Module 2

Power Transistors
Introduction
• Power transistors are three terminal devices which are composed of
semiconductor materials.
• They feature emitter, base and collector terminals.
• These devices are particularly designed to control high current – voltage rating.
• The switching speed of modern transistors is much higher than that of thyristors
and they are extensively employed in dc–dc and dc–ac converters, with inverse
parallel-connected diodes to provide bidirectional current flow
• The speciality of this device is when voltage or current is applied to one pair of
terminals, it controls the voltage or current at the other pair of terminals. These
transistors might be either of NPN or PNP polarity.
• Power transistors are available in different types with different power and
switching speed ratings.
Types Of Power Transistors:
Power transistors are classified into the following types:
1.Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
2.Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFETs)
3.Static Induction Transistor (SITs)
4.Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBTs)

Operation of Power Transistor

• Based on the forward and reverse bias condition of the power transistor, it
operates in four regions.
• Cut off region
• Active region
• Quasi saturation region
• Hard saturation region
When an NPN power transistor is connected in reverse bias
condition, a power transistor will enter cut off mode condition.
Case(i): The base terminal of the transistor is connected to negative
and emitter terminals of the transistor is connected to positive, and
Case(ii): The collector terminal of the transistor is connected to the
negative and base terminal of the transistor is connected to positive
that is base-emitter and collector-emitter is in reverse bias.
Hence there will be no flow of output current to the base of the
transistor where IBE = 0, and also there will be no output current
flowing through the collector to emitter since IC = IB = 0 which
indicates transistor is in off state that is a cut off region.
• A transistor is said to be in active state only when the base-emitter
region is forward bias and collector-base region reverse bias. Hence
there will be a flow of current IB in the base of transistor and flow of
current IC through the collector to emitter of the transistor. When IB
increases IC also increases.

• A transistor is said to be in the quasi saturation stage if base-

emitter and collector-base are connected in forwarding bias. A
transistor is said to be in hard saturation if base-emitter and
collector-base are connected in forwarding bias.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Power TransistorsThe advantages of
power transistors are:
• Voltage gain is high
• The density of the current is high
• The forward voltage is low
• The gain of bandwidth is large

The disadvantages of power transistors are:

• Low thermal stability
• Controlling is a complex task
• High noise
Applications of Power Transistors :
Power transistors are used in:
• Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS)
• Relays
• Converters
• Power amplifiers
• DC to AC converters
• Power supply
• Power control circuits
• Inverters
POWER MOSFET’s
• A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device and requires only a small
input current.
• The switching speed is very high and the switching times are of the order
of nanoseconds.
• Power MOSFETs find increasing applications in low-power high-
frequency converters. MOSFETs do not have the problems of second
breakdown phenomena as do BJTs.
• However, MOSFETs have the problems of electrostatic discharge and
require special care in handling. In addition, it is relatively difficult to
protect them under short-circuited fault conditions.
Types of MOSFET
Symbolic Representation of MOSFET:
Structure of MOSFET:
Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect
Transistors commonly known as
MOSFETs are electronic devices used to
switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It
is a voltage controlled device and is
constructed by three terminals. The
terminals of MOSFET are named as
follows:
• Source
• Gate
• Drain
• Body
• The structure of n-channel enhancement type MOSFET is
shown in the figure.
• The source and drain are connected to 𝑛+ regions. These
regions are heavily doped with the intensity of 1019 𝑐𝑚3 .
• The p-type body region forms the channel between drain and
source. The body region has the doping level of 1016 𝑐𝑚3 .
• The gate is not directly connected to p-type region. There is
insulating oxide(𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ) layer between gate metal and p-type
layer.
• When gate is made positive w.r.t source an accumulation la
with respect to source an accumulation layer is formed in the
channel as shown in the figure.
• This accumulation layer is formed because of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 .The gate
terminal (metal) is positive.
• The other side of oxide layer is p-type of body region.
Accumulation layer of electrons is generated in the body region
near oxide layer.
• This is also called induced channel of electrons. Therefore
current of 𝑖𝐷𝑆 starts flowing through this induced channel. The
current flows from drain to source.
• If VGS = 0, then induced channel is absent and no current flows.
Since channel is made of electrons, this is called n-channel
MOSFET.
• When the gate has a sufficiently positive voltage with respect to the
source, the effect of its electric field pulls electrons from the n+ layer into
the p layer. This opens a channel closest to the gate, which in turn allows
the current to flow from the drain to the source.
• There is a silicon oxide (SiO2) dielectric layer between the gate metal and
the n+ and p junction. MOSFET is heavily doped on the drain side to
create an n+ buffer below the n-drift layer.
• This buffer prevents the depletion layer from reaching the metal, evens out
the voltage stress across the n layer, and also reduces the forward voltage
drop during conduction.
• The buffer layer also makes it an asymmetric device with rather low
reverse voltage capability.
• MOSFETs require low gate energy, and have a very fast switching speed
and low switching losses. The input resistance is very high, 10 Ω to 1011
9
Ω. MOSFETs, however, suffer from the disadvantage of high forward on-
state resistance as show in Figure
MOSFET Characteristics
a) Transformer Characteristics: This
characteristics shows the variation of drain
current 𝐼𝐷 as a function of gate-source
voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 .
b) Shows typical transfer characteristic for n-
channel power MOSFET.
c) It is seen that there is threshold voltage
𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇 below which the device is off.
d) The Magnitude of 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇 is of the order 2V
or 3V.
Output Characteristics:
• Power MOSFET output characteristics shown
in Figure indicate the variation of drain current
𝐼𝐷 as a function of drain-source voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 as
a parameter.
• For low values of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 , the graph between
𝐼𝐷− 𝑉𝐷𝑆 is almost linear; this indicates a𝑉
constant value of on-resistance 𝑅𝐷𝑆 = 𝐷𝑆 .
𝐼𝐷
• For Given 𝑉𝐺𝑆 , if 𝑉𝐷𝑆 is increased, output
characteristic is relatively flat indicating that
drain current is nearly constant.
• A load line intersects the output characteristics
at A and B.
• Here A indicates fully on condition and B
indicates fully off state.
• In this region MOSFET acts as switch.
Operating Regions of
MOSFET
A MOSFET is seen to exhibit
three operating regions. Here,
we will discuss those regions.
Cut-Off Region
• The cut-off region is a region
in which there will be no
conduction and as a result, the
MOSFET will be OFF. In this
condition, MOSFET behaves
like an open switch.
Ohmic Region
• The ohmic region is a region where the current (IDS)increases
with an increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to
operate in this region, they are used as amplifiers.
Saturation Region/Active region
• In the saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant in
spite of an increase in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value
of pinch-off voltage VP. Under this condition, the device will act
like a closed switch through which a saturated value of IDS flows.
As a result, this operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs
are required to perform switching operations
Switching Characteristics of MOSFET:
• Switching Characteristics of power MOSFET are influenced to a large extent
by the internal capacitance of the device and the internal impedance of the gate
drive circuit.
• At turn-on, there is an initial delay 𝑡𝑑ℎ during which input capacitance charges
to gate threshold voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇 . Here 𝑡𝑑ℎ is called turn-on deay time.
• There is further delay 𝑡𝑟 , called rise time, during which gate voltage rises to
𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑃 , a voltage sufficient to drive the MOSFET into on state. During 𝑡𝑟 , drain
current rises from zero to full on current 𝐼𝐷 . Total turn on time is 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑟 +
𝑡𝑑ℎ . The turn-on time can be reduce by using low impedance gate drive
source.
• Since MOSFET is a majority carrier device, turn-off process is initiated soon
after removal of gate voltage at time 𝑡1 . The turn-off delay time, 𝑡𝑑ℎ is the
time during which input capacitance discharges from overdrive gate voltage
𝑉1 to 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑃 to threshold voltage.
• During 𝑡𝑓 drain current falls from 𝐼𝐷 to zero. If 𝑉𝐺𝑆 ≤ 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇 ,MOSFET turn-off
is complete.
Power BJT:
• The power BJT is the bipolar device is as shown in the figure . It
shows the symbols of BJT. (The BJT is also called as power
transistors in general.)
• The BJTs are of two types: npn and pnp. BJT has collector (C) base
(B) and emitter (E). In the npn BJT, when the base emitter junction is
forward biased to saturation, the transistor turns ‘on’ and current
flows from collector to emitter.
• When the BJT turns ‘on’, the collector emitter drop becomes
negligible. The BJT turns-off as soon as base emitter drive is removed.
Similarly in case of pnp BJT, when base emitter junction is forward
biased to saturation, the transistor turns ‘on’ and current flows from
emitter to collector.
• The transistor turns-off as soon as base emitter drive is removed.
Thus the drive has full control over the conduction of BJT. No
commutating components are required by BJT for turn-off.
Structure of BJT:
• The structure of power BJT is different
compared to small signal transistors.
Figure shows the vertical cross-section of
the npn power BJT.
• The vertical structure maximizes the
cross-sectional area through which the
current in the device is flowing. Because
of this, the on-state resistance and power
dissipation in the transistor is reduced. In
the above structure, observe that there is
highly
19
doped emitter region (about
10 per cm3). The emitter region has the
thickness of about 10 μm. The base has
moderate
16
doping of the order of per
10 cm3.
• The thickness of the base can vary from
5μ to 20 μm. Small base thickness
provides good amplification capabilities.
• But breakdown voltage capability of the transistor is reduced for
small base regions. The collector is split into two regions as
shown in Fig.
• These two regions are 𝑛− (with 1019 per𝑐𝑚3 ) and 𝑛+ (with 1019
per 𝑐𝑚3 ). The 𝑛− region has light doping and it is called
collector drift region. The thickness of 𝑛− layer determines the
breakdown voltage capability of the transistor.
• The 𝑛+ region has high doping intensity. It's doping is similar to
that of emitter. The 𝑛+ region serves as collector contact for
external circuits. In the practical power transistors, the emitters
and bases are interleaved. This reduces the effects of current
crowding and hence possibility of second breakdown.
Steady State Characteristics of BJT:

(a) Input Chartelistics (b) Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics :
• A graph between base current 𝐼𝑠 and base-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 gives input
characteristics.
• As the base-emitter junction of a transistor is like a diode, 𝐼𝐵 versus 𝑉𝐵𝐸 graph
resembles a diode curve.
• When collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 is more than 𝑉𝐶𝐸1 , base current decreases
as shown in the figure.
Output Characteristics:
A graph between collector current 𝐼𝑐 and collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 gives
output characteristics of a transistor.
For zero base current i.e. 𝐼𝐵 = 0 , as 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is increased, a small leakage (collector)
current extracts as shown fig(b).
As the base current is increased from 𝐼𝐵 = 0 to 𝐼𝐵1 , 𝐼𝐵2 etc. collector current also
rise as shown fig(b)
The above figure show two of the output characteristics curece, one for 𝐼𝐵 =
0 and other for 𝐼𝐵 ≠ 0. The initial part of curve 2, characterised bu low 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , is
called the saturation region. In this region the transistor acts like a switch. The
curve 2 indicated by increasing 𝑉𝐶𝐸 and almost costant 𝐼𝐶 is the active
region.
In this region transistor acts like amplifier. Almost vertically rising curve is
the breakdown region which must be avoided at all costs. For load Resistor
𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑅𝐶 , is 𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
This is the equation of load line. It is shown as line AB shown in the figure.
Load line is locus of all possible operating points.
When 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0 then, 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶ൗ𝑅𝐶
Switching Characteristics of BJT:
• Transistor can not be turned on instantly because of the presence of internal
capacitances. Figure (b) shows switching waveforms of an npn transistor
with resistive load between collector and emitter (Figure a). voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is
applied, the base current rises to 𝐼𝐵𝑆 .
• The collector current, however, remains zero or equal to collector-emitter
leakage current 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 as shown . After some time delay 𝑡𝑑 , called delay
time, the collector current begins to rise. This delay is due to the time
required to charge base-emitter capacitance to 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑆 = 0.7𝑉. After this
delay 𝑡𝑑 ,collector current rises to steady state value 𝐼𝐶𝑆 in time 𝑡𝑟 , which is
known as rise time. This means that turn-on time for BJT is 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑡𝑟 .
• Rise time depends upon the input capacitances. During rise time 𝑡𝑟 ,
collector –emitter voltage falls from 𝑉𝐶𝐶 to 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆 .
• The transistor remains in the ON and saturated state so long as forward
base current is maintained.
• When the base-emitter voltage is removed at time 𝑡1 , the collector
current does not change for a time 𝑡𝑠 , called storage time. During
𝑡𝑠 saturating charges is removed from the base. After 𝑡𝑠 , current begins
to fall and at the same time, collector voltage starts building up.
• After 𝑡𝑓 , called fall time, 𝐼𝑐 decreases to 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 (almost zero) and
collector-emitter voltage rises to 𝑉𝐶𝐶 . Sum of storage time and fall time
gives the transistor turn-off-time, i.e. 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝑓 . The various
waveforms during transistor switching are shown in figure (b). In this
figure, 𝑡𝑛 =conduction period. 𝑡𝑜 =off period and 𝑇 = 1ൗ𝑓 is the periodic
time.
Safe Operating Area :
The safe operating area (SOA and SOAR) of a power transistor specifies the
safe operating limits of collector current 𝐼𝐶 versus collector-emitter voltage
𝑉𝐶𝐸 . For reliable operation of the transistor, the collector current and voltage
must always lie within this area. Actually two types of safe operating areas are
specified by the manufacturers, FBSOA and RBSOA
Forward biased SOA (FBSOA): The figured SOA of BJT. The dotted region
is SOA for continuous or DC operation. The junction temperature is maximum
along the boundary of SOA.
The SOA is effectively increased for pulsed operation. In power electronic
converters, BJTs are normally used in pulled mode hence effective SOA is
larger.
The 𝐼𝐶𝑀 is maximum collector current even as a pulse. 𝐵𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑂 is the maximum
collector to emitter voltage when base is open circuited. The SOA is normally
supplied by the manufacturers in the specifications.
Forward Biased Safe Operating area
Reverse biased SOA(RBSOA):
• During turn-off, a transistor is subjected to
high and high voltage with base-emitter
junction reverse biased. Safe operating area
for transistor during turn-off is specified as
reverse blocking safe operating area
(RBSOA). This RBSOA is a plot of
collector current versus collector-emitter
voltage as show figure. RBSOA specifies
the limits of transistor operation at turn-off
when the base current is zero or when the
base-emitter junction is reverse biased. With
increased reverse bias, area RBSOA
decreases in size as shown figure(b)
IGBT :
• The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is the latest
device in power electronics.
• The gate circuit of MOSFET and collector emitter circuits
of BJT are combined together to form an IGBT.
• Thus IGBT has advantages of both the BJT and MOSFETs.
Figure shows the symbol of IGBT. Observe that the
symbol clearly indicates combination of MOSFET and BJT.
• The IGBT has three terminals: Gate (G), collector (C) and
emitter (E). Current flows from collector to emitter
whenever a voltage between gate and emitter is applied.
The IGBT is said to have turned ‘on’.
• When gate emitter voltage is removed, IGBT turns-off.
Thus gate has full control over the conduction of IGBT.
When the gate to emitter voltage is applied, very small
(negligible) current flows. This is similar to the gate circuit
of MOSFET. The on-state collector to emitter drop is very
small like BJT.
Structure of IGBT:
• The structure of IGBT is similar to that of
MOSFET. Figure shows the vertical
cross-section of IGBT. In this structure
observe that there is additional 𝑝+ layer.
This layer is collector (Drain) of IGBT.

• This 𝑝+ injecting layer is heavily doped. It

has the doping intensity of 1019 per
𝑐𝑚3 The doping of other layers is similar
to that of MOSFET. 𝑛+ layers have 1019
per 𝑐𝑚3 . 𝑝− type body region has doping
level of 1016 per 𝑐𝑚3 . The 𝑛− drift region
is lightly doped (1016 per 𝑐𝑚3 ).
Punch through IGBT:

Non- Punch through IGBT:

Operation of IGBT : Now let us see how
IGBT operates. When 𝑉𝐺𝑆 >
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑) , then the channel of
electrons is formed beneath the gate as
shown in Fig. 1.14.3. These electrons attract
holes from 𝑝+ layer. Hence, holes are
injected from 𝑝+ layer into 𝑛− drift region.
Thus hole/electron current starts flowing
from collector to emitter. When holes enter
𝑝− type body region, they attract more
electrons from 𝑛+ layer. This action is
exactly similar to MOSFET. Now let us
see how p injecting layer makes the
operation different than MOSFET.
Characteristics of IGBT:
Static V-I or output characteristics of an IGBT(n-channel type) show the plot
of collector current 𝐼𝐶 versus collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 for various values
of gate-emitter voltages. These characteristics are shown in figure (b). In the
forward direction, the shape of the output characteristics is similar to that of
BJT. But here the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐺𝐸 because
IGBT is a voltage-controlled device.
The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is plot of collector current 𝐼𝐶 versus
gate-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐺𝐸 as shown figure©. This characteristic is identical to
that of power MOSFET. When 𝑉𝐺𝐸 is les than the threshold voltage
𝑉𝐺𝐸𝑇 , IGBT is in the off-state.
When the device is off, junction 𝐽2 blocks forward voltage and in case reverse
voltage appears across collector and emitter, junction 𝐽1 blocks it.
Switching Characteristics
• Switching characteristics of an IGBT during turn-on and turn-off are
sketched in fig. Turn-on time is defined as the time between the instant of
forward blocking to forward on the state. Turn-on time is composed of
delay time tdn and rise time 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = tdn +tr.
• The delay time is defined as the time for the collector-emitter voltage to
fall from VCE to 0.9 VCE. Here VCE is the initial collector emitter voltage.
• Time tdn may also be defined as the time for the collector current to rise
from its initial leakage current ICE to 0.1 Ic. Here Ic is the final value of
collector. The rise time tr is the time during which collector-emitter
voltage falls from VCE.
• It is also defined as the time for the collector current to rise from 0.1 IC to
its final value IC. After time ton, the collector current IC is and the
collector-emitter voltage fall to a small value called conduction drop is
said to be VCES where subscript S denotes saturated value. The turn-off
time is somewhat complex.
•It consists of three intervals : (i) delay time , (ii) initial fall time and (iii)
final fall time.
toff = tdf +tf1+tf2.
•The delay time is the time during which gate voltage fall forms VGE to
threshold VGET.
As VGE falls to VGET during tdf, the collector current falls from Ic to 0.9
Ic . At the end of tdf, the collector-emitter voltage begins to rise.
•The first fall time tf1 is defined as the time during which collector current
fall from 90 to 20 % of its initial value of current IC, or the time during
which collector-emitter voltage rise from VCES to 0.1 VCE.
•The final fall time tf2 is the time during which collector current fall from
20 to 10% of Ic or the time during which collector-emitter voltage rise
from 0.1 VCE to final value VCE has shown in figure.
Switching Limits of IGBT
Application of IGBT:
IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC
circuits. Here are some of the important applications of IGBT
• It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply
power to sensitive medical equipment and computers.
• It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.
• It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.
• It is used in chopper and inverters.
• It is used in solar inverters.
Pulse Transformer:
• Pulse transformers have one primary winding and can have one or more
secondary windings. Multiple secondary windings allow simultaneous
gating signals to series- and parallel-connected transistors
• A pulse transformer is one kind of transformer that is designed &
optimized for voltage pulse transmission in between its two windings as
well as to the connected load. These types of transformers are used for
the transmission of signals in control circuits with less power & the
essential components within high-power SMPS. The Pulse transformer
diagram is shown below.
• These transformers handle currents & voltages in the pulse form so
mostly utilized like Isolating Transformers within power electronic
circuits to separate source & load. This kind of transformer is used in
radar, TV, digital computers, and many more.
The main functions of pulse transformer are:
• The voltage pulse amplitude can be changed
• The pulse polarity can be changed
• Pulse amplifier’s different stages can be coupled
• Used like an Isolation Transformer

Types of Pulse Transformer

• Pulse transformers are classified into two type
a) Power pulse transformers
b) signal pulse transformers.
• Power pulse transformers are used to change the power-level voltages from
one range to another. These types of transformers are available in either 1-
phase or 3-phase primary designs or changes based on the connected winding.
• Signal transformers use electromagnetic induction for transmitting data from
one type of circuit to another circuit.
Pulse transformer :The pulse transformer’s main function is to produce a
signal for a semiconductor device as well as to give electrical isolation. A
toroidal-shaped pulse transformer is shown below which includes two
windings like primary & secondary. The pulse transformer construction is
shown below.
Pulse Transformer Uses/ Applications
• The applications of pulse transformers include the following.
• Pulse Generating Circuits
• Analog Switching Applications
• SCR
• Power Electronics
• Data Handling Circuits
• Radr
• Switching Transistors
• Communication
• Microwave Tube Circuits
• Control Circuit for Firing Control
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRO) Circuits
• Radar Systems
• Digital Electronics
• The transmission line pulse transformer is mainly used in the applications of quick
transmission of pulse signal & also in digital signal transmission.
Advantages & Disadvantages
The advantages of pulse transformer include the following.
• Small in Size
• High Isolation Voltage
• Inexpensive
• Exterior Power Supply is not Required
• It Operates at High Frequency.
• It is Capable For Transmitting High Energy
• Includes More Windings
• Avoids Stray Currents
• It Gives Insulation & Control
The disadvantages of pulse transformer include the following.
• At low frequency, both the output waveforms are different from each other
• The DC supplies throughout primary winding to decrease the saturation of the core.
• This Kind of Transformer Saturates at Fewer Frequencies. Thus it can be utilized for only
maximum frequencies only.
• The Signal is Unclear Because of The Magnetic Coupling
Optocouplers :
Optocouplers combine an infrared light-emitting diode (ILED)
and a silicon phototransistor. The input signal is applied to the
ILED and the output is taken from the phototransistor. The rise
and fall times of phototransistors are very small, with typical
values of turn-on time tn = 2 to 5 μs and turn-off time to = 300 ns.
These turn-on and turn-off times limit the high-frequency
applications. A gate isolation circuit using a phototransistor is
shown in Figure 4.70. The phototransistor could be a Darlington
pair. The phototransistors require separate power supply and add
to the complexity and cost and weight of the drive circuits.
An optocoupler mainly consists of
an infrared LED and a photosensitive
device that detects the emitted infrared
beam. The semiconductor photosensitive
device can be a photodiode, phototransistor,
a Darlington pair, SCR or TRIAC.
The infrared LED and the device that are light
sensitive is packed in a single package. The
LED is kept on the input side and the light-
sensitive material is placed on the output
side. A resistance is connected at the
beginning of the circuit which is used
to limit the current and the other resistance is
connected between the supply voltage and
the collector terminal.
Working of Optocouplers
The infrared LED and the device that are light sensitive is packed in a
single package. The LED is kept on the input side and the light-
sensitive material is placed on the output side. A resistance is
connected at the beginning of the circuit which is used to limit the
current and the other resistance is connected between the supply
voltage and the collector terminal.
• Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on
a phototransistor cause a current to flow through the same.
The current flowing through the phototransistor is directly
proportional to the supplied input voltage. An input resistance placed at
the beginning of the circuit will decrease the amount of current flowing
through the LED if its value is increased. As the LED glows due to this
current, hence, when current will be low so as the light intensity of LED.
• As we have already discussed earlier the intensity of emitted light by the
LED will be equal to the corresponding current flowing through the
phototransistor. This means that the low-intensity light emitted by the
LED will cause a low-level current to flow through the phototransistor.
Thus a changing voltage is generated across the collector-emitter terminal
of the transistor.
• In this way, an incoming signal from the input circuit is coupled to the
output circuit.
Advantages
1.Optocouplers allow easy interfacing with logic circuits.
2.Electrical isolation provides circuit protection.
3.It allows wideband signal transmission.
4.It is small in size and lightweight device.
Disadvantages
1.The operational speed of Optocouplers is low.
2.In case of a very high power signal, the possibility of signal coupling
may arise.
Applications
1.It is used in high power inverters.
2.It is used in high power choppers.
3.In AC to DC converters optocouplers are widely used.