Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

TESTING FOR KNITTED FABRICS

1. Introduction
In order to assess the quality, the knitted fabrics are also subjected to physical testing
such as thickness, pilling, abrasion resistance, bursting Strength, Dimensional Stability.
However, the types of test carried out for knitted fabrics differ to some extent from the tests
conventionally done for woven fabrics as the structures and end uses of knitted fabrics are
different to those of woven fabrics. The tests are mainly done keeping in view
 To evaluate the quality aspects of the knitted fabrics
 To assess whether the quality of the fabric made is equivalent to the expected/predicted
quality
 To assess whether the quality of the knitted fabric matches the required quality of the end
product
 To assess the performance of the fabric during the end use
 To evaluate the comfort properties, feel and handle of the fabric/garment

2. Fabric Thickness Tester

The thickness of fabric is measured with a touching system, by lowering a plate of defined
weight and size onto the fabric surface and detecting the height in which the plate stops. The
thickness of fabric is normally measured according to EN ISO 5084 and ASTM
D1777 standards. The principle of measurement of fabric thickness is based on “The precise
measurement of the distance between two plane parallel plates separated by the cloth when a
known pressure is applied and maintained on the plates.”
Determination of thickness of fabric samples in laboratory is usually carried out with the
help of a precision thickness gauge. In this equipment, the fabric whose thickness is to be
determined is kept on a flat anvil and a circular pressure foot is pressed on to it from the top
under a standard fixed load. The Dial Indicator directly gives the Thickness in mm.
2.1 Specification of Fabric Thickness Tester:
 Range of measurement : 0 - 10 mm
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

 Least count of dial gauge : 0.01 mm

 Diameter of anvil : 50 mm
 Diameter of pressure foot (Interchangeable) : 10 mm & 25 mm
 Load on pressure foot : 10 g/sq. cm
 Throat depth : 22 mm

3. Pilling
Pilling is a fabric surface characterized by little pills of entangled fiber clinging to the
cloth surface that considerably spoils the original appearance of a fabric. The pills are formed by
rubbing action on loose fibres that are present on the fabric surface and also during washing.
Pill generation begins with a migration of fibres to the external surface of yarn, so that
fluffiness emerges on the surface. Due to friction, this fluffiness gets entangled and forms
somewhat spherical mass called pill. It remains suspended from the surface by long fibres called
anchor fibres. Because of wear some pills fall off, causing the additional effect of loss of
material.
 A garment is considered to be serviceable when it is fit for its particular end use.
 Stronger component in the blend aggravated its seriousness.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

 Higher breaking strength and lower bending stiffness of fibres present in the yarn results
more pill formation.
 Low twist factor, higher hairiness, and loose fabric structure results easy and large pills
(knitwear)
Pilling in the fabric can also be generated by artificial means, which can simulate actual
wear over the long period. Pilling can be created by subjecting fabric samples to artificial
abrasion in different apparatus and machines like pilling box machine shown in figure.
It is possible to assess the amount of pilling quantitatively either by counting the number
of pills or by removing and weighing them. However, pills observed in worn garments vary in
size and appearance as well as in number. The pilling resistance of the samples is assessed
according to ASTM D4970 standard.
Counting the pills and/or weighing them as a measure of pilling is very time consuming
and there is also the difficulty of deciding which surface disturbances constitute pills.
The more usual way of evaluation is to assess the pilling subjectively by comparing it
with either standard samples or with photographs of them or by the use of a written scale of
severity.
Most of pilling assessment scales are divided into five grades and run from grade 5, no
pilling, to grade 1, very severe pilling
For this test, four specimens each 125mm X 125mm are cut from the fabric. A seam
allowance of 12mm is marked on the back of each square. In two of the samples the seam is
marked parallel to the wale direction and in the other two parallel to the course direction.
The samples are then folded face to face and a seam is sewn on the marked line. Each
specimen is turned inside out and 6mm cut off each end of it thus removing any sewing
distortion.
The fabric tubes made are then mounted on rubber tubes so that the length of tube
showing at each end is the same. Each of the loose ends is taped with poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
tape so that 6mm of the rubber tube is left exposed.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

All four specimens are then placed in one pilling box. The samples are tumbled together
in a cork-lined box. The usual number of revolutions used in the test is 18,000 which takes 5
hours. Some specifications require the test to be run for a different number of revolutions.
3.1 Assessment:
The specimens are removed from the tubes and viewed using oblique lighting in order to
throw the pills into relief. The samples are then given a rating of between 1 and 5 with the help
of the descriptions given in the table.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

4. Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance is the ability of a fabric to resist surface wear caused by flat rubbing
contact with another material. Abrasion may cause a loss of appearance by disturbing the
surface of a fabric.
4.1 Factors affecting abrasion test
A. Type of Abrasion
This may be plane, flex or edge abrasion or a combination of more than one of these factors.
B. Type of Abradant
A number of different abradants have been used in abrasion tests including standard
fabrics, steel plates and abrasive paper or stones (aluminum oxide or silicon carbide). The
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

severity as well as the type of action is different in each case. An important concern is that the
action of the abradant should be constant throughout the test.
C. Pressure
The pressure between the abradant and the sample affects the severity and rate at which
abrasion occurs.
D. Speed
Increasing the speed of rubbing above that found in everyday use also brings the dangers
of accelerated testing as described above.
E. Tension
It is important that the tension of the mounted specimen is reproducible as this determines
the degree of mobility of the sample under the applied abradant. This includes the
compressibility of any backing foam or inflated diaphragm.
F. Direction of abrasion
In many fabrics the, abrasion resistance in the length wise direction differs from that of
the width wise direction. Ideally the rubbing motion used by an abrasion machine should be such
as to eliminate directional effects.
4.2 Method of assessment
Two approaches have been used to assess the effects of abrasion:
A. Abrade the sample until a predetermined end-point such as a hole, and record the time or
number of cycles to this end-point.
B. Abrade for a set time or number of cycles and assess some aspect of the abraded fabric
such as change in appearance, loss of mass, loss of strength change in thickness or other
relevant property.

The first approach corresponds to most people's idea of the endpoint of abrasion but the
length of the test is indeterminate and requires the sample to be regularly examined for failure in
the absence of a suitable automatic mechanism. This need for examination is time consuming as
the test may last for a long time. The second approach promises a more precise measurement but
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

even when the sample has rubbed into a hole the change in properties such as mass loss can be
slight.
4.3 Martindale Abrasion Tester
This apparatus is designed to give a controlled amount of abrasion between fabric
surfaces at comparatively low pressures in continuously changing directions. The results of this
test should not be used indiscriminately, particularly not for comparing fabrics of widely
different fibre composition or construction
In this test, circular specimens are abraded under known pressure on an apparatus which
gives a motion that is the resultant of two simple harmonic motions at right angles to one
another. The fabric
Under test is abraded against a standard fabric. Resistance to abrasion is estimated by
visual appearance or by loss in mass of the specimen.

4.4 Method of sample mounting on sample holder:

Four specimens each 38mm in diameter are cut using the appropriate cutter. They are
then mounted in the modified specimen holders which stretch the knitted material thus
effectively accelerating the test. A flattened rubber ball is pushed through the sample as the
holder is tightened thus stretching it.
The test specimen holders are mounted on the machine with the fabric under test next to
the abradant. A spindle is inserted through the top plate and the correct weight (usually of a size
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

to give a pressure of 12kPa but a lower pressure of 9kPa may be used if specified) is placed on
top of this.
The specimen is examined at suitable intervals without removing it from its holder to see
whether two a hole appears or the material develops an unacceptable level of thinning.

5. Fabric Bursting Strength

Bursting strength is a method of measuring strength in which the fabric is stressed in all
the directions at the same time and is therefore more suitable for materials such as knitted
fabrics. During a test a fabric fails across the direction which has the lowest breaking extension.
Tensile test is unidirectional and thus suitable for woven fabrics where definite warp and weft
direction strength is measured. In case of knitted fabric, where no definite alignment of
yarns/fibres is there, multidirectional force is required. These types of fabrics more likely to fail
by bursting in service than it are to break by a straight tensile fracture.
Fabrics used in parachute, filters, sacks and nets are simultaneously stressed in all the
directions during service. In service, a fabric is more likely to fail by bursting than by a straight
tensile fracture;
Examples for real life application of bursting strength is stress present at elbows and
knees of clothing.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

5.1 Diaphragm of Bursting Test

ASTM D3786 standard describes a test in which the fabric to be tested is clamped over a
rubber diaphragm by means of an annular clamping ring and an increasing fluid pressure is
applied to the underside of the diaphragm until the specimen bursts. The operating fluid may be a
liquid or a gas.
Two sizes of specimen are in use, the area of the specimen under stress being either
30mm diameter or 113mm in diameter. The specimens with the larger diameter fail at lower
pressures (approximately one-fifth of the 30mm diameter value). However, there is no direct
comparison of the results obtained from the different sizes. The standard requires ten specimens
to be tested.
In the test the fabric sample is clamped over the rubber diaphragm and the pressure in the
fluid increased at such a rate that the specimen bursts within 20±3s. The extension of the
diaphragm is recorded and another test is carried out without a specimen present. The pressure to
do this is noted and then deducted from the earlier reading.
The following measurements are reported.
 Mean bursting strength - kN/m2
 Mean bursting distension -mm
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

6. Dimensional Stability
Knitted fabric is so infamous for its tendency to change size and shape in wear and
washing. This most challenging demerit of knitted structures is because of their lower
dimensional stability, owing to the instability in their loop dimensions. There are several factors
which may be responsible for the instability of loop dimensions and consequently the poor
dimensional stability of knitted fabrics. Fabric shrinkage may result due to fiber swelling under
moist or wet conditions and relaxation of internal stresses which the fibers may undergo during
different manufacturing phases. Yarns having higher spinning tensions result in knitted fabrics
with inferior dimensional stability. Knitting tensions and fabric wet processing parameters also
affect the dimensional stability of knitted structures.
6.1 Measurement of Dimensional Stability
It is recommended that samples are preconditioned at a temperature not greater than 50oC
with a relative humidity of between 10% and 25%. Then fabrics samples are conditioned in a
standard atmosphere of 20 ± 2o C and 65 ± 2% relative humidity for 24 hours. The samples are
marked with three sets of marks in each direction, a minimum of 50 cm apart and at least 10 cm
from all edges as shown in Figure. After measurement the samples are subjected to washing
according to AATCC TM-135 standard and the procedure for conditioning another 24 hours to
bring them in to the same state they were in when they were marked. They are then re-measured
on a flat smooth surface and the percentage dimensional change calculated. The mean
dimensional Change and direction is reported.
Shrinkage/Expansion % = Initial measurement – final measurement X 100
Initial measurement
The change in the fabric dimensions is expressed as a percentage of the initial length and
width to change in fabric dimensions occurs in specified conditions. When dimensional change
results in increase of the specimen dimensions then it is termed as expansion. When dimensional
change results in decrease of the specimen dimensions then it is termed as shrinkage.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

Spirality
It is necessary that the wale on the knitted fabric be perpendicular to the course.
However, the wales are not always perpendicular to the course and skew to the right or left,
forming a spirality angle as seen in Figure.

Spirality is a major problem of knit fabrics which is produced in circular knitting

machines. Relaxation of torsional stresses cause dimensional distortions and instability in the
knitted loop constructions. The effect of machine gauge, yarn and fabric properties on the
spirality of single jersey knit fabrics has been analyzed by some researchers. There have been
few researches regarding the effect of knit structures on the spirality of the fabric.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

Spirality is determined by placing a protractor on the smooth fabric surface with its base-
line along the course and reading the angle between the wale line and a line 90°perpendicular to
the course line

7. Air permeability
Air permeability is defined as the volume of air in liters which is passed through 100 cm2
(10 cm x 10 cm) of the fabric in one minute at a pressure difference of 10 mm head of water
Air permeability is often used in evaluating and comparing the ‘breathability’ of
various fabrics (coated and uncoated) for such end uses as raincoats, tents and uniform shirting
Air permeability is an important factor in the comfort of a fabric as it plays a role in
transporting moisture vapour from the skin to the outside atmosphere.
The air permeability of fabric depends on the shape and value of the pores and the inter
thread channels, which are dependent on the structural parameters of the fabric
Since knitted fabrics have a loop structure, they have more pores than woven fabrics;
therefore, in general, the air permeability of knitted fabrics is higher than that of woven fabrics of
the same weight.
A circle of fabric is clamped into the tester and through the use of a vacuum, To obtain
accurate results in the test, edge leakage around the specimen has to be prevented by using a
guard ring or similar device. The pressure drop across the guard ring is measured by a separate
pressure gauge. the air pressure is made different on one side of the fabric. Airflow will occur
from the side with higher air pressure, through the fabric, to the side with the lower air pressure.
From this rate of air flow, the air permeability of the fabric is determined.
Paper Code and Title: H08TM Textile Manufacturing and Testing

Module Code and Title: H08TM36 Testing for knitted fabrics

Name of the Content Writer: Mr. S. Natarajan

8. Conclusion
Knitted structures offer several advantages over woven fabrics including better stretch
and recovery, resilience, porosity, air permeability, softness, and warmth. Due to better
extensibility in structure, knitted fabrics provide better fit and comfort to the wearer.
Consumer interest in apparel items made from knitted fabrics has increased at a rapid
pace during the past few decades.
In apparel design and garment manufacturing, fabric characteristics are usually dictated
by a specified end-use. Understanding the relationship between the fabric end-use and fabric
properties becomes fundamental for classification, selection, search, and purchase control of
apparel fabrics. Appearance properties are very important in all classes of fabrics. Appearance
retention is directly related to the longevity and serviceability of fabrics. A fabric may lose its
aesthetic appeal due to wear, which is a combined effect of several factors like abrasion, repeated
laundering, the application of forces in dry and wet states.