many communities are demanding more
education than they ever had in the past, but there are just not
enough jobs to go around.
The Importance of a Sociological Perspective

The way most people talk about education, it appears that
education is concerned mainly with psychological matters.
Discussions tend to be about what is happening within the
classroom or in the family. Efforts to improve education tend to
focus on how to do better teaching, how to write a more interesting
textbook and have more engaging classroom activities and so
on. I will try to suggest here that all of these and many more
educational issues are deeply affected by the character of society
and the changes taking place in it. A small scale unchanging
society, for instance, will have several educational goals that
10 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Social context of schooling
are different from those of a society that is very large and

complicated, and that is changing rapidly. As the anthropologist
Margaret Mead pointed out1, in an unchanging society the young
need to learn only what the old already know. Whereas in a fast-
changing society that is no longer enough and often the old may
benefit by learning from the young. The purpose and aims of
education are closely connected to the character of a society and
change with that character.
The sociological perspective is different from an individual or a

biological one. Perhaps that is what gives it its significance. To
take an example, a student who tops the board exam may believe
that it is because of her hard work and dedication, which are
personal, individual characteristics. She may also say she did
well because she loves her studies and finds them fascinating.
However, sociologists may add some explanations here that may
not have occurred to her. They may point out that she comes
Introduction to Sociology of Education 11

from a family and a social background where school education
is highly valued. Such families support the education of girls
and not just of boys alone. It would have been her family which
made it possible for her to go to a school that taught well. They
may have kept her away from housework and the traditional
activities of a girl, urging her to focus all her energies on studies
instead. Why was her family like this and not like many other
families in India? Sociologists trace that to where her family
may have been located and to a variety of sociological processes
like the class which her family belongs to, the culture of her
caste and her religion, the examples around her of women who
have followed careers other than that of home-makers, the
discussions and debates which have taken place over what it
means to be a woman in her school and community and so on.
Social background and educational achievement

Our board topper's achievement does rest on a biological
foundation in the sense that she is cognitively competent and not
malnourished or mentally disabled. But whether her biological
capacities get developed or not depend to a great degree on the
social environment in which she grows up and on the hard work
and initiative she herself puts in. The sociological aspects of her
life and her achievements need to be paid special attention to,
separately from her individual and biological characteristics.
Sociologists point out that the widespread belief that

educational achievements and learning are personal, individual
affairs is incomplete. There is a very considerable role that
society also plays in it. In 2009-10, only about 17 percent of
young Indians of college-going age were actually enrolled in
Relation between society, individual and biology

any kind of education after higher secondary. This means that
less than one out of five Indians got a higher education. Most
of the rest did not miss out on it because they made a purely
personal choice not to go to college or because they did not
have the biological brainpower to deal with it. The cause was
not primarily individual or biological. Instead, they did not go
to college largely because their families could not support them
to complete their schooling or their higher education, or did not
see any viable careers in their local environment from the kind
of schooling and college education that was available to them.
Or in case of girls, because it was thought that they don't need
too much education and so on. These are not purely personal
choices, but are shaped by the way different parts of the country
has developed and by the history of different communities
and classes. The chance that a child is born in an English-
speaking family in a city with large commercial and government
institutions almost guarantees college education for that child.
Whereas, the child of an agricultural labourer may have to work
extra hard and show exceptional commitment to be able to enter
even an ordinary college.
The sociological perspective has helped us in getting better

answers to many kinds of questions. However, it does not
give complete answers to the more important questions like,
‘what should be the ultimate goal of education in my society’,
because these usually need answers from various sources,
including philosophy and psychology, and not just sociology
alone. However, sociology has often contributed important
missing parts to the jigsaw puzzle of many such questions. Some
important questions that it has helped us answer include:
• Who does better in school? Every school classroom has

some children who learn faster and some who learn slower.
It is commonly said that fast learners are brighter than the

rest. Sociology disputes this. It is pointed out that when a
‘slow learner’ moves into another kind of school where she
gets special attention and support, she usually begins to learn
at a much faster rate. Doing better or worse at school seems
to be connected with one's social environment, the kind of
social group one comes from and also the kind of school
environment one gets.
• Who gets resources and support for education and who does
not? In today's India most children go to schools where either
little teaching takes place or it is done in a mechanical and inept
fashion. This is often said to be part and parcel of school life.
But we also see that many developed countries have gone far
ahead in providing a good education to most if not all their
Social class and access to higher education

children. Getting a competent education is not just the result of a
chance of getting a good teacher, but is also shaped by a variety
of social processes, including political movements in a country,
economic developments and social demands.
• What kind of education does a society want? In today's India

many students are told that only engineering and medicine
are worthwhile careers. However, a society which does not
have poets or statesmen or philosophers will start running
into very serious problems. Each of these latter careers also
calls for specialised training. Further, a complex society
with many communities living together also requires all of
its citizens to have a cultural education which will permit
them to be cooperative and live with each other. Across
most of human history, education has meant cultural rather
than technical learning. It is in certain social and historical
conditions that this emphasis has been reversed and the
significance of this reversal is still being debated. The aims
of education seem connected to history and to the structure of
a society rather than being eternal and fixed. Understanding
that particular society and the different pulls and tugs in it is
essential for formulating viable goals for its education.
I hope that the following chapters will add to such examples of

insights that the sociological perspective can give into education.
Defining Sociology
Definitions are often of little use. They are so short and terse
that they don't really help us much. It's like saying the film
Sholey is about catching a dacoit. Those who have seen it won’t
be satisfied with this description and those who haven't seen it
won't learn much about the movie from it either. Yet, it is good to
try to describe at the outset what the sociological perspective is.
Even though, like watching Sholey, many more and interesting
things will get added to the basic definition as we go along.

Basic to the sociological perspective. It is understanding people
not with reference to their individual self or biological body
alone, but with reference to their human environment. So, we try
to understand what happens in education, for instance, by asking
how it is influenced by different kinds of families, by changing
economic conditions, by communal hatred, by changing political
identities, by people's ideas about how to motivate other people
and so on. At the core of the sociological perspective is the idea
that individuals live not in isolation but within a certain kind
of social structure, which deeply influences their life in every
possible way. However, it is not that we are puppets, whose
strings are being pulled by society. We have the capacity to think,
reflect and choose. We may decide to be patient and caring in our
responses or we may choose to let go and become angry. These
choices affect how we act in a particular social context. We may
even get together to form associations or parties that change
that social structure and context. However, what we choose is
deeply influenced by the previous exposure we have had, which
is influenced by the place we are at within the social structure.
As Karl Marx once said2, we make our own history, but not in
the circumstances of our choice. Studying in an over-crowded
classroom, with a teacher who has never been exposed to a good
teacher-education institute, makes it more difficult for me to get
excited about learning maths. Sociology is thus the study of the
complicated interaction between individuals and social structures.
In a way, people have always been aware of society and its

importance for what we do. When the Arthashastra emphasised
that the happiness of the people was important for making a
kingdom stable, it was an awareness of social structure. It was
an awareness of the relationship between leaders and their
people and the power of the symbols and rituals that they were
the centre of. The sociological perspective though, is a greater
development and refinement of that early and basic awareness. It

will study the people to ask what exactly does happiness mean to
them. And how much unhappiness will they tolerate before they
try to topple the government? Further, it will also ask whether a
kingship is the only viable form of government and what are the
characteristics of other kinds of societies and their government
and so on. Sociology involves a systematic study of different
kinds of societies and not just an intuitive discussion of them.
Sociology and Common Sense

One reason why sociology is in demand and why people look to it
for insights is that life is becoming more and complicated. My own
experience is usually from my neighbourhood, and my family and
friends. That does not go beyond a few hundred people at the most.
Many things that influence my life come from sources that are far
removed from my experience. For instance, it happened in 2008 that
some American home loan companies and banks got too greedy and
triggered a collapse in the American financial system. The shocks of
that collapse quickly spread around the world and many people lost
their businesses and jobs, including my friend Salim in Bengaluru
who found himself sitting at home without any income. It was a tough
time for him and it is to his credit that he somehow managed to stay
out of a depression. But his being unemployed was largely not his
own fault. These were larger processes that were influencing his life.
If we take a view from our own little bubble of experience, we

would blame Salim for having lost his job. Only when we begin
to pay attention to the larger scenario are we able to see a more
real picture of what had happened. After all, the drama of Salim’s
life was only one small scene in the that larger theatre.
Similarly, the difficulty which students from rural areas face in

making an entry into urban schools can be understood differently
if one takes a sociological perspective. From the point of view

of teachers in the schools they come to, it may appear that these
students do not understand what is being taught or they just seem
disinterested. Sociologists however point to the fact that in Indian
schools the syllabus, textbooks, examinations and teachers are
all focused on getting white-collar jobs in cities. This makes the
schools most comfortable for those students who come from
families that are already in such jobs, and makes them alienating
and strange for students from other social backgrounds. This
realization changes the way we look at the problems being faced
by students from rural backgrounds. It is not possible to blame
them alone for what is a larger problem of a social system.
Our common sense understanding of many things is changed by

studying sociology. This is because our common sense draws from
the familiar and what we get to know through sources like the
media. However, sociology seeks to draw upon the basic approach
of science and tries to deliberately do a systematic study of what it
seeks to understand. It is self-conscious about the methods it uses and
evidence plays a very important role in the understanding it develops.
For instance, it is often said that Scheduled Caste (SC) and

Scheduled Tribe (ST) students are treated with hostility in the
IITs. S Srinivasa Rao wanted to check whether this was true
and if so, how this took place. He studied an IIT in 2005-6,
interviewing students, faculty members and staff.3 Through these
interviews and through personal observations, Rao outlined
certain processes that led to labels being applied to SC and ST
students. These led to discriminatory behaviour from at least
some individuals. For instance, some SC and ST students who
did not clear the IIT-JEE were given the option of joining a
Preparatory Course (PC) for one year. That title ‘PC’ became
a term of mockery in the IIT and seriously affected the way
students thought about themselves and their relationships with
others. As one student said to Rao:

It was our Physics class and we were meeting the teacher for the
first time. After the lecture, the teacher called for clarification of
doubts, if any, and I asked a question. Then the teacher instead of
answering it straight, he asked me another question in return, “You
don't know even this? Are you a PC student?” I felt humiliated and
insulted. Imagine, that was my first class and what kind of image
would I have before my fellow classmates. That time onwards, I
started hating his class and even physics. Now I don't want to be an
engineer. I will go into some other programme. (Rao, 2013: 210)
Rao has several more things to say about the IIT but for the
present it is sufficient to note his approach. He studied theoretical
works that helped him understand the impact of labelling on
students. He did not draw conclusions just from the books or from
his own previous understanding, but went out to systematically
study students and teachers in an actual educational institution.
Sociology looks for evidence

This emphasis on studying reality as well as on developing
concepts and theories regarding it is typical of sociology. In this
it is deeply influenced by the scientific tradition which relies on
studying reality and having ways to check that what we think
(ie, our theory) actually corresponds to what is happening in the
world. At the same time, it is not a science in the way, say, physics
is. So, it does not have laws like those spelt out by Newton
from which the trajectory of a thrown stone can be predicted.
Understanding how humans feel and the role society plays in that
seems to be too complicated a matter for easy predictions. Most
of all because we can reflect upon and change our directions.
Socialization: Becoming What We Are

A basic principle in sociology is that people are born more or
less like a blank slate and their person0ality, beliefs and
achievements are actually built through interaction with other
people around them. The human child is born so helpless that
she would not survive beyond a few days if there were no other
humans – ie, society – to take care of her. The story of Mowgli
who was raised by wolves is a delightful piece of fiction. The rare
individual who was found having survived through the support
of animals was found to lack almost all that we consider human
– the ability to communicate in a sophisticated and rich manner,
to make tools, to have a culture. We become human through
society. Many of the differences we find between people, though
not all, are also because of society. This makes very exciting the
study of why societies make it easier for people to be honest
or dishonest, how societies change, what are the different
components of a society that must change and so on. It also tells
us the great importance of education in human existence. It is
through education that human beings take up their character,
knowledge and their activities. Of course, education takes place
not only in schools but at many places in society.

Socialisation is the process by which human beings learn to be
members of a society. Clearly, this is not a simple and non-
controversial process. Some people may want socialisation to
create good slaves, submissive and unquestioning, while others
may want socialisation to create independent thinkers, who
actively question everything. What effect society has on the
kind of people we become and what effect the kind of people
Socialisation and the different forms it can take

we are has on society are amongst the important questions
that sociology raises. Sociologists tend to believe people have
enormous possibilities. Whether those possibilities get realised
or not is affected to a considerable extent by society along with
the hard and smart work which they themselves put in.
The Social Context of Education in India

As we go on, we shall look at the basic processes that shape the
sociological context of education in India. Understanding these
processes will help us understand what is affecting Indian education
and the challenges faced by it. Many of our daily problems and
dilemmas are actually connected to these processes. Hence, trying
to summarise these processes will give us a grip on a large range of
issues. Without claiming that this list is complete, I shall talk about
the following three processes:
1. Greater social complexity: Many more social groups are

having to live with each other and the suppression of one
by another is no longer an acceptable option. This is driven
by industrialisation as well as modern political systems.
Education is faced with the problem of nurturing cultures
that connect groups with each other, while at the same time
maintaining their autonomy and vitality.
2. Our changing system of production, exchange and

consumption: This influences the basic relationships which we
are a part of and is believed to be increasing commercialisation
and exploitation as well as dissolving many older systems of
domination. Capitalism is one force which is changing this
system, particularly in the form of globalisation. There are
also other voices in the fray, including the demand for the
primacy of morality and culture over profit and the impact of
a democratic political system. Education feeds people into this
process and is itself deeply influenced by it.

3. Growth of bureaucratic organisations: As societies and the
organisations within them become larger, they need to
change the way they work. An important form this takes
is in the growth of rules and impersonality of functioning.
Educational institutions express this change of form and so
do governments. Many of the central debates on education
are actually emerging from this shift.
These will be discussed in the chapters to follow.
References
1. Mead, Margaret, Culture and Commitment a Study of the Generation Gap, [1st
ed], Garden City, NY: Published for the American Museum of Natural History,
Natural History Press, 1970, p 1.
2. Marx, Karl, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, Moscow: Progress
Publishers, 1986 (originally published in 1852), p 96. (Also available online at:
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1346/1346-h/1346-h.htm)
3. Rao, S. Srinivasa, “Structural Exclusion in Everyday Institutional Life: Labelling
of Stigmatized Groups in an IIT,” in Sociology of Education in India: Changing
Contours and Emerging Concerns, Geetha Nambissan and S Srinivasa Rao, eds,
New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp 199–223.
Further Readings
●● Aikara, Jacob. 2004. Education: Sociological Perspective. Jaipur and New Delhi:
Rawat.
●● Bauman, Zygmunt. 1990. Thinking Sociologically. Oxford, OX, UK; Cambridge,
Mass., USA: B Blackwell.
●● Meighan, Roland, et al. 2007. Sociology of Educating. Continuum.

Education in Complex Societies 2
Education in India is standing today at the crossroads of
several kinds of social changes. These are influencing educational
questions in quite fundamental ways. The first process of change
that this series will examine is the shift from a simpler to a more
complex society, which is turning upside down many of our
cultural beliefs, values and practices. To see what this means and
why this is happening, let us start with some basic concepts in
sociology, like the notion that we live our lives through playing
certain roles within social structures. This fact of playing roles
in one kind of social structure and not in another is responsible
for shaping many of our most important thoughts and feelings.
Roles and Structures

At the heart of sociology is the observation that in our social
lives we have certain kinds of relations with other people. These
can be relations of love like those between myself and my
beloved, of hatred between me and those who try to dominate me,
of respect towards those whose work and ideas I admire and so
on. The character of learning in a school is shaped by the relations
between a teacher and his student. Some of these relationships in
25
a society change very quickly but others can be seen to have a
regular and established form. For instance, in a society there may
be those who produce food, those who distribute it and those
who consume it. Each of these are in a particular relationship
with each other. What we call roles are these relatively stable
relationships, in this case the role of the farmer, the vegetable
seller and the buyer, respectively. Sometimes, all the roles can
be combined into one person and sometimes they are different
roles. When they are combined there is no chance of exploitation
Complex societies

The character of learning in schools is shaped by teacher-student relations
or oppression. But when they are separate, that is where the

possibility of oppression can, in principle, but not always, exist.
For instance, a farmer may feel exploited because she gets only
a small amount of money whereas the vegetable seller is making
a huge profit. There can be many other kinds of roles too in a
society. The kinds of roles and the kinds of relationships in a
society can be seen as the structure of that society and there can
be several such kinds of structures in it.
Structures of roles have a great effect on our lives. The

experience of a student and a teacher in one kind of social
structure may be very different from what they would have
experienced in another kind of social structure. For instance, in
a certain kind of social structure the teacher may appear to be
like an older family member, guiding the learner through love
and emotion. But in another kind of social structure the teacher
is like a bureaucrat, channelising the student's learning through

rules and regulations written in a rulebook. Different societies
may have contrasting structures or even different schools within
the same kind of society. The student who moves from one to
the other immediately realises that ‘something’ has changed.
In one kind of school there may be a flat structure with a lot
of blurring of roles between the administration, teachers and
students, leading to personal warmth and lots of space for
personal variations. Where there is a hierarchical structure with
strict separation of roles, it is possible that relationships may be
more impersonal and focused on a distant ideal of excellence.
Sociological concepts help students, teachers and administrators
to see what the difference is and also help to weigh the pros and
cons of each structure.
Industrialism and Complex Societies:

Challenges for Education
Education has a very close connection with the social structure
of the society it exists in. One of the early sociologists, Emile
Durkheim (1857-1917) spelt out some basic contours of changes
happening in contemporary times and the educational issues
they threw up, focusing on the theme of industrialism and the
transformations it was leading to in society. He distinguished
between a simple social structure at one extreme and a complex
social structure at another extreme, with many shades in between.
He said that relatively more complex societies had their own
special kinds of conditions and problems which needed us to
think afresh about what how to do things in them. In a simple
social structure, there were relatively few roles and even the
size of a self-contained social unit was small. In societies like
hunting-gathering bands or many tribal communities practising
light agriculture, the entirety of social experience was made up
of a small number of roles played out within a not very large
group of people. A hunting-gathering band usually had no more

The shift towards role specialisation
than a hundred odd people and they performed the entire span of
social roles – from producer to consumer to teacher to student.
It was common that the same person performed more than one
major role. At the other extreme we have industrial societies
where the number of roles has exploded. Roles have become so
sophisticated that it takes many years to learn how to play just
one well. This has led to a narrowing down and specialisation of
roles. The scale at which social life is lived has moved from small
to gigantic with many layers and groups now inter-connected
with each other. The very nature of social existence has changed
into something quite different with the increase in numbers and
complexity, and the tasks of education have also changed.

Consider a simple thing like crossing a road. In front of the place
where I work these days there is a huge road that seems to flow
like a vast, noisy rushing torrent. It is very crowded since it leads
to an important economic centre where lakhs of people work.
Tens of thousands of vehicles cross back and forth every day.
Industrialisation, new technologies, specialisation of activities in
particular places has created this situation. If the road had just been
leading down a residential part of a village, the traffic would have
been much, much less. There would have been no need for traffic
rules and it would have hardly mattered if one walked on the right
side or even in the centre of the road. But those habits would have
led to immediate injury or even something worse on this highway.
To prevent accidents and traffic jams, there are strict rules for
where to drive and where to walk, and even where to stop. Special
people called traffic policemen stand at strategic points to scold
and sometimes fine those who do not follow those rules.
When I stand and watch people at the crossroads, I can make

out who is a recent arrival to this complicated new world and
who is an old hand, now skilled at dealing with it. The new
entrant is bewildered and not sure where to head, when to move
and where to stop. He looks harassed and tense and speaks of
how awful this enormous city is. But the person who has been
living here for a while knows where to slow down and where to
speed up. Drawing from the habits which come from a small-
scale village environment, he tries to go through wherever he
gets the opportunity, at times even causing traffic snarls and
jams in his wake. He is tense and finds the experience trying and
something to be made as short as possible. The most experienced
hand, though, looks relaxed as she smoothly traverses through
the rush. She has found that following the traffic at an easy pace is
the most convenient thing to do and when stopped by a red light,
instead of trying to find some way to sneak through and fuming
and fretting, she turns off her engine and thinks of the interesting

things she is planning for the rest of the day. The ways of dealing
with a complex society are quite different from those needed in a
simple society. Simply carrying on with the older ways in the new
context may often not work. It becomes necessary to think afresh
about how to do even elementary things like crossing a road. One
of the things we would expect of education today is that it teaches
the ways of a complex society to the younger generation. We want
to teach them a culture that is appropriate for such a social structure.
Shifting from Particularistic to Universalistic Cultures

Our culture is an important and indeed an essential part of our
social life. We inherit it through learning and ourselves create and
modify it as well. By culture we usually mean the ideas, beliefs,
values, attitudes and practices that we think, feel and do every
day. Culture makes up the fabric through which we communicate
and make meaning for each other, including how to cope with
traffic on the road and the many little things which make up the
business of our daily life. It also suggests to us how to make
sense of and respond to the biggest questions of our age like how
to deal with social oppression or how to interact with strange,
markedly different cultures. Our culture is usually not as unique
as we like to believe it is. Cultures across the world share many
common elements and may also have significant differences. It is
often difficult to draw the boundary between where one culture
ends and the other starts. For instance, while it may be possible to
draw a political boundary, it is impossible to really draw a cultural
boundary to show where Maharashtra ends and Karnataka begins
or for that matter even where Pakistan or Sri Lanka ends and India
begins. There are many shared cultural beliefs, ideas, practices,
languages, phrases and so on that spill over from one to the other.
At a deeper level, we can observe a gradual shift in cultures

which seems to parallel the shifts in social structures from
simpler to more complex societies. Where simple societies may

highlight personal, family-based relationships and prize them the
most, as societies become more complex, relationships in non-
family situations become more important. Here, many changes
in culture can emerge. The sense of who I am, for instance, can
come more out of what school I studied in and what work I do at a
factory or office or farm, rather than from my family and its own
unique history. This is often called a shift from particularistic
to the direction of universalistic cultures. In cultures that are
oriented more towards the particular, most important roles deal
with small social networks, with ‘particular’, known people. In
such a society, for instance, I may be an uncle of my brother's
and sister's children and also of my cousins' children and it may
be my duty as an uncle to educate all my nephews and nieces.
Whenever there is someone else who may want to learn from me,
I may teach them too, but the most important people around me
expect me mainly to focus on those who are related to me. In a more
Similarity and difference in culture

universalistic society, I take up a job as a teacher and am now in a
school that expects me to teach anyone who wishes to learn. There
is a great deal of emphasis that I am not supposed to focus only on
my relatives. Instead, it is considered very important that I do not
discriminate between my own niece and those whom I do not know
at all. Nepotism (favouring relatives) begins to be a bad word.
The gradual movement towards more universalistic societies is

typical of complex structures since they now need to connect
many more people together. How exactly this happens may
take different models in different places, but there does seem
to be a cultural shift towards accepting the equality of all and
of saying that justice must be for all, not just my community or
my relatives. These universal principles may be more developed
in certain places and less in others, facing resistance from those
who still have the culture of small-scale societies and whose
power and wealth comes from such social structures. For
instance, those elected representatives who benefit from the
social networks of their jati try to keep those networks strong
by favouring their jati-members. Social inequality and injustice
may also surface in new forms, with class inequality becoming
a prominent aspect of complex societies instead of an inequality
between small disparate communities. Workers of different
regions, languages and castes who flocked to cities found that
they actually had a great deal in common with each other. They
found it expedient to come together and press for better wages
and working conditions. Of course, it is not necessary that this
movement from particularism to universalism always takes place
and you can even find in history complex societies like the Indus
Valley Civilization collapsing and moving to simpler small-scale
village life again. Or casteism and racism may carry on in a less
visible manner than previously. Workers of different linguistic
groups could form separate groups and begin to distrust and
compete with each other.

Mechanical, contractual and organic solidarity
Emile Durkheim pointed out in The Division of Labour in

Society (1893) that the shift to cultures of complex societies
does not come easily. Even though kinship-based relationships
become less important (they never disappear), and new groups
form and emerge. These societies could still have many forms
of domination which feed frustration and rage. One group may
oppress others or its members may feel that they themselves are
the only good people and everyone else is inferior and uncivilized
or worth being spurned and rejected in some way or the other.
Complex societies need many things to survive, important
amongst which is a sense of bonding or solidarity for them to
hold together. This solidarity is needed even in simple, small-
scale societies, where it gets created by everyday interactions
and festivals. The simple form of solidarity was described by

Durkheim as mechanical solidarity which rests on emotional and
fraternal feelings that come out of direct face-to-face interactions.
The creation of solidarity, however, is a much more complicated

thing in a complex society. Here, different kinds of people do not
usually interact every day with each other. Contemporary complex
societies have different specialised groups like factory workers,
doctors, teachers and so on and they tend to interact more within
themselves than with the others. In countries like India, which
have so many different languages, religions and communities,
the difficulties in creating solidarity are vast. Tamilians may
believe they are quite different from Gujaratis and Kannadigas,
while people from Mizoram may get a cold reception when they
travel to Delhi. The problem for such societies is always how to
create a sense of bonding across all of their many different parts.

One way to maintain a sense of connectedness is through links
of mutual needs and through exchanges of goods in the market.
Durkheim called this market-based unity a contractual solidarity,
but said that it did not lead to a strong and lasting bond. The
market alone led to very fragile relationships, since whenever a
better deal was to be had, contracts could be snapped and new
contracts made. No society could last if relationships were so
insecure and temporary. Instead, he said, for complex societies to
hold together they needed an organic solidarity, that rested on a
culture which could reach out to all different kinds of social groups
and divisions. By the term ‘organic’ Durkheim was drawing an
analogy between the way societies had many inter-related groups
and communities and the way plants and animals also had many
organs which were connected to each other. The well-being and
coordinated functioning of all the parts of a plant were necessary
for it to survive and thrive. While the analogy of a plant should
not be drawn too far, all the different groups within a society also
had to get their space and feel they were getting justice and at the
same time were able to feel the joys and benefits of being inter-
connected. An organic solidarity for Durkheim meant a culture
that helped people to feel emotionally connected with each other
and this could only be possible if they did not feel that they were
being taken advantage of or being pushed into a corner.
Many sociologists have argued that an important task for schools

is to build this sense of bonding between different groups, regions
and communities. The school is a place where children of different
social backgrounds came to learn about a wider world. It is here
that a culture of organic solidarity could be created. For this reason,
people like Durkheim argued that the state had a special role in
guiding schools. If schools were run by one community or by one
social class then it would tend to give only the perspective of that
group. A culture that was dominated by one region or religion or
group could not provide an organic solidarity. It would fail to hold

people together as they would resent the impositions being made on
them. A democratically elected state was an institution which had
the participation of all groups and was a universal body connecting
everyone. It was the state, therefore, which had to ensure that a
suitable organic culture was built and the main responsibility of
deciding what was to be taught could not be entrusted in the hands
of this group or that. Of course, that meant that the state itself had
to be democratic and fair, giving space to different points of view
and finding an accommodation between them.
Individualism, Social Differences and Education

Durkheim and many other sociologists believed that in highly
complex societies it was inevitable that people became more
individualistic. Small-scale societies prize a sense of collective
identity and of feeling part of a family and community. But as
societies become larger in scale and people have to deal with
very diverse situations which their parents may never have
encountered, it is advantageous for them to withdraw from some
of their community bonds. For example, many students may
have to travel and live in hostels away from their families. It is
important that they feel that they can manage on their own and
not keep running back home for emotional support and guidance.
If a student were to keep doing that and drop classes to rush
back for every festival which celebrates togetherness at home,
then he or she would lose a lot of opportunities to learn and
would remain at a low level of proficiency. While the emotion
of bonding with the family is laudable, in complex societies it
is desirable that young people also learn to live and work by
themselves. Similarly, it is necessary that they learn to think for
themselves. The more sophisticated roles of complex societies
call for people to make independent assessments of their work
and quick knowledgeable decisions. This means that students
are expected to be self-reliant and not afraid of coming to

decisions which are different from the majority. Individualism is
an asset for complex societies, making people more flexible and
enterprising in their actions.
Individualism does not come without its dangers. It is possible

for people to be part of one culture and also be pulled in another
direction by another culture. A student might find himself drawn
to going out to party every evening with his friends and also find
himself wanting to stay at home to engage with some exciting new
ideas which were taught at school. The struggle to choose between
competing cultural systems could be a painful one. Durkheim used
the term anomie to describe the pains of this struggle. A person
being pulled into two directions through competing networks of
meanings, values and practices could find herself sinking into
a depression. Unable to face her friends and their expectations
on one side and her teachers and family on the other, a person
may be driven into great anxiety and despair. The dharmasankat
Benefits of individualism

(dilemma of values) which Indian writings talk about points to
precisely this kind of crisis. According to Durkheim, anomie
could be responsible for many problems, like the drunkenness
with which migrant workers try to overcome the hollowness in
their lives. It might even be responsible for extreme actions like
suicides. An unresolved conflict of norms and cultures could be
very painful indeed. On the other hand, anomic states of mind,
can also be very creative, leading people to be innovative and find
new solutions and new ways to behave. A person unhappy with a
state of affairs may want to find or build alternatives. The teacher
who feels miserable about the conflict between the norms of her
school and her own friends’ norms of how to deal with children
may find a burst of energy that will push her out of her comfort
zone into doing something fresh. She may make a decisive attempt
to communicate new ideas to her administration and change the
way teaching is conventionally done.
Among the other consequences of the emergence of complex

societies is that over the centuries we have seen many countries
emerge which are huge in size, with many hundreds of millions
of people. They all face the challenge of how to get people to feel
togetherness and an organic solidarity. Some have responded
by asserting the culture of one community or region over the
rest, while some others have taken a more diffused approach.
Education has been central to all of them in their strategy of
building a cohesive society. All of them face the problem that an
organic solidarity only works when their people believe in the
justice of their society.
Culture and Identity in Complex Societies

Individualism may be beneficial for complex societies and is
undoubtedly growing in today’s India. At the same time, culture
and identity still remain important for people even in the largest,

Expanding circles of identity
most complex societies. People find comfort and a sense of

continuity in their cultures. Consider how this influences
marriages and the formation of families. As individualism
grows, young people no longer find themselves satisfied with
whatever makes their families happy. In ‘arranged marriages’ the
joy which two families got in becoming one got carried over
to the relationship between the groom and the bride, too. The
happiness of their families was the key to their happiness with
each other as well. In times like ours, as students go to far away
colleges to study, they no longer depend only upon their families
for their identity and for the meaning of what they do. Their
culture, the symbols of achievement, of relaxation, of joy are

no longer the same. They seek companions for themselves who
share their new culture. It is indeed a growth of individualism,
but it cannot be said that culture does not matter. The sources of
culture are what have changed. The meanings and rituals of their
life now come from their academic and work life, from urban life
and from the media.
Culture and cultural differences remain very important even in

complex societies, belying the prediction of some social scientists
of the last century who thought a new universal culture would
automatically emerge. Culture, however, now comes from larger
circles and is no longer as localized as it used to be. Whereas a
couple of centuries ago, the speakers of Bhojpuri had little access
to the printed word, today they have become speakers of Hindi
or Hindustani and are part of a huge population that reads similar
newspapers and watches Bollywood movies. Bhojpuri is rarely
taught in school and many wonder whether Bhojpuri literature
has a future. There is, however, also a contrary trend of the rise of
Bhojpuri cinema and music that competes with Bollywood. The
circles of culture have grown much larger, but the culture one is
most familiar with still has a hold over one’s heart. When a Hindi
speaker wants to sing of love, it is Hindi and Urdu poetry that she
turns to, not the English she may be using every day in school or
at work.
One of the challenges that a complex society faces is that of

bringing many cultures together. This is one of our expectations
from education in today’s age. We want it to bring diverse people
and cultures together in a country and help them feel connected with
each other and not just with their family networks. We also want
them to feel deeply a sense of humanity that cuts across narrow
national boundaries and that enables them to feel the joys and
sorrows of people around the world. These are all the demands of
our historical era, of this time of increasingly complex societies.

One set of sociologists called functionalists have been
particularly interested in how societies cohere and survive.
In other words, how different parts and aspects of a society
‘function’ to keep that society thriving. Emile Durkheim, Talcott
Parsons and MN Srinivas are examples of such sociologists. A
typical interest of such sociology is how education and culture
can help complex societies to stay together and deal with their
problems. However, it is also true that societies have many
internal tensions and conflicts. In the next chapter we will look at
the conflicts in society, particularly those which come out of our
changing economy and the educational questions which these
conflicts raise.
Further Readings
●● Madan, Amman. 2010. “Emile Durkheim on Moral Education.” Contemporary
Education Dialogue, vol. 7, no. 2. pp 225–48.
●● Ramanujan, AK. 1989. “Is There an Indian Way of Thinking? An Informal Es-
say.” Contributions to Indian Sociology, N.s. 23, no 41, pp 41–58.
●● Saberwal, Satish. 1996. Roots of Crisis: Interpreting Contemporary Indian
Society. New Delhi: Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.

Education, the Growth of Markets
and Social Conflict 3
Several deep-rooted sociological processes affect education

in India. In this chapter, we will focus on the growth of markets
and the practice of exchanging goods and services through the
relationship of buying and selling. This is not just an economic
change but a social and cultural one, too. We are seeing a shift
43
of many relationships which were guided by non-monetary
considerations into relationships in which money and its exchange
are much more important. With these, we can see changes
in the daily experience of teaching and learning as well as in
the content and objectives of education, and how schools and
colleges are organized. It is important to examine the character
of this shift and some of the questions it raises. Privatization of
education is a much discussed and controversial topic nowadays.
Sociologists argue that it is not just a superficial adjustment in the
way education is done, but part of a much bigger transformation
happening in Indian society. The direction we choose to move in
will have far-reaching implications.
Exchange and Relationships

At the heart of all this is the kind of relationships which we express
through our exchanges. Agricultural labourers and craftspersons, for
instance, not so long ago used to work for an annual fixed amount
of agricultural produce which the owners of land would give them.
They might be given food to eat when they visited the house of
the landowner and were often considered part of the family, even
if they were usually considered to be lower in rank than others. Of
course, it was not uncommon that they were exploited and even
beaten or sexually abused. But alongside that were cultural beliefs
of being the loyal servants of the landowners and the latter believed
that they had a moral and religious duty to take care of those who
depended on them. Education tended to be something which mainly
the bigger landowners and traders received and among other things
it also taught this cultural way of relating with the workers. This
was a kind of 'production relation’ as it created a certain way of
producing various things which people wanted.
Work was through a set of personal relationships, intended for

one's family or for one's master with whom there was a traditional

Feudal and market forms of labour
relationship of subservience, even if the master often abused and

mistreated one. Such production relations, which were embedded
in a web of cultural meanings, have shifted away into a set of
relationships where the primary element is now a payment of a
wage in the form of money. The idea of money has, of course,
existed for many centuries, but over the last couple of centuries
or so it has become the main medium of exchange. Workers
in agricultural farms are now paid mostly in wages and not in
kind and this can in many situations be the main focus of their
relationship with the land owner.
The ways in which goods and services are exchanged and how
consumption takes place has undergone drastic change.
Education, the Growth of Markets and Social Conflict 45

Commodified exchange in education
Anthropologists and sociologists often follow Karl Polanyi

(2001/1944) in saying that there are three basic ways in which
goods and services like food as well as teaching may be
exchanged in various societies: through reciprocity, redistribution
and commodification. There can be many shades of these, but let
us talk about them in a simple way for the moment. It is when
goods and services are treated as commodities that their value
is measured in terms of money and they are bought and sold
through markets. Markets are places where an explicit and open
display of goods for exchange takes place, where those who
want to sell and those who want to buy by giving something in
exchange gather to negotiate and conclude deals. Nowadays,
markets mostly use money as the way of measuring the value
of goods, but as in the barter system this may not always be the
case. Markets are influenced by the supply of goods and the
demand for them. Markets have an important effect on the value
which something like teaching holds, since the money paid for

it will depend upon how much supply there is of teachers and
what kind of demand there is for them. Importantly, there is a
lot of emphasis on measurement and on calculating in terms of
numbers and money how much different amounts of teaching
will be worth. For example, teachers who are much sought after
for coaching classes may charge Rs 5000 or even more per
student. Their rates are decided by the demand for such teachers
and the amount of money which their clients can possibly pay.
Similarly, teachers in international schools may earn up to and
more than one lakh per month. This is because teachers with the
appropriate knowledge are few and also because the families
who send their children to such schools can afford to pay large
amounts. So, teaching of different kinds is equated with different
amounts of money.
In exchanges that are characterised by reciprocity, however,

things are not measured in terms of their money worth. Nor
Education as a gift

may there be an open and obvious bargaining of what is to be
exchanged for an item. Instead, the emphasis is on goods being
exchanged as the expression of certain relationships. For instance,
if someone is a good person or a good sister then on certain
occasions one gives some gifts to show how one feels and how
one respects such a person. Giving a gift of, say, a sari to one's
cousin is done to cement certain relationships (or sometimes to
tease other relatives, too). There may be other saris or salwar-
kameez received from them in turn. While some sense of the
relative worth of the gifts is important, they are not usually seen
as a gift with money worth alone. Instead, they are an exchange
which has a cultural and traditional meaning and may be given
or even withheld with such meanings in mind. These exchanges
are not just gestures but may make up a way of getting many
of our basic needs. However, the idea of a careful measurement
and exact payment for services is alien to this kind of exchange.
People would be horrified if, for instance, we were to give a gift
by haggling to say that if you become a 10 per cent better friend
then I shall give you a gift worth 10 per cent more.
Teaching is often seen as such an activity, a gift of reciprocity,

not measured in terms of money value but an expression of
relationships. In many parts of India, till recently, often schools
were run with teachers who would be given a small amount of
money by a local rich person to teach children. This was the
common pattern of education for most of medieval India. Usually,
that money was seen more as an honorarium and less as a wage
and teachers were supposed to be teaching not for the money but
for the satisfaction of educating. It was common for students to
also give gifts to the teacher, but these were not payments in the
commodity or market sense, measures of what his services were
worth. Instead, they were mainly gestures of respect and love.
That they might end up keeping the fires burning in the teacher's
house may be true, but was morally incidental. Teachers were

believed to be teaching primarily for cultural reasons and not to
make money. Many teachers did this work seeking the respect
and satisfaction of teaching, though there must have also been
many for whom the gifts and honoraria were quite important to
keep body and soul together.
Redistribution is also an important form of exchange of goods

and services. It is not about a direct exchange of goods and services
and may or may not take place through money. It is guided instead
Education as redistribution

by cultural or political objectives. The landlord who sponsored a
village school for instance would have been getting a large amount
of grain or other foodstuff as his annual rent from many tenants in
his region. He ‘redistributes’ a small part of this to the teacher. His
giving a part of that to the Guruji indirectly returned that grain to
many other families in the form of learning. Redistribution led to
an increase of the prestige of the landlord in the eyes of the people.
It might also give him greater political weight. Not least would
have been to ensure that the teacher did not talk about questioning
the place of landlords in that society.
The Disembedding of Social Relationships

Reciprocity and redistribution are very much with us even in
contemporary times. This pattern, that exchanges are actually part
of certain social and cultural relationships is called embeddedness.
Most sociologists and anthropologists would say that we are now
seeing a distinct shift towards another kind of exchange, called
commodity exchange, which occurs through markets and money.
Karl Polanyi called this the ‘disembedding’ of society, though
of course this did not mean a complete and total shift like from
black to white. Instead, we are seeing a shifting in the shades of
relationships. Disembedding refers to the fact that the use of money
makes it much easier to move people and resources around.
The use of money has many advantages in exchange. Consider,

for instance, a situation where I have a large ripe watermelon
and want to exchange it for two litres of milk. My friend Zafar
may want that lovely, delicious looking watermelon but does
not have any milk to exchange it with, having only a sack of
wheat instead. But I don't want wheat, I want milk! Suresh,
who lives nearby, does have the milk but is not interested in my
watermelon. What he wants is wheat. We are all stuck. The slow
growth of the use of money gave a solution to problems like
ours. We could convert our respective wheat, watermelon and

Barter and money-based exchange

milk into money, which everybody was happy to accept. With
the use of money various exchanges began to flow in a smoother
and faster manner. The term ‘disembedding’ refers to a shift from
relationships and exchanges which were stuck in a thick, sticky
base syrup of social relationships, into an exchange which is now
free of many such constraints and restraints. This has led to many
advantages and perhaps some disadvantages as well.
In the case of the agricultural workers whom we met at the

beginning of this chapter, it has changed drastically the character
of their relationships and experience of life. Earlier, they were
expected by tradition to serve certain households and receive
subsistence in the form of grain and festive gifts from them. This
traditional relation is now receding. Now most of them receive
money instead of grain. At many places, with the emergence of
labour markets labourers can negotiate with different potential
employers, and they now have alternative sources of livelihood,
too. This is leading to a rapid weakening of the cultural bonds
between employers and workers. The bond between the worker
and his or her employer now basically stops with the obligation to
pay a wage and does not go far beyond that. When searching for
work at other places, having an education can make a good deal of
difference. It can give workers cultural values and technical skills
which are in demand amongst employers. Education can play a
key role in helping them access new sources of employment and
get into different relationships at work.
Agricultural workers are often from the scheduled castes and with the
growth of labour markets it is common to find them choosing quickly
to move to the city, away from the old stigma of being subservient to the
farming families of their village. As many people say, it is better to pull a
rickshaw in the anonymity of the city than to have to work with a lower
status and have to grovel before the big farmer of the village.

From Caste to Customer
Sometime in the year 2003, I was sitting and chatting with some
older boys and young men at Jasalpur village in Madhya
Pradesh. They were from the scheduled castes and we were
near their homes, which were in the periphery of the village. In
most villages I visited, the scheduled castes lived in one corner
towards the outside of the village. Since we knew each other for
a couple of years now we were able to talk about the delicate
and embarrassing question of how the upper castes of the village
treated them. They told horrifying stories of how they were still
not allowed into the courtyards of their own classmates' homes.
When they visited their upper-caste friends, they were either not
offered tea or if at all offered, it would be served in a cracked
cup. Troubled by their tales, I looked towards the main road

passing through the village and noticed what is locally called a
‘taxi’ there. It is a door-less canvas covered jeep, which picked
up passengers for a small payment, stuffing up to 15 people into
a vehicle built for seven. The public transport buses came by after
long gaps of time and it were these taxis which served to move
people between the villages and towns of that region. “But,” I
said, observing a taxi operator cramming two more people into
his vehicle, “people are virtually sitting one on top of the other in
that taxi. How can the owners of the taxi accept scheduled caste
passengers? How can all the passengers sit so close to each other?”
The young men grinned and said that when the taxis first began
to operate here they would not stop in front of the Harijan basti.
They would stop only in front of the temple in the upper caste
part of the village. They would be reluctant to take the scheduled
caste passengers. But then the number of taxis began to increase
gradually and they began to run half-empty. That's when they
started stopping here too, in front of the Harijan basti. And now
there is such a heavy demand for seats that if anyone objects to
a scheduled caste person getting in, the driver curtly invites the
objector to just get off.
I told my friend this story later, and he gave a laugh. “For the
driver they were no longer scheduled castes, they were only
grahaks now, customers and nothing else,” he chuckled.
The taxis and the buses plying on that road were very important for
making schools an attractive place. It was through these vehicles
that young men had begun to go to the nearby town to work. For
many children and their parents this possibility of new sources of
employment led to redoubling the desire to seek a good education.
The character of markets is changing, too, from the informal

bazaars of villages and towns to the highly organized and
regulated markets which keep goods with detailed product

Objectives of education
descriptions and guarantees that what you think you are buying
is actually what you get. In a bazaar or an unregulated market
one had to be quite careful about what one was buying and
whom it was being bought from. Both buyers and sellers tried to
pull whatever advantage they could get from a deal. Information
about the quality of a good was scarce and could be the basis of a lot
of manipulation. People therefore preferred to buy through known
vendors and relied mainly on personal and family connections for
ensuring the quality of goods. In contrast, most online internet
based stores now give you full details of a product and immediately
take it back if you get a piece that is different from what had been
advertised. Standardization of goods calls for a big jump in how one
works and the kinds of relationships through which work is done.
Education and Commodification

All these developments have had a tremendous impact on the
education system. Until the last century or so, education had
mainly a cultural role and did not mean much in the labour market,
except for a handful of people who became priests or were from

families that acted as clerks and
officials for medieval landlords and
kings. An important shift is that
gradually more and more people
now are seeking to sell their labour
to earn a living. Education is now
much more important in getting them
employment. Today, an important
expectation from education is that
it will help people get a position
through the labour market. This
shift towards disembedded societies
is transforming the role of education
in quite fundamental ways. About
50-75 years ago, for many people
in India the main role of education
was to give an exposure to higher
cultures. So they would read the
classics in literature, the scriptures
and some astronomy and other such
knowledges which were believed to
give them a more cultured outlook.
Today, this must now struggle with
the goal of getting a job which will
give more money and status and
sometimes power as well. This
shift in the purposes of education is
closely connected with the changing
structure of society.
The changes being wrought by the

marketisation and commercialisation
or commodification of society are
very far-reaching and have had

mixed consequences. By commodification we mean conversion
of goods and services into a form which can be exchanged
through markets and money. Many exchanges do not take
this form, for instance, the way a family provides food for its
members and its members give and return love and care to each
other. People would be horrified if we tried to put a money value
to these. Commodification of societies means that many things
which were earlier not part of a market system are now becoming
part of it. Sometimes, this liberates and gives greater freedom
and sometimes it throws people into a situation where they feel
strangled by market forces and there is no cultural support in
case things go wrong. The implications of these social changes
for education are tremendous in terms of what should now be
taught in schools, whose benefit schools should aim for and what
the purpose of education is, after all.
Impact of the market on education

You are poor
because ofpoor
You are your
because
own fault!
of your own fault!
An important dimension of markets is that they tend to give

more buying power to those with more money. In one sense,
people are made equal, but in another sense now the difference
is in terms of who can influence the market more. Among the
questions which the growth of commodification and markets
raises for education is whether it is okay if people with more
money have a greater influence on education. For instance,
education must ask whether it seeks to respond to the demands
and needs of those with a great deal of money or to those with
little money. These two sections of society may have quite
different educational wants. Having a syllabus which teaches the
knowledge which the rich want may make no sense to the poor.
For instance, many big companies may only be interested in the
teaching of computer science in engineering colleges. However,
this may not be of much use to the poor, who may benefit more
if civil engineering and how better roads and infrastructure
is built is taught. Or the poor may benefit from a kind of
mechanical engineering and electronics which will improve the

manufacturing that occurs in small factories and workshops.
These may not be the priorities of the highest paying jobs and
hence the kind of knowledges which are beneficial to the poor
may have few people wanting to learn them.
There are other problems too in allowing only markets to decide

what education should do. It may even be dangerous for the
poor if they are taught to blindly accept whatever the rich and
powerful are doing and not learn to raise questions on them.
An important thing which many Indians believe we must learn
to do is how to protest against wrongdoing and put pressure to
get justice and fair dealing. This, too, is something which many
powerful people (though not all) may be very uncomfortable
Causes of poverty

with. Commodification of education may thus raise several
important questions.
Another change coming up with commodification is that the

relation between teachers and parents and students threatens to
become like that between a salesperson and her clients. So the
school may be seen as a business enterprise and teachers become
service staff in the same ways as insurance agents working for an
insurance company are service staff. This drastically changes the
relation between teachers and students. Teachers are basically
delivering a service which is standardized by the management.
There is little space here for teachers to be thinkers, helping
students to interpret the world or think about it in a creative
manner. This pushes us away from the model of a teacher as an
intellectual, who is in a relation of gift-giving and reciprocity
with students. It also draws us away from the school as a site of
redistribution, which does not take as much as it gives, spreading
wealth – in the broader sense of wealth – from one place where
it is concentrated to another which lacks it.
Markets may dissolve some conflicts and also create new

conflicts in society in place of the old. The growth of markets
as a model of relationships in education raises many questions
which deserve careful scrutiny.
Further Readings
●● Granovetter, MS and Swedberg, R, eds. 1992. The Sociology of Economic Life.
Boulder: Westview Press.
●● Polanyi, K. 2001. The Great Transformation. Boston: Beacon Press. (Originally
published in 1944).
●● Wilk, RR. 1996. Economies and Cultures: Foundations of Economic
Anthropology. Boulder: Westview Press.

Capitalism and Education in India 4
The growth of commodified exchange has drastically changed
the relationships in which we live and has had a great impact on
the meaning of education in our times. The social relationships
which education must address and the meanings of every day life
within educational institutions, all are affected by this. One way
of understanding how our relationships are getting redefined is
by examining the growth of capitalism in India.
What is Capitalism?
Capitalism raises some quite fundamental questions for what
education should say or do in a society. A classic nineteenth
century interpretation of what capitalism meant for human
existence came from Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx characterised
the basic transition of human society in his times as being a
movement from what he called the feudal mode of production to
the capitalist mode of production. Loosely speaking, the feudal
mode of production was what was seen in many parts of India,
China and western Europe over much of the medieval period.
Society was dominated by large landholders, who held their land
through an expression of loyalty to their own lords. A king gave
61
land to his loyal followers and expected their support and respect
in return. They provided soldiers and equipment at times of war
along with an annual revenue to the king's coffers. Power came
from the control of land and from military might. Many kinds
of exchange took place, but kings and landlords were the most
powerful social class, not businessmen. Markets were poorly
developed in comparison with today and the growth of the
economy was slow. Variations of several kinds existed between
different parts of the world and there is debate as to whether they
can all legitimately be called feudalism, but common to all was
a slow moving, primarily agricultural economy and rule through
personal relationships of domination and subservience between
master and follower. One worked for a master because he was the
Master, not because there was a contract for payment. Those who
worked on others' lands and were tenants or servants of different
kinds often had a culture that saw the master as a kind of father
figure. The phrases 'lord and master' and mai-baap for describing
this relationship express the feudal bonds which existed between
Feudal culture of work and power

a worker and the person he or she worked for. In Hindi there is
a word namakhalal for those who were loyal to the master. This
meant a cultural belief that if one had eaten someone’s salt, one
had to be loyal to him. The word namakharam then because a
term of abuse, it was a person who betrayed those under whose
obligation he was.
The capitalist mode of production, in contrast, has a fast moving

economy, where capital is held more in the form of an easily
transferable form like money, rather than land. Capital is
invested to get a fast rate of growth and is continuously moved
around and re-invested in search of suitable returns. In today’s
business world, capital can flow quickly into stocks that promise
good returns and flow out as quickly as it came if the promise
appears to fall flat. In contrast to the feudal mode of production,
the capitalist mode of production has bonds which are quickly
snapped and rebuilt to meet the ends of the capitalist. Where the
feudal worker often saw his relationships as a bond to death, with
cultural and moral glues connecting people, the capitalist era is
one of contracts, which can be quickly dissolved and rewritten.
The main economic source of power is no longer land, but the
ability to consolidate and build big concentrations of monetary
capital. Those with more capital are able to control markets in
a better way and can also produce more than those with less
capital. Whereas loyalty was a highly sought after trait in one's
subordinates in the feudal era, efficiency, defined as getting the
maximum work done for the least cost, is one of the most prized
traits in capitalism. The ability to calculate how much effort is
put into a task and to design the least expensive solution becomes
a highly desired quality. This is a big reason why computers and
information technology are so important in this era. They enable
organisations to keep gathering information and assessing how
much work is being done and at what cost.

The ‘skill’ of monitoring
A crucial difference between these two modes of production is

in the kinds of relationships which become widespread in them.
In the feudal mode, the worker is made to work for the benefit
of the lord through cultures of loyalty and morality, backed up
by threats of physical retribution. In capitalism, the worker is
made to work for the benefit of the capitalist through a sense of
having made a contract of selling labour power in return for cash,
backed up by fears of unemployment in the labour market, which
help to keep the workers in line. New relations of production are
set up, including the idea of private property. This would mean,
for instance, the belief that a factory owner is the sole rightful
claimant to a factory and its products (i.e. he “owns” it) and no
one else can make a claim to it.

The growth of capitalism is an important contributor to the
disembedding of society. Capitalism refers to the process of
gathering more and more capital through relations of market-
based exploitation. Capital here is typically of an abstracted,
disembodied and disembedded kind. Capitalism has a dramatic
impact on human society because it makes change possible at a
scale which was impossible before. Capital can be gathered and
accumulated in a way which is unprecedented. The accumulation
of capital in vast amounts now makes it possible to achieve things
which earlier could only be dreamt about. The coming together of
huge resources make it possible to build huge buildings, factories,
institutions and technologies. Capitalism needs continual growth.
Capital, after all, is worth anything only when it generates profits.
It must all the time be in search for newer pastures and greater
returns. In pursuit of these it can be transferred from one continent
to another in the blink of an eye. I live and work in Bengaluru, a city
which has been transformed by the growth of global capitalism.
Two or three decades ago European and American companies
discovered that they could get software designed here at a fraction
of what it cost them back home. This search for greater profit led
to the mushrooming of IT firms in Bengaluru and then elsewhere
in India. Many kinds of programming and BPO (Business Process
Outsourcing) work moved here. This created great wealth in
Bengaluru that made the software and BPO industry the new
destination for graduates of many educational institutions in India.
For a number of people the meaning of success in education got
changed and began to mean getting a job in Bengaluru and moving
here to work in its skyscrapers. If you managed to do it then you
were a ‘success’. Meanwhile in countries like the USA, to be
‘Bangalored’ meant being thrown out of a job which had moved
to my home town. When I go to USA and mention that I am from

‘Bangalore’, I sometimes see people’s expressions change and
they avoid eye contact for a while.
Capitalism is one of the important forces leading to the

emergence of complex societies today. Capitalism creates new
jobs for millions, and farmers and agricultural workers begin to
change into wage labour in towns and cities. The search for greater
profits creates new technologies that push millions out of work
and may later also create new occupations and social classes.
The next book in this series will talk about the emergence of
different social classes, the relations and tensions between them
and what this means for Indian education. Many of the questions
facing education today are the result of the growth of capitalism
and the new class structure which is emerging in our country
and across the world. Capitalism calls upon the education system
to give people jobs and not just the cultural orientation which
feudal societies were content to provide. Capitalism also creates
conflicts between different classes, and school and college
education must ask itself whose side it is on. For instance, some
say that education should operate mainly through markets, but
others say that this means only the rich will be able to buy a good
education for their children. The growth of capitalism raises
profound questions for the education system.
One must be careful, of course, not to assume that capitalism is

the only process which deeply influences Indian education. The
growth of democracy, emergence of different interest groups,
building of critical intellectual cultures, consolidation of religious
organisations etc are pulling our country in different directions.
What happens here is only partially driven by the expansion of
capitalist processes in this country. The challenges posed by a
complex society are also much more than what can be satisfied
by capitalism alone, whether it is creating a spirit of universalism
or the ability to culturally bond with each other or learning ways

Factors that influence education
of respecting each others’ ways. However, the ways in which

we deal with this complexity – through nationalism and various
other ways of living together in a complex society – owe at least
something to capitalism. Sometimes these various processes
converge with the trends of capitalism and sometimes may
pull in the opposite direction from it. The teacher may draw his
beliefs and identity from the stories of the pre-capitalist gurus
he may have heard about or may begin to think of himself as
a government employee within a vast bureaucracy. Or he may
think of his work as primarily creating suitable employees for
capitalist relations. Or the teacher may even think of his work as
creating empowered individuals who will change and transform
capitalism. Yet, within this complicated set of contending forces,
capitalism is an increasingly important influence on how a
teacher thinks of his work and profession or how children begin
to imagine their future lives.

The ongoing changes in India may eventually lead to the
creation of a purely capitalist society and state, though of
course this is not a necessary outcome. In such a state those
who accumulate disembedded capital – typically in the form
of money – come to dominate society and culture. This is quite
different from say a society in which kings and agricultural
landlords dominated. They got their power from the control of land
and not through trading in land. Power rested on relatively stable
relations of patronage and loyalty along with the threat of violence
from the army if you crossed your lines. Under capitalism, power
comes eventually from capital accumulated through market-based
exchanges, which some say are fair, but which others say are
inherently tilted in favour of those with greater capital. Of course,
here too, the use of the army and the police to maintain the positions
of the powerful remains commonplace.
Education in the Capitalist Era

Such a vast, sweeping social transition raises many questions,
prominent amongst which are what should now be the goals
and the content of education. For example, it can be argued
that an education which celebrates kings and their pomp and
majesty is more suitable for teaching feudal cultures and loyalty
to the king. For the era of capitalism, what is more relevant is
how technology is destroying and building anew many social
relationships. It is better that children’s education talks about new
forces of production and the multi-national corporations which
are coming up to become the most powerful institutions of the
world. The culture of feudal societies supported the domination
of feudal lords. Temples and mosques were supported by
powerful landlords and kings and they taught a culture of loyalty
to these elites. In contemporary times, schools and colleges are
increasingly serving as sources of workers for the capitalist
labour market. They now teach a message of being dedicated and

efficient professionals who must serve their managers without
questioning them. The notion of merit serves to explain who gets
a job and who does not in today’s times. It seems also to give
reasons why there is unemployment, job insecurity and low wage
levels. Instead of asking why capitalists do not try to decrease
their own profit and increase employment, people often point to
the unemployed. Similarly, it is often said that the problems of
the poor are because they do not have merit.
The content of education must be informed by our understanding

of the new shapes which our society is taking. The next level of
questioning may also be to ask whether one should teach the
cultures of capitalism without questioning any of the latter's
problems or whether we should teach something beyond
capitalism, whether we should create cultures which overcome
the problems of capitalism. For instance, should one celebrate
competition in schools, which is part and parcel of the life of a
worker in the capitalist era? Or should one teach cooperation,
Is competition desirable in schools?

The importance of cooperation
which is becoming more and more important in organizing
complex societies as well as becoming crucial for the very
complicated production systems of our times. Cooperation is
very important for overcoming the exploitation and misery
created by capitalism. Choices like those between the values
of competition versus cooperation are typical of the questions
which sociologists raise for education. Children and adults do
not learn cooperation and competition all by themselves. Instead,
they learn them through schools and the moral guidance which
their society provides. Which one of the two should Indian
education emphasise?
Many of the dharmasankat or value dilemmas of contemporary

times are those of the transition between feudal to capitalist
modes of production. In another era we were encouraged to
love learning for the cultural values it taught. Holy scriptures,
poetry and literature were taught and loved for the exalting
and ennobling ideas they held. Often these ideas reinforced the
social relations of feudalism, making it appear correct and worth
supporting. It is no coincidence that in the Ramayana the ideal
son is also the king of the land. In the capitalist era, knowledges
are valued more for the amount of profit they can bring, rather
than any sense of ennoblement. And these tend to reinforce the
new system of power, where it is the MBA and the big capitalist
who is now the ideal person, the maryada purushottam who
upholds the right code of conduct.
An important challenge before educationists is to understand

the structure of the capitalist mode of production. And then to
ask what kind of social structures will actually promote human
freedom. If education is to deliver on its hope and promise of
greater human autonomy and the ability to lead a fuller life, it
becomes important to ask what are the tensions and contradictions
within capitalism itself and how they can be overcome.

Dialectics
Social Tensions and Social Change

Many social philosophers believe that everything will eventually
change. Marx famously argued that every social order carried
within itself the seeds of its own change. The shift from one
mode of production to another was usually a slow, painful
process, occurring over hundreds of years. He argued that in all
societies there was always some contradiction or conflict at their
core. The core might smoulder for generations and centuries,
but eventually that contradiction could lead to a polarization
of forces and finally end up in a huge change creating a very
different kind of society altogether.
In the case of feudal societies, Marx said, the contradiction

came out through the conflicts between the ways of the feudal
lords and the trading and commercial groups within the same
society. Feudal societies were slow moving, with resources

tending to be controlled and accumulated by the feudal elites.
The resources would be used for their luxurious lifestyles and for
political posturing and celebrations. In contrast, trading groups
and those involved in commercial activities saw their own
growth coming mainly from their money and not political power
or cultural status. Capital would be invested in a careful manner
so as to give the greatest return or profit. This profit would
then ideally be re-invested to make even more profit. Money
was to be used very cautiously and a simple, disciplined lifestyle
contributed to the growth of capital – and of the capitalist. This
approach towards resources led the capitalist to gradually push for
improving the forces of production to get more and more output
from the same application of capital. From animal and human
powered production, there was a shift to mechanization and the use
of fossil fuels, and then electricity. The means of production were
continuously improved upon creating better and more effective
tools. The relations of production were gradually changed, leading
to a widespread acceptance of the idea of private property and the
idea that one worked for money and not from a culture of loyalty.
It is only to be expected that the capitalist mode of production,

too, would bear seeds within it that would eventually transform it
into a qualitatively different production system. To address that
question, it would be useful to look at the major contradictions
which may exist within capitalism. A new class structure is
emerging and the people who control big corporations are becoming
the most powerful forces in our country. The owners, boards of
directors and the senior managers of corporations have a great deal
of influence over the state and central government. The influence
of big landlords has declined and so has that of trade unions. The
education system is the institution through which educated wage
labour is being provided for the economy. The educated wage
labour is exposed to many new ideas and must learn to work
together in a coordinated way so as to be highly productive. A

section amongst them becomes the managers who control the rest
of the employees on behalf of the owners. However, the educated
class which works in the formal sector is still a minority in India.
There is a vast number of people in India who are skilled workers
and farmers and pastoralists and so on. The role of the education
system in their lives is much less significant, other than their being
the ones whom it has failed and chucked out.
A more detailed consideration of India’s class structure will be

taken up in the next book in this series. Here, let us look at the broad
questions of how this country is changing and which direction it
is likely to go in. Asking what contradictions and conflicts are
emerging due to capitalism may help in giving us some answers.
You may note that the focus on contradictions and conflicts is an
important difference from functionalist ways of looking at society.
The functionalists pay attention to how society can become stable.
Conflict theorists, particularly Marxists, are interested in how
societies are dynamic and how contradictions drive change.
Alienation
An important contradiction of societies under capitalism, Marx
said, was a sense of alienation, at the heart of which is a sense of
not finding fulfilment or satisfaction in one's work. A farmer who
works on her own field would at the end of months of effort be
able to see a standing crop of golden wheat. This could give her
a joy which is near impossible to describe in words. But a person
who, for instance, works as part of a large team in a software
company is only making a small part of a big and complicated
computer program. All that a programmer may be told is that
these are the variables which are your inputs and that is what
your outputs should be, do the necessary programming to make it
happen. There is no sense of deeper meaning, of a larger purpose
to one’s work. The lack of joy in the meaning of one's work is an
important source of unhappiness and tension under capitalism.

In schools and companies alienation is part of everyday life.
The student who feels disconnected from what is being taught
because the teacher is in too much of a hurry and who cannot see
what is the meaning or relevance of what is being taught, finds
alienation a very familiar experience. For the teacher, the cost
of stopping to take along all the different kinds of students is
high. When cost and efficiency are the main values of a school or
society, alienation is easy to accept. Or at least for the powerful
individuals of that school or society to accept.
Some companies are now beginning to understand the damage

which alienation does and are now willing to reduce their profits
a little by changing work routines, at the cost of some efficiency,
to give people a greater feeling of meaningfulness in the work
they are doing. Sometimes this is done only to create more profits
in the long run, but sometimes this is done from a genuine desire
to give a better quality of life to employees. School teachers are
similarly asking how to get more space and time so that they are
Alienation is part of everyday life

able teach in an interesting and engaging manner rather than just
rush to efficiently cover up the syllabus.
In parallel to this is another common social way of dealing with

alienation. Many people are responding to this search for
meaning through partying and consumerism. Since the work
week is full of stress and alienation, the weekend becomes a time
to compensate for it through various kinds of hectic activities,
outings and celebration. Consumer goods provide many of the
meanings which people crave, with an image created by larger
than life advertising and the celebration of ‘fun’ in life. The joy of
buying such goods periodically gives a high to the worker's life,
glossing over, for a while at least, the tensions and contradictions
produced by work. The problem in this is, however, that sooner or
later people begin to wonder whether buying the latest gadget or
flashy new clothes is really enough to give meaning to your life.
The excitement of buying a new thing works only for a few days,
after which one begins to feel jaded with it. And the only answer
seems to be to go out and buy something new again. This has led
to a vast culture of consumption, particularly in the developed
parts of India and the world, which has added to the climate and
environmental crises we are facing. And yet, people seem to feel
unhappy and feel as if they are missing something important in
life, which they seek through religion, visiting tourist spots and
several other sources.
The contradiction of alienation continues to be present in our society,

and it is a moot point whether consumerism and better HR practices
(Human Resource management) have been able to cover up its cracks.
Exploitation
A basic feature of capitalism which causes a great deal of stress
is that it is based upon relations of ‘exploitation’. Strictly
speaking, under capitalism profit is enhanced by exploitation of

workers by the capitalist. An example will help to understand this
concept of exploitation.
A factory owner may hire, say, an engineer to design a mobile phone.

When the mobile phone is ready, suppose it is sold for Rs 5,000. Of
that, how much has the engineer contributed and what should he
be paid? After paying the engineer his or her fair wage, and taking
care of the other costs of running a factory like rent, electricity, etc.
the balance is the profit which an owner makes. The problem is that
under capitalism usually the engineer is not paid in a way directly
corresponding to the contribution she or he has made. Instead, the
payment is according to the supply and demand of engineers in the
labour market. So if there are many engineers available, they will be
willing to work for whatever low salary is offered. Or if there are only
a few engineers available they will be able to get a high wage. To
take another example, what would be the contribution of the person
who actually assembles the mobile phone? Usually such a person is
paid a salary which a tenth class pass-out with a couple of years of
training will get. This is not actually a measure of the contribution
he has made, but of how many such people are contacting the
owner and pleading for a job, any job. A fair wage is difficult to
get when the negotiation of wages is coloured by imbalances of
power. Capitalism is characterised by such exploitation and the
manipulation of wages through the market. The market can only be
fair under certain conditions, not all.
The concept of exploitation implies that a person is getting less

than what is fairly due to him or her. The owner is usually in a
much stronger position of negotiation and is able to negotiate as
low a wage as the market conditions can sustain. For unskilled
work, that is often little more than the worker needs to get
two meals a day and report back to work the next day. The
contradiction between the owner and the worker is clearly visible
in private schools. The fees collected by the school must be

Exploitation

divided between the teachers’ salaries, maintenance, the building
of new infrastructure, and the owner’s profits. One reason why
teachers’ salaries are so low in private schools is that the owner
controls how the total funds are divided. The owner tends to
keep as large an amount as possible as profit and then prefers to
put money into making new auditoriums and other things which
will attract new parents. A better salary for teachers and staff is
usually the last priority for the owners and the management. This
is why private schools are usually reluctant to share the breakup
of their revenue and expenditure. The teachers do most of the
work in private schools and yet their salaries do not make up
most of the school expenditure.
Exploitation introduces a contradiction within social relations.

The unhappiness of the exploited also pushes back upon
the system in many interesting ways. Collective bargaining
by workers is a common way to balance the negotiation
strengths of an employer. Individual employees are too weak
to oppose owners and managers to demand better wages and
working conditions. However, we now have centuries of
workers, including teachers, coming together to form a much
more powerful bargaining entity. As a group they are taken
much more seriously and cannot be so easily browbeaten or
threatened with dismissal. Collective bargaining has been a
powerful force which has been changing the way capitalism
works. Enlightened employers are also moving to overcome
the tensions caused by the workers' sense of exploitation by
techniques like profit-sharing and giving them opportunities to
participate in decision-making. However, repeated strikes and
violence in many industrial areas tells us that this contradiction
is far from resolved and still has the potential to drive changes
in the way work is done.

Changing Forms of Capitalism
The contradictions within capitalism are slowly changing it.
Capitalism is not eternal and static. It has gradually emerged over
history and has taken many different forms in different eras. One
form was that of mercantile capitalism which mainly focused
on making a profit through trade, the East India Company
being its most familiar example. Its wanting to control more
and more of Indian territories was led by the desire to prevent
other competitors like the French and Dutch from coming in
and perhaps offering better prices to Indian producers. Later, the
desire to control India was led by wanting to keep it as a puppet
market for the produce of British manufacturers and preventing it
Welfare State
from setting up its own manufacturing. The British used revenue
from India to finance the rest of their trade with Asian countries.
Another form has been the industrial capitalism of the early

twentieth century which set up factories to make mass produced
goods. Now, we have a globalised era of capitalism where
manufacturing is moving away from advanced capitalist
countries into some developing nations, and services and trade
instead of manufacturing again dominate the way in which
profits are generated.
Exploitation is still central to capitalism. However, capitalism

has also had to change its character over the generations. It has
been opposed by several forces including labour movements,
religious groups and environmentalist lobbies. These have led,
for instance, the USA to share more of the profits of owners with
workers in the period after the second world war up to the 1980s.
This led to the emergence of a situation where even semi-skilled
workers like electricians and welders could own a house and
a car. Sharply contrasting models of production and exchange
like those of the Soviet Union, Cuba and China have also made
their appearance and newer forms like mutualism continue
to be proposed. Capitalism has compromised with labour in
many countries in the 20th century by giving unemployment
benefits and higher salaries to workers. In western Europe and
Canada, this extended to creating a welfare state that took care
of the housing and medical needs of all the poor. The universal
education we see in these countries is at least partially the result
of big companies accepting a high rate of taxation to provide
schools for the poor. Government schools are run quite well there
and most people send their children to them. The compromises
struck between capitalism, the state and various lobbies and
interests have shaped modern education in important ways.
When we hear the call to universalisation of quality education

in India today, it should be remembered that this is essentially at
cross-purposes with the profit maximisation of capitalism.
State, Capitalism and Education in India

In India, like in the rest of the world, it has been believed for the
last century or so that capitalism should be controlled and
regulated. Society's needs should take primacy over the market and
the institutions which regulate capitalism should be answerable to
ordinary people instead of the rich alone, for example through a
democratically elected government. As in the USA, UK, France,
here too it has been the practice that society should have a say in
how resources are distributed, what values are promoted and so
on, not only the market. The exact balance between society, state
and market, however, can take different forms. When India gained
freedom, the state took up the main role in guiding India's growth.
Private companies were not believed to be capable or trustworthy
enough to decide what the people wanted, especially considering
the huge numbers of the poor of India.
Our democracy in the 1950s was still largely controlled by a

small handful of upper caste and upper class men. While the
freedom struggle had emphasised the participation of smaller
farmers and workers and had made the ordinary Indian the
centre of its appeal, in practice their role in making decisions
was quite small. The most powerful groups in the country were
then big farmers, big companies and the state itself. These often
pulled in different directions and had contradictory interests and
orientations. The Nehruvian state had at its top an educated group
which was convinced that capitalism could not provide the big
solutions for India. The public sector had to take the lead and the
private sector came a distant second. It was the government that
set agendas for growth and promoted the construction of industrial
and infrastructural projects. The state also acted as a model
employer, providing salaries and perks to its employees which

were supposed to become the standard which capitalists would
be forced to follow. The state provided social protection to its
employees ensuring that they were taken care when the inevitable
problems of health and age struck. It is also that initial era when
government schooling expanded rapidly in India, a phase which
came to an end with the Indo-China war in 1962. Government
school teachers were uniformly given a respectable salary and
there was no widespread use of low-paid contractual teachers.
They were the envy of those who taught in private schools.
Some of the problems of state run institutions came to the fore in

the 1970s, in a period that is now known as the era of licence raj.
Many government employees abused their position and instead of
serving the people, often tended to serve themselves. Since the
democratic system was controlled by powerful people, ordinary
folk were unable to put pressure on government employees to
do their job properly. Corruption and incompetence were able to
flourish without the safeguard which democracy was supposed to
provide.
Under these conditions some people have again begun to

propose markets and capitalism as the solution. It is said that
when individuals are driven by profit motives rather than values
of cooperation and service, they will perform better. So it is
argued that privatisation of many industries and services is the
way to ensure that they work properly. This has also been the
argument given for privatisation of the education system and
for accepting the increasing power of corporate houses in India.
There appears to be a shift towards corporations and crony
capitalism in the voices that influence the decisions of the state.
This was already visible in the previous central governments and
has increased further under the present government.
Critics of the growing influence of capitalism call the belief

that markets can deliver public services better than the state a

‘neo-liberal ideology’. They say that markets can never deliver
justice or well-being to the majority of people. These critics say
that capitalism will work mainly in the favour of owner classes
and their top managers. The weakening of the state will lead to
poorer conditions for the lower white collar workers, and the
majority which is made up of farmers, skilled and unskilled
workers of this country. This is because the market pays more
attention to those with more money and less attention to those
with less. With the privatization of education, only the more
affluent will be able to afford good private schools, the rest will
be condemned to over-crowded low-fee schools with underpaid
and poorly trained teachers. The state’s functioning may indeed
be distorted by selfish politicians and bureaucrats but this cannot
be corrected through the market, they say. Instead, it is greater
democracy and transparency, and active participation in politics
that can correct the way government schools and hospitals
function. More political pressure from the poorer classes is
needed to fix things, not more privatization.
In the last few decades the power of capitalism and corporations

over the state has increased. They use the state to help themselves
grow, to acquire land, subsidies and favourable policies. This has
gone hand in hand with their growing influence in the media and
popular culture. If we take a panoramic view across India we
see pockets of wealth surrounded by a landscape where farming

dwindles due to lack of attention and support. This has led to a
widespread trend of investing in education as the way to more secure
lives. However the education system itself has not been delivering
on that promise. The quality of schools and colleges continues to
be mediocre even as numbers have grown exponentially. The size
of the white collar employees in this country is still a small fraction
of the total workforce meaning that the opportunity to enter that
class is restricted. Relatively few are able to make a shift into
that class. The rest are failed into becoming contractual delivery
men, saleswomen and so on. The power of employees has become
relatively less, with the decline of trade unions. Contractualization
of employees has occurred in many sectors including education,
making teaching a poorly paid career option for most. It is difficult
to understand the changing role of the education system in this
country without examining capitalism and the debates over it.
Which direction this country and the world as a whole will take
is impossible to predict. Marx had tried to do that but most of his
predictions went awry. Yet, some problems in a purely capitalism
driven world are easy to delineate: corporations and their owners
and senior-most managers may become the most powerful people
The tussle to control schools

in this country, education may be about training dutiful company
employees, not independent-minded people, only those people
will get a higher education that are needed to meet the needs of
corporations, a bare literacy is more than enough for the rest.
These are what express the logic of capitalism and the need to
minimize costs and maximise profits. But there may be other
logics in society, too. For instance, a vibrant democracy may be
able to also make space for equal respect to every citizen, not just
the rich. There may be a pressure coming from cultural beliefs,
which ignore profits and insist that some things should be done
because they are morally correct, even if more expensive. It may
be argued that enlightenment and the freedom to grow into a
more cultivated human being are still important, even if that
means higher taxes and it reduces the profit of the rich.
Capitalism in India is creating many freedoms by dissolving old

relationships which tied people to low productivities or feudal
cultures. It also has the potential to create new bondages and
inhumanities. But there are many other voices too, in this
world. Who knows where we will eventually go and what kind
of modified capitalism may emerge. Or perhaps something else
altogether. Educationists in India and everywhere else will have to
keep engaging with the questions raised by these transformations.
Further Readings
●● Kumar, Krishna. 2011. “Teaching and the Neo-liberal State”. Economic and
Political Weekly, 46(21), pp 37-40.
●● Kumar, Ravi, ed. 2006. The Crisis of Elementary Education in India. New Delhi,
Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage.
●● Marx, Karl, 1847. Wage Labour and Capital. (Available online at http://www.
marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm).
86
Education through
Formal Organisations 5
The growth of capitalism and the disembedding of social
relations which was discussed in the previous chapters makes
it possible for huge new factories and institutions to emerge.
People are drawn into working together in large numbers that had
few precedents in history. They now cooperate and coordinate
their actions so as to perform great feats that were earlier thought
impossible. This calls for a new way of doing things together
to which we now turn our attention. Our times have seen the
rise of formal organisations in every sphere of life, particularly
in education. This chapter is about formal organisations and the
advantages they offer, the difficulties they run into and attempts
to overcome these difficulties. There were formal organisations
before the growth of capitalism, too. But in the contemporary
era these are to be seen everywhere, and schools and universities
now almost everywhere exist as formal organisations.
Formal Organisations
A formal organisation is one in which the rules, culture and
structure are deliberately and consciously set up and are then
consciously maintained and regulated. A family is not a formal
87
A typical school life
organisation. A family will also have its own spoken and unspoken
rules but these develop gradually over generations and centuries
through the knocks and lessons of time. Tradition and culture are the
sources of norms, which the family tries to teach to the next generation
in direct and indirect ways. However, a formal organisation will
be far more explicit about its goals and also about the social rules
through which it works in achieving those goals. As institutions
of learning the gurukulas, and even madrasas and pathshalas of
ancient and medieval times may have been based on the family
structure. However, most contemporary educational institutions are
formal organisations. It is relevant therefore to ask what advantages
they may have, if any, over other kind of organisational structures.
Their success and ubiquitousness needs to be understood.
A formal organisational structure is what makes it possible to

‘school’ so many millions of people in a common way. It permits
us to have large schools and also coordination between schools.

At the same time, it makes me grumble about a boring daily
routine that crushes my spirit. A school, for example, is organised
around fixed timetables which expects us to be get inspired about
Maths from 8:40 to 9:20, History from 9:20, Physics from 10:00
and so on. A formal structure forces me to feel excited about
subjects in a rhythm that is locked to a timetable’s clock. This
often leaves students and teachers wondering whether they have
just become slaves and what is the place left for creativity and
spontaneity in their lives. These and other questions connected
with formal organisations are central issues in our education
system today.
The clock is the master
Education through Formal Organisations 89

Formal organisations’ features were described well by the
German scholar Max Weber (1864-1920). He called such
organisations ‘bureaucracies’ but they were to be seen not just in
the government but also in private companies and in institutions
like hospitals, schools and universities. Weber believed that formal
organisations or bureaucracies emerged because they were far
more effective in dealing with large scale and complex activities,
particularly in those situations where those activities had to be
repeated again and again. A family model could work well with
say a school that had 10-20 students as in the gurukulas. But if
we have 500 students or even up to 7000 students which a large
contemporary school may have, then it is impossible to teach and
manage so many students in the same way as we manage a single
family. The formal organisation does things in a different way
which have the following characteristic features:
1. Breaking work into smaller units: The family or the gurukula

could keep 10-20 students of different ages together and teach
all of them. Teaching 500 students together in a school is very
difficult to do. So as numbers begin to rise, they are divided up
into different age groups or different knowledge levels so that
they are easier to teach. This divides the school into different
classes or different learning groups. What is to be taught is
also divided up into different subjects which separate teachers
could handle. This makes work easier for individual teachers
since now they do not have to know all the subjects but can
specialise in one or two.
2. Building a system: The above means that someone has to sit

and think of work as a system. There has to be a flow of events
all connecting with one another. Someone has to think of what
children should learn in class 1, then class 2 and so on, and
then ensure that the curriculum is inter-connected. In a very
small school this may not be necessary since the same 1-2

Division of labour in schools
teachers are dealing with everything and can everyday work

out what should follow what. But in a large school this has to
be consciously thought of well in advance, and continuously
checked and maintained.
3. Explicit rules: In a family or a small group people’s experience

of being with each other is sufficient for coordinating with each
other. However, if a teacher joins a school with ten classes and
is not familiar with its system and tries to teach whatever is
interesting to him in class 5, there would soon be complaints
from the teachers and students of class 6 and perhaps even of
class 4. For smooth functioning, it is important to clearly spell
out what is to be taught in class 4, class 5 and class 6. Rules are

very important in keeping a complex society running and they
need to be known to all concerned people. A teacher cannot
say, for instance, all by herself that she thinks teaching the
alphabet is unnecessary in class 1. What is taught in class 2
depends on what was taught in the previous year and there
should be a rule to say that it has to be done. Such formally
laid out rules are a pain but quite necessary to keep a large-
scale and complicated organisation going. They cannot be
easily changed at will but their advantage is that they permit
coordination and cooperation across large numbers.
4. Literacy: Writing rules down was alien in the past to those

who were used to small organisations. In such organisations
everyone knew what was to be done and what was not and if
someone did not know then they could easily be told about how
things were done around there. It was also easy to change what
one was doing whenever some problem came up. However,
this soon created problems when a threshold of a certain size
of an organisation was crossed. For instance, when I alone
teach all students there is no need to write out a timetable. I
have my own mental map of what things I want to cover. But
if I am teaching four periods every day in a school with 10-12
teachers then it is best to write my timings out in the form of a
timetable and stick it up at a conspicuous place. Or else I may
keep going into other teachers’ classes at the wrong times. In a
sense, literacy also helped to resolve conflicts. For instance, if
my friend and I were not sure whose class it was at 10:30 we
could go and look at that written timetable. Writing gave great
power to the rules and also to those who set the rules.
5. Hierarchy: Power is present in all organisations, whether it is

the family, the gurukula or the modern school. Power is
perhaps a necessary aspect of all social life, since we want
to control the direction in which we act and to resist pulls

into other directions. For this we must be able to exert our
own power. Without power perhaps no organisation is
possible. In small groups power may be spread out in a way
which is not very clearly spelt out. In formal organisations,
however, a clear hierarchy is present and the direction of a
lot of that power is explicitly laid out. In the typical formal
organisation power is concentrated at the top and everyone
else has to follow the directions which come from there. A
clear division of roles is present, including who is answerable
to whom. So in the formally organized school the teachers are
answerable to the principal, who may be answerable to the
trustees of the school or to the block education officer. The
bottom is considered to be only a tool for the intentions of the
top. The control of the bottom by the top is very important
as only then can the organisation go in the direction which
Power of the written word

the top wants. If the bottom goes in whichever direction it
wants, then the organisation may lose sight of its goals. It is
the hierarchy and concentration of power in it which make the
formal organisation such an effective body and have made it
so widespread.
6. Routinisation: The different activities of a formal organisation

are analysed and then split up in such a way that they can be
done in a routine way. So a daily time table is made, a plan for
the entire year is made and so on. This way the teacher and the
student can know what to do without any deep soul-searching
or stress. It keeps things going in a smooth fashion and also
saves trouble in the next year since a plan is already available.
‘Routinisation’ decreases the emotional and intellectual effort
of doing things and speeds things up. Teachers and principals
can build a routine of say, having a Saturday afternoon meeting
every week, which provides a regular opportunity to meet and
discuss various issues. A separate special meeting for each
issue does not need to be sought, disturbing everybody’s work.
7. Impersonality: Linked with routinisation is doing things in an

unemotional and impersonal manner. It is simpler to do a large
amount of ordinary work if I am calm and neither too excited
nor too disgusted by it. If I were to feel delighted and tortured
by turns while checking my answer sheets then I would be
able to work only at a very slow speed, needing many breaks
to recover my balance. But if I see it as just a routine, technical
activity then I can quickly zip through the paper checking and
walk off. Being impersonal has its benefits. Impersonality
gives another set of advantages too, to formal organisations.
The different positions and roles in an organisation are not
allowed to be connected to particular individuals or their unique
tastes and habits. A teacher, for instance, is a sanctioned post
in the government education system. Individuals may come

Hierarchy in schools

and go but that sanctioned post remains. The principal has a
set of guidelines which deal with the position of a teacher,
not that individual alone who has now left. The new teacher
will be sent into the old teacher’s classrooms and the system
will carry on. This impersonality permits a school to carry on
from one generation to another and does not allow it to crash
if a particular individual is lost. This is very unlike the highly
personalized ways in which families operate, where the loss of
members can bring them into a severe crisis.
Problems of Formal Organisations

Formal organisations have been a great asset in human history.
Every social unit has some kind of political system which controls
what happens in it and gives direction to it. As social units became
larger, the political groups began to take up a formal structure.
The state emerged as a body which had its appointed officials
and functionaries and its soldiers and police to enforce the will of
the rulers. These began to be increasingly organized in a formal
manner. The industrial revolution, too, went hand in hand with
the growth of formal organisations and these were what permitted
much greater efficiencies and much greater quality control. As
religions became larger, the people at their top began to worry about
what local priests were doing and the kind of ideologies and rituals
which they were propagating. Several religions began to organize
themselves into formal structures. As formal organisations became
more common, they also became the basic format of schools
across the world, facilitating a growth in the size of schools
and the integration of schools into regional and national school
systems. The development of a formal school passing certificate,
for instance, made it much easier for a person to move hundreds of
kilometres and show it to smoothly join another institution there.
But the growth of formal organisations has also been a much

debated matter in human society at large and in schools in

Is impersonality desirable?
particular. Generations of students and teachers have writhed

under the grip of rules and regulations that seem to crush their
own feelings and instincts. For instance, the system of breaking
a day into eight periods with a plan of different subjects for each
period may have many advantages like ensuring that all subjects
get covered and students are not swamped with only one subject
in the entire day. But there are also days when a class is going
beautifully and there is great enthusiasm being generated for a
topic and suddenly the bell rings and you have to switch over to
reading something else altogether. One wonders then whether
the formal organisation helps or hinders a good education.
Several kinds of common problems have been identified in

formal education. One of them is that where formal organisations
are effective, students and teachers learn to basically follow what
the system expects. A working formal organisation has a very
strong control over everyday functioning. Those who resist the
system, howsoever correct they may be, find that they are up against
a terrifyingly strong opponent. Fighting formal organisations

and getting them to change can be quite a challenging task. It
is so much easier to just give in and do whatever is expected.
Formal organisations tend to prefer subservient, obedient and
unquestioning people. This affects the kinds of personalities which
get created in schools, both amongst teachers as well as students.
It is very difficult to be spontaneous in such organisations.

Everything is so thoroughly structured that following your own
instincts and interests is quite difficult. This creates a tendency in
people to just follow what others are doing and to do what they are
told to do. Which is the opposite of what we need for nurturing
creative, active thinkers who can examine and question the basics
of this world.
The great power which formal organisations acquire and exert

upon individuals can lead to profound cultural violence. For
instance, depending upon how a state defines its own culture, it
could suppress other cultures and impose only one particular view
of the world. This has often gone hand in hand with the rise of mass
schooling, where states try to put all children into school and then
socialise them into a particular culture. One of the early countries
where mass schooling was began to be practiced was Prussia (now
The docile student

a part of modern Germany). The king wanted to promote loyalty to
his throne and to create dutiful soldiers whom he could use to push
his own political agendas over his neighbouring countries. The
formal organisational structure of the school became a powerful
aid in his plans. Similarly, many other states across the world have
tried to promote different cultural ideals through the formally
organized school. The formal organisation has been a very effective
way of teaching many kinds of curricula, ranging from nation-state
ideologies of having a single language and religion amongst all
citizens to teaching ideologies of communism or fascism, or even
multicultural tolerance and mutual love and respect. Whatever the
curriculum be, opposing it in formal organisations has been very
difficult and painful.
Rationalisation of the World

The classical theorist of formal organisations, Max Weber, had
an analysis of what the fundamental problem was with them. He
said that in our lives we are actually drawn to doing things for
many kinds of reasons. For instance, we may be doing things for
technical and instrumental reasons, where we have an immediate
goal and try to find the simplest way of meeting that. So we try
to see how to cover all subjects in school and find that the most
effective way of doing that is by making a timetable that distributes
time equally across them. But the problem is that we don’t live
only for technical efficiency. As human beings, we have many
different motives and rhythms in our lives. We may feel inspired
and passionate about studying and admiring butterflies. This may
have no immediate benefits. To take another example, we may
have deep values which are not immediately practical and yet we
want to act according to them. So, celebrating the Republic Day
may appear to be a good day wasted which could have been used
to study mathematics and prepare for a competitive examination.
But feeling the joy of seeing our flag wave in the wind and to sing

Different types of rationality
our national anthem together is also important for us. At the heart
of the difficulties with formal organisations is that they focus only
on immediate goals and on doing things to meet immediate needs.
This is sometimes called ‘instrumental rationality’ and of course
is not a bad thing in itself. We need to do lots of things in a very
instrumental way if we want to live in this world, like studying to
make a career for ourselves, building bridges to cross rivers and
so on. The catch, however, is how to balance our instrumental self
with the other reasons for doing things, like emotional reasons,
value related reasons, aesthetic reasons and other such non-
instrumental motives in life.
Weber believed that we had created formal organisations as a

way to help us to do things better but they were slowly growing to
become what he called an ‘iron cage’ in which we found ourselves
trapped. This is not a problem of schools alone but a problem of the
modern era itself. Wherever we see large scale complex societies
we find them struggling with how to have humane organisations
that retain their sensitivity while also dealing with large numbers.

Many scholars follow Weber in calling this the problem of
the ‘rationalization’ of the world. Everything appears to get re-
organized for instrumental and technical reasons. In that process
the human often seems to struggle to find a space for itself.
Michel Foucault has been one of the best known people who
attacked these features of modernity. He said that modern
institutions now embed a huge amount of power which controls
us in ways which we no longer recognise. He sharply attacked
modern schools and examinations. He said that the functioning
of the school actually tightens the grip of modern institutions
around our lives and enslaves us. Foucault said that practices like
examinations make us feel continuously under surveillance and
lead us to toe the line every single day so that when examinations
come we would perform in a way that made the powerful happy.
He said that a vast normalising power has become part of our
unconscious self and the desire to appear ‘normal’ has made us
docile and submissive.
Schools as jails

Improving upon Formal Organisations
So what can be the answer? Sometimes, it appears that the best
way is to abandon complex and large-scale societies and go back
to living in small groups. While groups of committed enthusiasts
may try doing that, for the rest of this world’s population that is
really not an option. So many billions of people no longer have
the space or ecology to be able to abandon modern ways of living.
Another strategy which can be taken is to find ways of building
formal organisations that are conscious of their problems and
make it a point to be more humane.
Schools and universities encounter a special problem when they

function as formal organisations. In bureaucratised schools, we
are creating the model of a teacher as a bureaucrat, who works in
an impersonal and efficient way, paying attention to the technical
details of teaching and subject knowledge. However, the problem
is that students learn best from teachers who are deeply humane
and not impersonal. It is the ability to make a subject exciting and
connected with our most important concerns that draws students
Teachers and children interacting in a small group

into loving that subject. This is difficult to reconcile with the cold
relationships that formal organisations seem to promote.
Ivan Illich’s criticism of schools was fundamentally an opposition

to their impersonality and concentration of power. One of his
solutions was to spread power across all the people and not just
allow it to be concentrated at the top. Many others have tried to
redesign organisations such that they give spaces for smaller groups
to develop within a big structure. If ways can be found for small
groups to be nested within and coordinate with external groups
then they can internally have many informal ways of working,
while still having the advantages of being part of large and complex
institutions. Setting a cap on the size of a class is an important part of
such strategies. So is building cultures of friendliness and personal
relationships between teachers, the administration and students.
Most attempts to build ‘alternative’ schools have made it a point

to keep numbers low and set up many norms and rules which
ensure that a personalized relationship is maintained. This
includes having teachers live with the children, having weekly
meetings with students in small groups to discuss affairs of the
school, having a lot of talking and dialogue in the classroom and
so on. While all these appears feasible to do with small schools,
the challenge is to adapt these methods to serve millions.
In the commercial world there have been many attempts to create

more humane formal organisations even at large scales. These
include companies which decided that no office would have more
than 300 people. Once an office or factory grew larger than that
it would be split into two separate parts. There have been efforts
to build extensive participation in decision-making so that a much
larger number of people feel actively involved in their work and
not just passive recipients of decisions. Those who have to do
routine work are continually given opportunities for a change in

rhythm. Work is consciously sought to be structured in ways that
give more space for initiative and creativity in it.
The school as an institution shares many of the features of

factories, governments and offices. This is hardly surprising
since it exists in a time which leads all of them to share a
common organisational form. The solutions to the problems of
bureaucratisation may also have some similarities across all these
sites. The dilemmas of formal organisations and the rationalisation
of our world are at the core of the challenges faced by most other
institutions along with schools today. Many problems of teachers
and students are actually coming from the formal character of
school organisation. Finding ways to provide the benefits of being
part of large-scale and complex social systems while also at the
same time retaining our spontaneity and humanity is one of the
frontier questions that schools as well as all other organisations need
to find answers for. Some of the most exciting innovations being
done in changing the daily life of the school like having children
of different age groups in the same classroom, teachers moving
to more engaging teaching practices, giving space to teachers to
learn and grow and not just teach mechanically every day, are
all actually steps to deal with the challenges of rationalisation
and bureaucratisation of schools. These are all ways of helping
humanity overcome one of the biggest challenges facing it today.
FURTHER READING
●● Foucault, M. 1995. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. (A Sheridan,
Trans). New York: Vintage Books.
●● Gibran, K. 1985. “Work is love made visible.” Gandhi Marg, pp 563–576.
●● Illich, I. 2000. Deschooling Society. London and New York: Marion Boyars
Publishers Ltd.
●● Madan, A. 2014. “Max Weber’s Critique of the Bureaucratisation of Educa-
tion.” Contemporary Education Dialogue, 11(1), pp 95–113.

Modernity, Identity
and Education 6
Indian education has been witnessing quite dramatic changes
and is even today being tugged in different directions. We are
going through difficult times, where strong differences of
opinion and cultural orientation are engaged in a tussle in the
public sphere. Conflicts between various political and economic
interests have found expression in education as well. This short
book has tried to depict some of the important threads in this
complicated fabric of our society and tried to spell out some of
the challenges and problems being raised by them for education.
There are many ways of describing our education system.

Needless to say, the way we describe it guides the way we struggle
with it. Some could talk about the experiences of a teacher, some
about the daily joys and frustrations of being a student. Others
could have talked about the struggles to write a meaningful and
relevant textbook. In this particular little book, I have focused
more on certain processes that can be called structural and macro
in character. These are the processes of the emergence of complex
societies, marketisation and rationalisation of institutions,
which I have suggested are shaping our basic relationships and
identities in the school and university. These are structural since
105
they give the basic context or shape to many of the situations we
find ourselves pushed into as teachers, students, and curriculum
designers and administrators. When we find people arguing over
whether physics should be taught or Vedic knowledge, when
students feel depressed over the daily monotony of the timetable,
when we worry about whether studying literature adds anything
to our lives, the structural processes outlined in this book lurk
behind all of them. They are, of course, not the only deep flowing
processes shaping our lives, but are amongst the more important
and better understood ones in sociology and social anthropology.
The three pillars of modernity
106
The emergence of complex societies, marketisation and
rationalisation are often said to be characteristics of modernity. When
social scientists use the term modernity they do not mean just new
and fashionable clothes or modern gadgets. At one level modernity
refers to these broad processes of the emergence of universalist,
complex societies, capitalism and bureaucratisation, processes
which have influenced the lives of billions of people. At a second
and deeper level modernity refers to a way of thinking and doing
things that gained momentum in some parts of the world, starting
two or three centuries ago. At its heart, perhaps this is a shift towards
a greater use of reason to understand ourselves and our world and
also to rethink what we do. The emergence of social science is an
example of modernist thinking, where we try to explain, for example,
human poverty by looking at the social and economic causes of it.
This would be different from other ways of understanding poverty
through a study of the will of God and so on. The greater use of
reason gave more strength to ask, for instance, why we should be
ruled by the arbitrary will of kings and not through rational debate
over what the best state policy may be. Such questioning led to
strengthening of democratic ideals around the world. This has had
a considerable impact upon how we visualize schools and what
we think education should be. Of course, not everyone agrees that
modernity and reason are good things. There are those who reject
it altogether and then there are others who believe that science and
reason are beneficial but have to be seen in conjunction with other
things like culture. The struggle between these respective positions
is also reflected in what happens in schools.
In western Europe, modernity gained an early foothold around the

eighteenth century with the growth of industrial capitalism there,
along with an increasing use of technical rationality to plan and
redesign everything from streets to armies. In India, modernity
was already developing with the growth of bureaucratisation in
the Mughal administration much before the British came. When
Modernity, Identity and Education 107

Questioning arbitrary systems
the British overran this region, modernity got further impetus and
grew in its own unique way. For example, Gandhi rejected the
external symbols of the British like their railways and industry,
but said that it was important to think again about our tradition to
make it suitable for current times. This was a typically modernist
way of thinking, part of the growth of rationalisation, asking how
to redesign everything to make it work better under new conditions.
The ‘Bengal Renaissance’, the Satyashodhak Sabha, the Arya
Samaj and Singh Sabha reform movements and many other such
intellectual and social movements of the last two centuries in
India are examples of Indians trying to find their own version of
modernity. They rejected some traditions on grounds of their no
longer being relevant to the times and sought a new interpretation of
philosophy, culture and education. A great many of the educational
issues and questions of India are actually related to the problem of
what modernity means and how to put it into practice. Capitalism,
bureaucratisation and rationalisation and greater social complexity
are pillars of modernity and understanding them goes a long way
towards seeing how modernity operates and also the new challenges
it poses. A critical understanding of these will help us work out what
attitude we should take towards modernity and how to interpret it in
our own everyday life.

Critics of Modernity
Modernity has not been without its opponents. Debates have
raged over marketisation, rationalisation and the challenges of
living in complex societies. For instance, people ask whether
schools should have uniforms at all and whether dressing everyone
in the same way is a good idea. It may have its benefits since
parents have to worry less about a clean new dress every day and
it also reduces competition amongst children and parents about
who has the nicer dress. But it also somehow seems to make life
much more dull and boring. Routinization and homogenisation,
some critics say, are some of the basic dilemmas of modernity as a
whole, not just of bureaucratisation.
Many people say that another important problem in modernity is

that it ignores local variations and imposes one single answer
on everyone. Apart from being boring, one more problem of
the school uniform is that it takes one particular culture, like
wearing trousers and shirts, and thrusts it upon everyone else.
Modernity, its critics say, pretends it is universal, but actually it
is not. Modernity’s pretensions of universality are really a violent
suppression of the salwar kameez, the mundu, the lungi and the
kurta-pyjama. To fit in and not get excluded and marginalised, one
has to toe the line of the dominant culture, which masquerades
as a universal code. Whenever we apply modernity, including
bureaucratisation and capitalism, to people’s cultures and their
identities, problems emerge everywhere, of a strikingly similar
nature. But different kinds of opposition to modernity are also
emerging. Some critics say that today’s era is a period of rejection
of modernity. According to them, people everywhere, from Iran to
USA are turning again to identity and religion. Instead of the single
answers of modernity, they say, we are now in a historical period
which can be called post-modernity. The promise of science in the
period of high modernity was that it would provide an answer to

everything. In our turbulent times, it seems like there is no single
answer to anything. There are multiple cultures in our country and
we accept that they will always remain with us. Bureaucratisation
and rationality must be rejected, such critics say. Instead, we
must restore local identity and local culture, the celebration of
the samosa instead of MacDonald’s burger, to its rightful place.
Schooling need not talk about common cultures, instead it should
feel good about celebrating the culture of particular communities
or religions or nations.
The shift amongst many scholars towards a critique of modernity

can be seen in the fate of something called modernisation theory
which had been very popular two-three generations ago. It believed
that all countries would eventually become like the developed
countries of west Europe and North America. This was said to be
modernisation, where every country would eventually develop
an elected parliament, would have industries with bureaucratic
cultures like those in America and USSR, have universities like
them and so on. However, modernisation theory now stands in
Maybe
I want both!

disarray. It is strongly disputed whether the same path to economic
development was followed everywhere. Japan, for instance,
became a great economic power by developing its industries
and management culture in a very different way than America.
Singapore and Saudi Arabia became some of the richest countries
of the world without any trace of democracy. Universalism was
said to be a characteristic feature of modernisation, but it has been
challenged in many parts of the world and it is being said that
every region has to find its own unique and particular path.
But is Modernity Gone?

Some people look at the growth of identity and challenges to
universalism and declare that this is now a post-modern era, where
modernity no longer matters. They say that modernity had its
benefits, but now we have outgrown them. A little different from
them are some others who say that modernity was never a good
idea anyway and the ancient ways were best. They declare that the
sooner we return to the ways of our forefathers the better it is for
everyone. If we call the first group as post-modernists, the second
can be called anti-modernists.
A third group takes a more cautious approach to understanding

identity and culture and the questions they pose to modernity. They
say that modernity is still with us as a social trend and it has not
gone away. These people say that our times are characterised by late
modernity, not post-modernity. This is a time when we try to revise
and improve upon modernity, not reject it altogether. They say that
the basic processes which shaped modernity are still with us: we are
still faced by the challenges of living together in complex societies.
Marketisation and capitalism are still driving change in the world
and bureaucratisation is still there shaping the way our institutions
function. If anything the power of each of these has only increased,
not decreased. Such people point out that in today’s times global
capitalism has become far more developed and has tied almost all

the countries of the world into its web. Bureaucracies everywhere
are getting inter-connected. As I write this people are worrying
about getting aadhar cards and connecting them to their mobile
numbers, bank accounts and PAN cards. Schools are becoming
more bureaucratized, not less, with increased record-keeping and
surveillance of teachers. School curricula are being called upon even
more strongly in our times to find ways of keeping different parts of
India from fighting with each other over water, language, religion
and so on. The challenge of dealing with modernity, it would appear,
has actually become more intense and not less.
Today identities are getting shaped by markets and state

bureaucracies as well. Governments have a decisive role to play
in defining people as Kannadigas or Marathis. Advertising and
consumer goods fan the excitement of Ganesh Chaturthi and
Eid. Identities are taking up a different form compared to what
they might have been a couple of centuries ago. We periodically

have conflicts over whether to teach Hindi or English or Tamil or
Kannada in schools. The passion over these respective languages
is partially because they are connected with identities: personal
identities, regional identities as well as political identities. When
I lose the ability to speak in Punjabi or I am told not to use what
are called Urdu words in a Hindi classroom, then I may feel
personally hurt. But these identities are shaped by centuries of
struggles, by bureaucratic processes and by the inter-connecting
of markets as well as changing ideas of what the state is supposed
to do. For instance, two centuries ago hardly anyone thought of
teaching what we recognise today as Hindi in schools. There
were many local tongues like Malwi, Bagri, Bhojpuri and so on.
In a great act of bureaucratisation and rationalisation these have
Where did modernity go?

A teacher controlled by bureaucracy vs an autonomous teacher
gotten standardized into a school version of Hindi, which is closest

to the Khari Boli dialect. The Hindustani version of Hindi, with
a mixing of languages from different cultures has been gradually
pushed out and a sanskritized version of Hindi is now taught
in schools. If you want a certificate from school bureaucracies
and want to become part of the job market, that is what you had
better learn to be proficient in. The shaping of Hindi identity
actually still expresses the forces of modernity and cannot be
properly understood without reference to them. Similarly, what is
considered to be Hinduism or what is considered to be Islam can
vary greatly across different regions. It was common for people
to worship at different kinds of shrines and have ideas and rituals
that mixed and matched whatever was available and attractive
to them. The narrowing down of Hindu or Islamic identity into
certain specific rituals and symbols is greatly promoted by the
uniting forces of capitalism and the rationalisation of religious
institutions. To take another example, national identity with its
common symbols, languages and cultures is held in place through
the bureaucratic structure of the state. In the contemporary era
identity itself carries the stamp of modernity.

Perhaps it is wise to keep paying attention to the social processes
and the ideologies of modernity and not assume that everything in
them is obsolete and dead. Global capitalism continues to change
our world and not all the ways in which it is doing that may be
welcome. The way in which the world is getting inter-connected
may call for us to think afresh about how to retain our humanity.
The growth of marketisation, rationalisation and relatively
more complex societies continue to be with us, giving shape to
our education system and to its challenges. The use of reason
continues to be relevant, though few today believe that it can give
the answer to all of our problems. In doing anything nowadays we
are presented with a range of alternative options and strategies.
When hiring a teacher we may be faced with the choice of hiring
a Hindu or a Muslim, a Punjabi or a Malayali, a man or a woman.
We cannot rely just on intuition and cultural tradition to decide.
We also have to ask who would be a better teacher and who knows
the subject better. We have to think carefully about that and ask
ourselves what evidence can help us to decide correctly. Reason is
still relevant for dealing with the challenges of our life.
Education and Responses to Modernity

Many people across the world have worked on ways which do
not reject modernity, but try to overcome its problems. The most
exciting innovations in education address the issues raised by
capitalism, bureaucratisation and universalism in a constructive
way without throwing the baby out with the bathwater. Capitalism
has made it possible for people to move from corner of the world
to another. This has gone hand in hand with freeing them from the
oppressive social relationships they were often caught in. Women
in the middle class, for instance, find that education gives them new
jobs and a way to discover themselves which was not available as
homemakers. This has gone alongside many problems. For instance,
a culture of competition has emerged which makes the purpose
of education appear to be just getting ahead of others rather than

finding fulfilment through meaningful labour. Some educationists
are questioning this culture. They point out that cooperative forms
of labour may actually be more productive. People learn and work
better when they are cooperating instead of competing with each
other. For such educationists the creative question is how to build a
classroom and curriculum that encourages children to excel through
cooperation rather than competition. It should be noted that this is
not a turning back to eighteenth century forms of exchange and
culture, where people again work for local lords through an attitude
of loyalty and bondedness to them, unable to look for alternatives
or to question. There may of course, be valuable things to learn
from the past, but the search for cooperative forms of labour is not
a return to pre-capitalist modes of production. It is instead a way of
transcending the problems of capitalism.
Many of the challenges of the classroom are challenges of

bureaucratisation. The teacher who must teach six courses in a
school year is like the overworked factory worker who is ordered
to attend to several machines at the same time. Routinisation
and the dullness of creativity appear to go hand in hand with the
desire to deal with large numbers through systematization and
homogenisation of school learning. This promotes a technical
and practical rationality at the cost of personal relationships
and a cultural or aesthetic enjoyment of one’s work. Teachers
inevitably find themselves losing the excitement of relating
with children. The problem of bureaucratisation and the growth
of technical rationality everywhere is how to maintain a lively
human experience in the classroom while also being able to
handle large numbers. Teachers and schools are trying to respond
to this by rethinking how they organize their work and its routine.
This might imply finding an optimum ratio and insisting to
administrations that beyond this greater efficiency is only an
appearance since quality will begin to fall. One way to deal with
the problems of bureaucratisation is giving greater power and

space to teachers in shaping their work situations. Cultivating
greater teacher knowledge and letting teachers’ commitment and
sense of meaningful purpose increase through an intellectual
engagement with their work may be the answer to the problems
of bureaucratisation. This may work better for improving the
quality of education than trying to control teachers in great detail
through technology and surveillance measures. This again is not
going back to the gurukula and replacing all schools with an
isolated teacher dealing with just a handful of students. Instead,
it is trying to transcend the dilemmas of bureaucracies through a
more judicious balance of technical rationality with humanity in
the classroom.
The challenges posed by modernity to the human desire for

identity and a culturally centred life, rather than one focused on
practicalities has led at places to a rejection of modernity. Some
argue that modernity distorts identity, converting it into a violent,
aggressive desire to dominate others. Globalisation seems to be
contributing to the growth of a Hindutva based on anger and
a desire to dominate the world, and also to a sense of Islamic
identity which wants to go back to the Caliphate to recapture
political control of vast regions of the world. But there are also
those who argue that modernity need not necessarily lead only
to destructive, angry cultures and identities. Modernity may
also provide us an opportunity to create newer, more expansive
identities. This was the hope of Tagore, for instance, when he
wanted nationalism to be based on the flowering of culture rather
than upon hatred of a country’s neighbours. It was a vision of
nationalism that did not need the emotional boost of fear of
the neighbour to find its own energy and vitality. For many,
modernity seems to have led to a narrower, assertive sense of
identity which crushes all dissent and variation to insist that there
is only one culture in a nation. But there are also educationists
who believe that the job of the school in our contemporary era is

actually to build a sense of solidarity between multiple cultures.
It is to help children to feel part of not just one culture or one
community, but learn to be able to relate to many. This again,
is not a rejection of modernity but an attempt to transcend it, to
help it to grow and evolve.
Several scholars like Anthony Giddens have called this

approach a desire to move towards a reflexive modernity. It
seeks to reflect upon what has been happening and to try and
improve it. A blanket rejection of modernity without trying to
hold on to its benefits may be shooting ourselves in the foot.
This is as dangerous as a blanket acceptance of all the violences
of capitalism and bureaucratisation. Perhaps many incremental
improvements may be the better way to go. This calls for a
reflective process which asks what one really wants to do – to
create an education system that helps give expression to our
humanity or an education system which only promotes greater
profit, greater control? Perhaps we can still hope that human
beings have the capacity to look back at what they are doing and
then work to improve upon it.
Further Reading
●● Beck, U. 1992. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage.
●● Giddens, A. 1990. Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
●● Tagore, R. 1921. Nationalism. London: Macmillan and Co.

Responses to modernity
About the Author
Amman Madan has studied Anthropology and Sociology at Panjab

University, Chandigarh and Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
His current work is on the themes of social inequality and civic
education. He is associated with the NGOs Eklavya and Digantar and
is part of the Education Dialogue Trust. He is Professor of Sociology
and Social Anthropology at Azim Premji University, Bengaluru.

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Education and Modernity

Some Sociological Perspectives

Text: Amman Madan

Also available in Hindi as शिक्षा और आधुनिकता: कुछ समाजशास्त्रीय नज़रिए

First edition: May 2019/2000 copies

Published by: Eklavya Foundation

1. Introduction to the Sociology of Education 09

2. Education in Complex Societies 25

3. Education, the Growth of Markets and Social Conflicts 43

4. Capitalism and Education in India 61

5. Education through Formal Organisations 87

6. Modernity, Identity and Education 105

Education is expected to respond to its times. In a society

This little book explores some of the basic changes happening

While trying to introduce these basic questions of our times,

Developing countries like India are changing very rapidly.

The Importance of a Sociological Perspective

10 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

are different from those of a society that is very large and

The sociological perspective is different from an individual or a

Introduction to Sociology of Education 11

Social background and educational achievement

12 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Sociologists point out that the widespread belief that

Relation between society, individual and biology

Introduction to Sociology of Education 13

The sociological perspective has helped us in getting better

• Who does better in school? Every school classroom has

14 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Social class and access to higher education

Introduction to Sociology of Education 15

• What kind of education does a society want? In today's India

I hope that the following chapters will add to such examples of

16 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

In a way, people have always been aware of society and its

Introduction to Sociology of Education 17

Sociology and Common Sense

If we take a view from our own little bubble of experience, we

Similarly, the difficulty which students from rural areas face in

18 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Our common sense understanding of many things is changed by

For instance, it is often said that Scheduled Caste (SC) and

Introduction to Sociology of Education 19

Sociology looks for evidence

20 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Socialization: Becoming What We Are

Introduction to Sociology of Education 21

Socialisation and the different forms it can take

22 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

The Social Context of Education in India

1. Greater social complexity: Many more social groups are

2. Our changing system of production, exchange and

Introduction to Sociology of Education 23

These will be discussed in the chapters to follow.

24 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

Roles and Structures

26 Education and Modernity: Some Sociological Perspectives

or oppression. But when they are separate, that is where the