DESIGN OF WATER TURBINES FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title………………………………………………………………………………………………….........................

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………….1

Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….…3

Category of Water Turbine Design………………..………………………...…..4

Types of Water Turbines………………………..……………………………..……..6

Choice of Turbine Types with Discussion of Parameters……….……9

Selecting the Best Type of Water Turbine Design……………………..11

Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………….13

History…………………………………………………………………………………………………..14

Related Literature………………………………………………………………………………….16

Chapter 2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………18

Layout of the designed insulation system of smoke stack……………………………..18

Basis of Design……………………………………………………………………………………………….18

Design Computation and Results…………………………………………………………..………19

Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22

Cost Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………..22

Observation and Comments………………………………………………………………..22

Recommendation………………………………………………………………………………..23

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Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………..24

References……………………………………………………………………………………………26

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Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

The Water Turbine, also known as a Hydro Turbine, is a fairly simple machine that

produces a rotary turning action at a medium to high rotational speed. Also, water

turbines can be used as part of a home hydroelectricity system by installing an electrical

generator. Unlike a water pump which is mechanically driven by an electric motor or

wind turbine and uses suction to pump the water through it, a typical water turbine

design uses nozzles and differential water pressure to produce a mechanical rotation

and output.

In other words, a water turbine converts water pressure energy into mechanical

energy. The water turbine is the heart of any hydro power plant. It consists of a number

of metal or plastic blades fitted to a central rotating shaft or plate. Water flowing

through the casing of the enclosed turbine, strikes the blades of the turbine producing

torque and making the shaft rotate due to the velocity and pressure of the water. As the

water pushes against the turbine blades, its velocity and pressure reduces (energy is

lost) as it rotates the turbine shaft.

As the turbine continues to rotate, the water becomes trapped in between the

turbines blades and is pushed along by the rotational movement of the turbine. At some

point along the rotational angle of the turbine blades, the water encounters an opening

in the casing, usually located at the center, which allows the water to exit and return

back to the river or stream from where it originally came.

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CATEGORY OF WATER TURBINE DESIGN

Axial Flow Turbines – The water flow path through an axial flow water turbine design is

parallel to the axis of rotation as it enters the turbines wheel from the side.

Radial Flow Turbines – The water flows path through a radial flow water turbine design

is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the turbine as it enters the turbines wheel from

above

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RADIAL AND AXIAL FLOW TURBINE

Axial Flow Turbines

If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is

known as axial flow turbine.

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 If the head at the inlet of the turbine is the sum of pressure energy and kinetic

energy and during the flow of water through runner a part of pressure energy is

converted into kinetic energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine.

 For the axial flow reaction turbines, the shaft of the turbine is vertical. The lower

end of the shaft is made larger which is known as hub.

 The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as runner for axial flow

reaction turbine.

The following are the important type of axial flow turbines: 1. Propeller turbine 2. Kaplan

turbine

1. When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is known

as propeller turbine.

2. If vanes on hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine. This turbine is

suitable where a large quantity of water at low heads is available.

Radial Flow Turbines

These turbines in which the water flows in radial direction.

 The water may flow radically from outwards to inwards or from inwards to

outwards.

 If the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is

known as inward radial flow turbine.

 If the water flows from inwards to outwards, the turbine is known as outward

radial flow turbine.

 Reaction turbine means that the water at inlet of turbine possesses kinetic energy

as well as pressure energy

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Reaction Turbine Design – in this type of water turbine design, the turbine blades are

totally submersed in the flow of the water and are enclosed within a pressurized casing.

A reaction turbine is powered mainly by the change in pressure, called a “pressure drop”

across the casings body as this reduction in water pressure and velocity releases energy

causing a reaction (hence the name) by moving the turbines blades. The flow of water

through a reaction turbine may be reversed due to the angle of the internal blades, so a

reaction turbine can also be used to pump water and vice versa.

Impulse Turbine Design – in this type of water turbine design, the water flow hits the

turbine blades from one or more jets of water known as nozzles. These nozzles convert

the pressurized low velocity water into a high speed jet of water aimed directly at the

turbines curved spoon or bucket shaped blades generating maximum force on the

blades. The mechanical power output from an impulse turbine is derived from the

kinetic energy of the water flow. An impulse turbine operates in a fully-open or semi-

open casing therefore there is no pressure drop across and impulse turbine and due to

its open nozzle jet design it cannot be reversed.

TYPES OF WATER TURBINES

PELTON TURBINE DESIGN

The Pelton Water Turbine also known as a Pelton Wheel,

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and named after its inventor Lester Pelton, is the most

common open type turbine wheel design available.

The Pelton is an impulse type circular turbine in which

the circumference of the wheels outer rim is surrounded

by a series of equally spaced small curved cups.

TURGO WATER TURBINE DESIGN

The Turgo Water Turbine, is another impulse type water

turbine design in which a jet of water strikes the turbines

blades. The turgo turbine design is similar to the previous

Pelton wheel but this time the water jet from the nozzle

strikes a series of curved or angled blades instead of cups

or buckets from the side at a shallow angle of about 20o instead of tangentially so that

the water hits the angled blade from one side and exits on the other. These curved

blades catch the water as it flows through the turbine causing the turbines shaft to

rotate.

As the flow of the water through the turbines wheel enters at one angle and exits at

another, the flow of the incoming jet of water is not hindered by the exiting waste water,

as is the case with Pelton turbines, allowing for a higher flow rate. Also due to this

higher flow rate, a Turgo turbine can have a much smaller diameter wheel than an

equivalent Pelton for the same amount of power output allowing them to rotate at

higher speeds. However, the Turgo wheel is less efficient than the previous Pelton wheel.

FRANCIS TURBINE DESIGN

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The Francis Water Turbine, named after its inventor James Francis, is a radial flow

reaction type of water turbine design in which the entire turbine wheel assembly is

immersed in water and surrounded by a pressurized spiral casing. The water enters the

casing under pressure and is guided through a set of fixed or adjustable slots called

guide vanes around the casing which direct the flow of water to the turbines blades at

the correct angle.

The water impacts against a set of curved turbine blades mounted on a shaft and glides

over them thereby changing direction and producing pressure on the fixed blades due

to centrifugal force causing it to rotate. The water enters the turbines blades radially

nearly at a tangent but to increase efficiency, the water changes direction inside the

turbines wheel and exits in parallel (axially) with the axis of rotation at a reduced

velocity.

KAPLAN WATER TURBINE DESIGN

The Kaplan Water Turbine, named after its

Austrian inventor Victor Kaplan, is an axial flow

reaction type of water turbine that looks very similar

to a ships propeller. As a result, the Kaplan Turbine

is also referred to as a Propeller Turbine. The Kaplan’s propeller shaped rotor has two or

more fixed or adjustable blades. Similar to the previous Francis Turbine, the Kaplan

Turbine can also has a set of fixed or adjustable guide vanes around the inlet of the

turbine to control its rotational speed.

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The operation of a Kaplan turbine is the reverse to that of a ships propeller. The

water enters the turbine passage in a radial direction via the inlet vanes. The angle and

position of these vanes causes the water to swirl producing a vortex within the enclosed

passage applying a force onto the angular shaped propeller blades.

CROSS-FLOW TURBINE DESIGN

The Cross Flow Water Turbine, also called a

Michell-Banki turbine named after its manufacturer, is

another impulse type water turbine design in which the

water strikes the turbines blades transversely across its

blades. The cross-flow turbine uses a cylindrical drum

shaped rotor, similar to the waterwheel of an old style paddle wheeled steamboat, that

has a number of blades or slats called runners, installed lengthwise around the rotors

circumference depending upon the size of the turbine wheel, which may be up to two

meters in diameter.

The water is fed to these slats through a single or double vertical rectangular

nozzle to drive a jet of water along the full length of the runner. These nozzles direct the

water to the runners at the optimal angle causing them to move converting the

potential energy of the water to kinetic energy.

CHOICE OF TURBINE TYPES WITH DISCUSSION OF PARAMETERS

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In addition to the net head the limitation for reaction turbines is the necessary “setting”

or submergence which can be determined as a function of the speed of the outlet blade

tip or rim speed of the runner band. For physical reasons the rim speed must be limited

to avoid noise, vibration and fatigue problems of the runner even if it is possible to

avoid cavitation by a deep submergence.

For Francis turbines there will be an increasing difference between the inlet

diameter and outlet diameter for increasing net head. This is because of a necessary

increase of the inlet velocity and a limited outlet velocity of the blades due to a practical

limit of submergence of the runner. The outlet/inlet diameter ratio can be expressed by

the low speed number.

For a Kaplan turbine, an increasing length of the blades or decreasing distance

between the blades (by increasing the number of blades) will be necessary for increasing

operation head. This is because increasing energy difference between inlet and outlet

requires longer blades in order to avoid too high blade loading. (A higher number of

blades for a given length gives the similar result as longer blades for a given number of

blades). For movable blades of a Kaplan turbine the blade length is limited due to

geometry limitation for the spherical part on hub and runner chamber. Due to limited

space for the mechanism in the hub, an increase in number of blades is also limited.

Maximum number of blades will be 7 or 8. These restrictions limit the maximum head

for Kaplan turbines to approximately 75 m.

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For Pelton turbines the (runner diameter/bucket width) ratio must be increased

for increasing head in order to avoid cavitation pitting on the back side of the bucket

inlets, i.e. the speed number must be decreased for increasing head. The maximum head

for a Pelton turbine is approximately 2000 m with the technology of today.

Selecting the Best Type of Water Turbine Design

Selecting the best type of water turbine design for your particular situation often

depends on the amount of head and flow rate that is available at your particular

location and whether it is at the side of a river or stream, or the water is to be channeled

or piped directly to your location.

Other factors include whether you want an enclosed “reaction turbine design” such as

the Francis turbine or an open “impulse turbine design”, such as the Pelton turbine as

well as the speed of rotation of your proposed electrical generator.

By analyzing all of these factors together you can get some indication of what type of

Water Turbine Design may work best for your particular situation. Knowing the

difference between a Pelton and Francis turbine for example, will help make the choice

easier.

The following table gives a basic idea of which particular Water Turbine Design

we have discussed above works best according to the available head height and water

pressure.

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Turbine Design against Head Pressure

TABLE 1.1

We can see from the table 1.1 that there is an overlap between Pelton and Cross-

flow turbines, and again between Francis and Kaplan turbines. This means, that both

types of turbines are suitable for such combinations of head height and flow.

An alternative to the different types of water turbines detailed above, is the use of

standard water pumps as water turbines. The inverse use of water pumps as water

turbines for small hydroelectric power plants has become a popular alternative to the

more expensive water turbines due to their availability and cheap cost.

Unfortunately using water pumps as water turbines has a few disadvantages such as,

their efficiency is greatly reduced compared to turbines using the same head height,

and that pumps used as turbines are more sensitive to cavitation and operating range.

The main difference between the operations of a pump as a turbine is that the water

flowing to the pump is determined by the head height, of which there is not control,

while a water turbine has flow control through the nozzles and blades, which is one of

the reasons for its higher cost.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Alternating current (AC): Electric current that reverses direction many times per

second.

Backwater: Increased levels of water below the mill can back up into the tailrace and

impede operation of the water wheel.

Cavitation: The phase changes that occur from pressure changes in a fluid that forms

bubbles, resulting in noise or vibration in the water column.

Bucket: The multiple separate chambers in a turbine runner through which water

flows. The runner vanes define the buckets.

Gate: A sliding or pivoting panel that controls the entry of water into a turbine. Some

turbine types have multiple gates, or a cylindrical gate that regulates flow into multiple

compartments of the turbine case

Head: The height difference between the water source upstream (typically a

pond) of the mill and the water in the outflow, or tailrace.

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Penstock: The pipe or tank that supplies water directly to a turbine.

Runner: The main revolving part of a water turbine.

Turbine: A machine that produces continuous power in which a wheel or rotor

revolves by a fast-moving flow of water.

Vane: The partition in a turbine runner that separate and form the individual buckets.

HISTORY

Experiments on the mechanics of reaction wheels conducted by the Swiss

mathematician Leonhard Euler and his son Albert in the 1750s found application about

75 years later. In 1826 Jean-Victor Poncelet of France proposed the idea of an inward-

flowing radial turbine, the direct precursor of the modern water turbine. This machine

had a vertical spindle and a runner with curved blades that was fully enclosed. Water

entered radially inward and discharged downward below the spindle.

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A similar machine was patented in 1838 by Samuel B. Howd of the United States

and built subsequently. Howd’s design was improved on by James B. Francis, who added

stationary guide vanes and shaped the blades so that water could enter shock-free at

the correct angle. His runner design, which came to be known as the Francis turbine (see

above), is still the most widely used for medium-high heads. Improved control was

proposed by James Thomson, a Scottish engineer, who added coupled and pivoted

curved guide vanes to assure proper flow directions even at part load.

A radial outward-flow turbine had been proposed in 1824 by the French

engineering professor Claude Burdin and his former student Benoît Fourneyron. This

device had a vertical axis carrying a runner with curved blades through which the water

left almost tangentially. Fixed guide vanes, curved in the opposite direction, were

mounted in an annulus inside the runner. Unfortunately the design made it difficult to

support the runner and to take power off the turbine wheel. The first successful version

of the turbine was built by Fourneyron in 1827. More than 100 such machines were

subsequently built all over the world; they achieved efficiencies up to 75 percent at full

load with heads up to 107 meters. In 1844 Uriah A. Boyden added an outlet diffuser to

recover part of the kinetic energy exiting the device and thereby further improved

efficiency. Outward-flow turbines, however, are inherently unstable, and speed control is

difficult. Moreover, the construction of outward-flow turbines is very complex as

compared to that of Francis-type runners, and this fact led to their eventually being

supplanted by the latter.

Francis turbines were augmented by the development of the Pelton wheel (1889) for

small flow rates and high heads and by propeller turbines, first built by Kaplan in 1913,

for large flows at low heads. Kaplan’s variable-pitch propeller turbine, which still bears

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his name, was manufactured after 1920. These units, together with the Deriaz mixed-

flow turbine (invented in 1956), constitute the arsenal of modern water turbines.

By the mid-19th century, water turbines were widely used to drive sawmills and

textile mill equipment, often through a complex system of gears, shafts, and pulleys.

After the widespread adoption of the steam engine they did not, however, become a

major factor in power generation until the advent of the electric generator made

hydroelectric power possible.

RELATED LITERATURE

Small Scale Flood Water Turbine Generator in CAMANAVA (Baldicaño, Cabalitan, &

Garcia, 2013)

The design of a small scale flood water turbine generator driven in power system as an

Alternative Source of Energy study focuses more on designing a small scale turbine generator

that will collect flood water and then let the water flow using booster and sump pump from a

pumping station through the turbine to generate electricity out of water flow. This study

measures how fast the reservoir collects water at a certain time and then how much electricity to

be converted.

FLOATING TYPE WATER WHEEL FOR PICO HYDRO SYSTEMS IN SRI LANKA

(L.H.L.T.P.Kumara, 2014)

A theoretical analysis of the water wheel was done based on 6 blades straight type

wheel. The performance testing of water wheels in open channel were carry out for three types

of blades and two different numbers of blades (6 and 12).Based on the results It shows that 5%

deviation between theoretical and experimental values of power and 36% deviation between

theoretical and experimental values of R.P.M. 2 Also results obtained by testing of water wheels

showed that experimental results of 12 blades water wheels were more powerful compared with

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6 blades water wheels. It is approximately 2.5-3 times factor. Based on this results calculations

were carried out for 6 blade water wheel and predictions were done for a twelve wheel inclined

blade wheel type considering the factors that affect the performance of the wheel. According to

the test results, the average power output of the 12 blade curved type water wheel was 9.5 W.

Solid works software was used to carry out the simulation to determine the stability and

properties of blade. It should be reliable with high impact forces and also environmental

changes such as flooding situation. Also, it’s deform characteristics during the operation should

be minimum to minimize power loss. Weight of the blades should be minimized. It should keep

its curve shape for long time. Floating structure should be light weighted and strong enough to

bear dead load and impact forces. Also it should be exist in wet environment with minimizing

corrode. Piston type water pump can be used to reduce the material cost. According to analysis,

floating type water wheel was found to be economical for rural areas because the cost of

building a plant is US$ 340 (≈Php 17,000) and it is cheaper than other methods

Low head simple reaction water turbine (Abhijit Date, 2009)

In this thesis, two new innovative designs of simple reaction water turbine are presented

and the performance characteristics of their prototypes are investigated experimentally and

graphically presented. The theoretical analysis of the simple reaction turbine presented in this

thesis highlights the potentials and intrinsic characteristics of simple reaction turbine. The

theoretical analysis predicts the centrifugal pumping effect that allows additional mass of water

to flow through the turbine as it starts to rotate faster. Thesis further illustrates the experimental

test rig and its instrumentation used for testing the prototypes of the new turbine designs. The

experimental investigation presented in the thesis shows the centrifugal pumping effect through

the additional flow rate measured as the turbine speed increases. The fluid frictional power loss

characteristics of simple reaction turbine are experimentally estimated for stationary and rotary

conditions and presented as k-factor in this thesis. A case study of the potential low head hydro

site in Victoria, Australia is presented with detail turbine sizing and water intake system for small

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creek using natural stone weir. In the conclusion of this research, an optimized low cost and high

performance simple reaction turbine design has been developed and presented to be used for

electricity production from low head hydro sources.

CHAPTER 2

LAYOUT OF THE DESIGN

Cross-flow Concept Design

BASIS OF DESIGN

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Focus was directed to the design of the runner for a new turbine, since this is the most

complex component, and runner choice impacts design decisions regarding other

aspects of the turbine system. Conceptual designs for the cross-flow and the propeller

runners were formulated based on a requirement for 250 W power generation at 2 m

head. Estimates of generator and electronic controller efficiencies resulted in a required

shaft power of 370 W. The intent of the conceptual designs was to determine feasibility

of the selected technologies and establish approximate sizing.

For a direct driven system that provides output power useable for general appliances,

the system should output alternating current at the standard frequency of 50 Hz. Using

the following equation, the required rotational speed in revolutions per minute, n, can

be determined based on desired electrical frequency, f, and the number of poles, N

poles, in the generator.

DESIGN COMPUTATION AND RESULTS

Fraenkel et al. (1991) cited equations from Aarter and Meier (1990) that provide

generalized sizing of the cylindrical cross-flow runner, namely diameter, D CFrunner , and

length, LCFrunner and jet thickness

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Where Q is the flow rate (m3/s), H is the head (m), and t CFjet is the thickness of the jet

(m).

Generalized sizing as a function of rotational speeds are tabulated below.

Mockmore and Merryfield (1949), translated Donat Banki’s “Neue Wasserturbine” and

outlined more detailed equations. Banki defined optimized parameters such as fluid

entry angle, α Banki= 16°, velocity coefficient, C Banki = 0.98, and geometric parameter, k Banki

= 0.075-0.10, which relates blade spacing to diameter.

Based on the head and power requirements, and Banki’s suggested parameters,

conceptual designs were determined. A length multiplied by diameter parameter is

initially defined:

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A range of runner lengths considered manageable for construction were inputted to

determine runner diameter and associated design characteristics such as:

The resulting cross-flow design parameters are tabulated as follows:

Concept Design Summary

Conceptual sizing parameters and performance estimates for the preliminary cross-flow

and propeller runners are summarized in tables.

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CHAPTER 3

COST ANALYSIS

Mild steel is used for the entire turbine construction. Mass of the production turbine

calculated from 3-D solid models is estimated to be approximately 11 kg.

Material costs of the production scale turbine are calculated based on the bill of

materials of the test version turbine and estimated to be under P10,000.

OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS

The researcher observed the following:

•The performance of a turbine is ideal at the design head. Therefore in

overlapping head ranges selection of type of turbine should consider the head variation

existing at site.

•Turbine efficiency varies with load. Fall of efficiency at part load for Francis and

Propeller is much steeper in comparison to that for Kaplan and Pelton turbines.

Therefore, necessity of operating turbines at part loads for longer time influences the

choice of turbines in the overlapping head ranges.

Similarly, in the overlapping head ranges where both Francis and Pelton could

be used, Pelton has advantages over Francis in overall performance level when

variation of load and head is higher.

•Highest specific speed of turbine resulting in higher speed of rotation for

generator with consequent reduction in cost of generator. This criteria is very

important for selecting-type of turbine from cost consideration in the overlapping

head ranges. Thus in the head ranges where both Kaplan and Francis are suitable.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Following are recommendations for further research and development relating to the

design of water turbine.

• Improve technical design within the local manufacture context – Primary design

improvements must be made to the runner. Experimental investigation can be

continued on the flat blade design to determine the impact on performance when

varying several factors such as blade angles, chord length, number of blades, etc. This

would be costly and time consuming and it is expected that performance improvements

will be limited. In addition, improvements to the stator design can be implemented by

using curved blades or curved airfoil profiles. Forming of the stator blades would be

relatively less complicated than runner blade forming since blade twisting is not

required. Also, a curved surface can be introduced to improve flow guidance between

the stator blades and the runner. The current design did not incorporate this to simplify

the manufacturing process and reduce material waste. Care must be taken to ensure

that these design optimizations fit within an appropriate fabrication process for local

manufacture.

• Collaborate with end-users – Incorporate viewpoints of end-users to determine

effective training methods on topics of proper use, safety, and maintenance. Devise

methods for training through demonstrations, workshops, user manuals (considerate of

literacy levels and languages), etc.

• Comprehensive design manual – once the design is finalized a design manual,

written in a comprehensive manner and catered to particular audiences, should be made

to communicate the design process.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A : MARKET RESEARCH FOR THE MATERIALS

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APPENDIX B : CAVITATION AND TURBINE SETTING

REFERENCES:

BOOKS:

Hydraulic Turbines – Their Design and Installation by Viktor Gelpke

Fish-Friendly Water Turbines: Design and Evaluation by Caroline F. Farias

Manual on Pump used as Turbines by J.M Chapaliaz, P. Eichenberger, G. Fischer

Webpages:

http://www.ledyardsawmill.org/historic-technology/water-turbine-glossary

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http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/hydro-energy/water-turbine-design.html

https://www.homepower.com/articles/microhydro-power/design-installation/hydro-
design-considerations

https://www.researchgate.net/post/
What_should_i_consider_during_the_design_and_fabrication_of_water_turbine_system

https://www.mpoweruk.com/hydro_power.htm

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610214007395

http://contemporary-energy.net/Articles/v02n01a01_-Shpetim-Lajqi-et-al.pdf

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/11/2/267/pdf

https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/mands-pdfs/HydroGen.pdf

https://www.hevs.ch/media/document/1/design-and-performance-biner.pdf

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105110/pdf/m5l03.pdf

http://wdstudio.net/gulfstreamturbine/costs.htm

https://www.britannica.com/technology/turbine/History-of-water-turbine-technology

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