Chapter 2

Aerodynamics of Flight
Introduction
This chapter presents aerodynamic fundamentals and
principles as they apply to helicopters. The content relates to
flight operations and performance of normal flight tasks. It
covers theory and application of aerodynamics for the pilot,
whether in flight training or general flight operations.

2-1
Forces Acting on the Aircraft a direction perpendicular to that flow, the force required to
do this work creates an equal and opposite force that is lift.
Once a helicopter leaves the ground, it is acted upon by
The object may be moving through a stationary fluid, or the
four aerodynamic forces; thrust, drag, lift and weight.
fluid may be flowing past a stationary object—these two are
Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to
effectively identical as, in principle, it is only the frame of
control them with the use of power and flight controls are
reference of the viewer which differs. The lift generated by
essential to flight. [Figure 2-1] They are defined as follows:
an airfoil depends on such factors as:
• Thrust—the forward force produced by the power
• Speed of the airflow
plant/propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the
force of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the • Density of the air
longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case, • Total area of the segment or airfoil
as explained later.
• Angle of attack (AOA) between the air and the airfoil
• Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by
disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and The AOA is the angle at which the airfoil meets the oncoming
other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust and acts airflow (or vice versa). In the case of a helicopter, the object
rearward parallel to the relative wind. is the rotor blade (airfoil) and the fluid is the air. Lift is
• Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the produced when a mass of air is deflected, and it always acts
crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls perpendicular to the resultant relative wind. A symmetric
the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. airfoil must have a positive AOA to generate positive lift. At
It opposes lift and acts vertically downward through a zero AOA, no lift is generated. At a negative AOA, negative
the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG). lift is generated. A cambered or nonsymmetrical airfoil may
produce positive lift at zero, or even small negative AOA.
• Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is
produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on
The basic concept of lift is simple. However, the details of how
the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flightpath
the relative movement of air and airfoil interact to produce
through the center of lift.
the turning action that generates lift are complex. In any case
causing lift, an angled flat plate, revolving cylinder, airfoil,
For a more in-depth explanation of general aerodynamics, etc., the flow meeting the leading edge of the object is forced to
refer to the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. split over and under the object. The sudden change in direction
over the object causes an area of low pressure to form behind
the leading edge on the upper surface of the object. In turn,
due to this pressure gradient and the viscosity of the fluid,
the flow over the object is accelerated down along the upper
Lift

surface of the object. At the same time, the flow forced under
the object is rapidly slowed or stagnated causing an area of
high pressure. This also causes the flow to accelerate along
the upper surface of the object. The two sections of the fluid
each leave the trailing edge of the object with a downward
Thrust Drag
component of momentum, producing lift. [Figure 2-2]

u re Upp
air press to de er cam
Reduced
Weight

flec ber
t air he
dow lps
n

Figure 2-1. Four forces acting on a helicopter in forward flight.

Increased air
pressure underneath
Lift Mass of air deflected down

Lift is generated when an object changes the direction of

flow of a fluid or when the fluid is forced to move by the Figure 2-2. Production of lift.
object passing through it. When the object and fluid move
relative to each other and the object turns the fluid flow in

2-2
Bernoulli’s Principle Venturi Flow
Bernoulli’s principle describes the relationship between While the amount of total energy within a closed system (the
internal fluid pressure and fluid velocity. It is a statement tube) does not change, the form of the energy may be altered.
of the law of conservation of energy and helps explain why Pressure of flowing air may be compared to energy in that the
an airfoil develops an aerodynamic force. The concept of total pressure of flowing air always remains constant unless
conservation of energy states energy cannot be created or energy is added or removed. Fluid flow pressure has two
destroyed and the amount of energy entering a system must components—static and dynamic pressure. Static pressure
also exit. A simple tube with a constricted portion near the is the pressure component measured in the flow but not
center of its length illustrates this principle. An example is moving with the flow as pressure is measured. Static pressure
running water through a garden hose. The mass of flow per is also known as the force per unit area acting on a surface.
unit area (cross-sectional area of tube) is the mass flow rate. Dynamic pressure of flow is that component existing as a
In Figure 2-3, the flow into the tube is constant, neither result of movement of the air. The sum of these two pressures
accelerating nor decelerating; thus, the mass flow rate through is total pressure. As air flows through the constriction, static
the tube must be the same at stations 1, 2, and 3. If the cross- pressure decreases as velocity increases. This increases
sectional area at any one of these stations—or any given dynamic pressure. Figure 2-5 depicts the bottom half of the
point—in the tube is reduced, the fluid velocity must increase constricted area of the tube, which resembles the top half of
to maintain a constant mass flow rate to move the same an airfoil. Even with the top half of the tube removed, the air
amount of fluid through a smaller area. Fluid speeds up in still accelerates over the curved area because the upper air
direct proportion to the reduction in area. Venturi effect is the layers restrict the flow—just as the top half of the constricted
term used to describe this phenomenon. Figure 2-4 illustrates tube did. This acceleration causes decreased static pressure
what happens to mass flow rate in the constricted tube as the above the curved portion and creates a pressure differential
dimensions of the tube change. caused by the variation of static and dynamic pressures.

WATER INPUT WATER OUTPUT

Station 2

Station 3
Station 1

Figure 2-3. Water flow through a tube.

Cross-section of cylinder
Mass of air
Same
mass of air

Velocity increased
Pressure decreased
(compared to original)

Figure 2-4. Venturi effect.

2-3
 Upper layers act to restrict flow

Station 2

Station 3
Station 1

Figure 2-5. Venturi flow.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion increases. The load factor is the actual load on the rotor
Additional lift is provided by the rotor blade’s lower surface blades at any time, divided by the normal load or gross
as air striking the underside is deflected downward. According weight (weight of the helicopter and its contents). Any time
to Newton’s Third Law of Motion, “for every action there a helicopter flies in a constant altitude curved flightpath, the
is an equal and opposite reaction,” the air that is deflected load supported by the rotor blades is greater than the total
downward also produces an upward (lifting) reaction. weight of the helicopter. The tighter the curved flightpath
is, the steeper the bank is; the more rapid the flare or pullout
Since air is much like water, the explanation for this source from a dive is, the greater the load supported by the rotor.
of lift may be compared to the planing effect of skis on Therefore, the greater the load factor must be. [Figure 2-6]
water. The lift that supports the water skis (and the skier) is
the force caused by the impact pressure and the deflection
9
of water from the lower surfaces of the skis.
8
Load factor - (in Gs)

7
Under most flying conditions, the impact pressure and the
deflection of air from the lower surface of the rotor blade 6
provides a comparatively small percentage of the total lift. 5
The majority of lift is the result of decreased pressure above 4
the blade, rather than the increased pressure below it. 3
2
Weight 1
Normally, weight is thought of as being a known, fixed value, 0
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
such as the weight of the helicopter, fuel, and occupants. To
Bank angle (in degrees)
lift the helicopter off the ground vertically, the rotor system
must generate enough lift to overcome or offset the total Figure 2-6. The load factor diagram allows a pilot to calculate
weight of the helicopter and its occupants. Newton’s First the amount of “G” loading exerted with various angles of bank.
Law states: “Every object in a state of uniform motion tends
to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is
applied to it.” In this case, the object is the helicopter whether To overcome this additional load factor, the helicopter must
at a hover or on the ground and the external force applied to be able to produce more lift. If excess engine power is not
it is lift, which is accomplished by increasing the pitch angle available, the helicopter either descends or has to decelerate in
of the main rotor blades. This action forces the helicopter order to maintain the same altitude. The load factor and, hence,
into a state of motion, without it the helicopter would either apparent gross weight increase is relatively small in banks up
remain on the ground or at a hover. to 30°. Even so, under the right set of adverse circumstances,
such as high density altitude, turbulent air, high gross weight,
The weight of the helicopter can also be influenced by and poor pilot technique, sufficient or excess power may not
aerodynamic loads. When you bank a helicopter while be available to maintain altitude and airspeed. Pilots must take
maintaining a constant altitude, the “G” load or load factor all of these factors into consideration throughout the entire

2-4
flight from the point of ascending to a hover to landing. Above attitude along with any other unfavorable condition (i.e., high
30° of bank, the apparent increase in gross weight soars. At gross weight or wind gusts) is most likely to end in disaster.
30° of bank, or pitch, the apparent increase is only 16 percent,
but at 60°, it is twice the load on the wings and rotor system. The tail rotor also produces thrust. The amount of thrust is
For example, if the weight of the helicopter is 1,600 pounds, variable through the use of the antitorque pedals and is used
the weight supported by the rotor disk in a 30° bank at a to control the helicopter’s yaw.
constant altitude would be 1,856 pounds (1,600 + 16 percent
(or 256)). In a 60° bank, it would be 3,200 pounds; in an 80° Drag
bank, it would be almost six times as much, or 8,000 pounds. The force that resists the movement of a helicopter through the
It is important to note that each rotor blade must support a air and is produced when lift is developed is called drag. Drag
percentage of the gross weight. In a two bladed system, each must be overcome by the engine to turn the rotor. Drag always
blade of the 1,600 pound helicopter as stated above would acts parallel to the relative wind. Total drag is composed of
have to lift 50 percent or 800 pounds. If this same helicopter three types of drag: profile, induced, and parasite.
had three rotor blades, each blade would have to lift only 33
percent, or 533 pounds. One additional cause of large load Profile Drag
factors is rough or turbulent air. The severe vertical gusts Profile drag develops from the frictional resistance of the
produced by turbulence can cause a sudden increase in AOA, blades passing through the air. It does not change significantly
resulting in increased rotor blade loads that are resisted by the with the airfoil’s AOA, but increases moderately when
inertia of the helicopter. airspeed increases. Profile drag is composed of form drag and
skin friction. Form drag results from the turbulent wake caused
Each type of helicopter has its own limitations which are based by the separation of airflow from the surface of a structure.
on the aircraft structure, size, and capabilities. Regardless The amount of drag is related to both the size and shape of the
of how much weight one can carry or the engine power structure that protrudes into the relative wind. [Figure 2-7]
that it may have, they are all susceptible to aerodynamic
overloading. Unfortunately, if the pilot attempts to push Form drag
the performance envelope the consequence can be fatal.
Aerodynamic forces effect every movement in a helicopter,
FLAT PLATE
whether it is increasing the collective or a steep bank angle.
Anticipating results from a particular maneuver or adjustment
of a flight control is not good piloting technique. Instead pilots
need to truly understand the capabilities of the helicopter
under any and all circumstances and plan to never exceed SPHERE
the flight envelope for any situation.

Thrust
Thrust, like lift, is generated by the rotation of the main rotor SPHERE WITH
system. In a helicopter, thrust can be forward, rearward, A FAIRING
sideward, or vertical. The resultant lift and thrust determines
the direction of movement of the helicopter.

The solidity ratio is the ratio of the total rotor blade area, SPHERE INSIDE
A HOUSING
which is the combined area of all the main rotor blades, to the
total rotor disk area. This ratio provides a means to measure
the potential for a rotor system to provide thrust and lift. The
Figure 2-7. It is easy to visualize the creation of form drag by
mathematical calculations needed to calculate the solidity ratio
examining the airflow around a flat plate. Streamlining decreases
for each helicopter may not be of importance to most pilots
form drag by reducing the airflow separation.
but what should be are the capabilities of the rotor system
to produce and maintain lift. Many helicopter accidents are
Skin friction is caused by surface roughness. Even though the
caused from the rotor system being overloaded. Simply put,
surface appears smooth, it may be quite rough when viewed
pilots attempt maneuvers that require more lift than the rotor
under a microscope. A thin layer of air clings to the rough
system can produce or more power than the helicopter’s
surface and creates small eddies that contribute to drag.
powerplant can provide. Trying to land with a nose high

2-5
Induced Drag
Induced drag is generated by the airflow circulation around Total drag
the rotor blade as it creates lift. The high pressure area beneath Parasite drag
the blade joins the low pressure area above the blade at the
Minimum Profile drag
trailing edge and at the rotor tips. This causes a spiral, or drag or L/DMAX

Drag
vortex, which trails behind each blade whenever lift is being
produced. These vortices deflect the airstream downward in
the vicinity of the blade, creating an increase in downwash.
Therefore, the blade operates in an average relative wind Induced drag
that is inclined downward and rearward near the blade.
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Because the lift produced by the blade is perpendicular to
Speed
the relative wind, the lift is inclined aft by the same amount.
The component of lift that is acting in a rearward direction
Figure 2-9. The total drag curve represents the combined forces of
is induced drag. [Figure 2-8]
parasite, profile, and induced drag and is plotted against airspeed.

Induced drag while induced drag decreases. Profile drag remains relatively
constant throughout the speed range with some increase at
lift

higher airspeeds. Combining all drag forces results in a total

Total lift

cal

drag curve. The low point on the total drag curve shows the
ti
Ver

airspeed at which drag is minimized. This is the point where

the lift-to-drag ratio is greatest and is referred to as L/DMAX.
At this speed, the total lift capacity of the helicopter, when
compared to the total drag of the helicopter, is most favorable.
Aver
ag e This is an important factor in helicopter performance.
rel
a tive
win
d
Airfoil
Helicopters are able to fly due to aerodynamic forces
Figure 2-8. The formation of induced drag is associated with the
produced when air passes around the airfoil. An airfoil is
downward deflection of the airstream near the rotor blade.
any surface producing more lift than drag when passing
through the air at a suitable angle. Airfoils are most often
associated with production of lift. Airfoils are also used for
As the air pressure differential increases with an increase in
stability (fin), control (elevator), and thrust or propulsion
AOA, stronger vortices form, and induced drag increases.
(propeller or rotor). Certain airfoils, such as rotor blades,
Since the blade’s AOA is usually lower at higher airspeeds,
combine some of these functions. The main and tail rotor
and higher at low speeds, induced drag decreases as airspeed
blades of the helicopter are airfoils, and air is forced to pass
increases and increases as airspeed decreases. Induced drag
around the blades by mechanically powered rotation. In
is the major cause of drag at lower airspeeds.
some conditions, parts of the fuselage, such as the vertical
Parasite Drag and horizontal stabilizers, can become airfoils. Airfoils are
carefully structured to accommodate a specific set of flight
Parasite drag is present any time the helicopter is moving
characteristics.
through the air. This type of drag increases with airspeed.
Non-lifting components of the helicopter, such as the cabin,
Airfoil Terminology and Definitions
rotor mast, tail, and landing gear, contribute to parasite drag.
Any loss of momentum by the airstream, due to such things • Blade span—the length of the rotor blade from center
as openings for engine cooling, creates additional parasite of rotation to tip of the blade.
drag. Because of its rapid increase with increasing airspeed, • Chord line—a straight line intersecting leading and
parasite drag is the major cause of drag at higher airspeeds. trailing edges of the airfoil. [Figure 2-10]
Parasite drag varies with the square of the velocity; therefore,
doubling the airspeed increases the parasite drag four times. • Chord—the length of the chord line from leading edge
to trailing edge; it is the characteristic longitudinal
Total Drag dimension of the airfoil section.
Total drag for a helicopter is the sum of all three drag forces. • Mean camber line—a line drawn halfway between the
[Figure 2-9] As airspeed increases, parasite drag increases, upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. [Figure 2-10]

2-6
 • Angle of attack (AOA)—the angle measured between
the resultant relative wind and chord line.
Mean camber line Trailing edge
• Angle of incidence (AOI)—the angle between the
Camber of upper surface chord line of a blade and rotor hub. It is usually
referred to as blade pitch angle. For fixed airfoils,
such as vertical fins or elevators, angle of incidence
Camber of lower surface
is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil and
a selected reference plane of the helicopter.
Leading edge Chord line
• Center of pressure—the point along the chord line of
an airfoil through which all aerodynamic forces are
Figure 2-10. Aerodynamic terms of an airfoil. considered to act. Since pressures vary on the surface
of an airfoil, an average location of pressure variation
The chord line connects the ends of the mean camber is needed. As the AOA changes, these pressures change
line. Camber refers to curvature of the airfoil and may and center of pressure moves along the chord line.
be considered curvature of the mean camber line. The
shape of the mean camber is important for determining Airfoil Types
aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil section. Symmetrical Airfoil
Maximum camber (displacement of the mean camber
The symmetrical airfoil is distinguished by having identical
line from the chord line) and its location help to define
upper and lower surfaces. [Figure 2-11] The mean camber
the shape of the mean camber line. The location of
line and chord line are the same on a symmetrical airfoil,
maximum camber and its displacement from the chord
and it produces no lift at zero AOA. Most light helicopters
line are expressed as fractions or percentages of the
incorporate symmetrical airfoils in the main rotor blades.
basic chord length. By varying the point of maximum
camber, the manufacturer can tailor an airfoil for a
specific purpose. The profile thickness and thickness Nonsymmetrical
distribution are important properties of an airfoil
section.
• Leading edge—the front edge of an airfoil.
[Figure 2-10]
• Flightpath velocity—the speed and direction of Symmetrical
the airfoil passing through the air. For airfoils on
an airplane, the flightpath velocity is equal to true
airspeed (TAS). For helicopter rotor blades, flightpath
velocity is equal to rotational velocity, plus or minus
a component of directional airspeed. The rotational
velocity of the rotor blade is lowest closer to the hub Figure 2-11. The upper and lower curvatures are the same on a
and increases outward towards the tip of the blade symmetrical airfoil and vary on a nonsymmetrical airfoil.
during rotation.
• Relative wind—defined as the airflow relative to Nonsymmetrical Airfoil (Cambered)
an airfoil and is created by movement of an airfoil The nonsymmetrical airfoil has different upper and lower
through the air. This is rotational relative wind for surfaces, with a greater curvature of the airfoil above the
rotary-wing aircraft and is covered in detail later. As chord line than below. [Figure 2-11] The mean camber
an induced airflow may modify flightpath velocity, line and chord line are different. The nonsymmetrical
relative wind experienced by the airfoil may not be airfoil design can produce useful lift at zero AOA. A
exactly opposite its direction of travel. nonsymmetrical design has advantages and disadvantages.
• Trailing edge—the rearmost edge of an airfoil. The advantages are more lift production at a given AOA
than a symmetrical design, an improved lift-to-drag ratio,
• Induced flow—the downward flow of air through the and better stall characteristics. The disadvantages are center
rotor disk. of pressure travel of up to 20 percent of the chord line
• Resultant relative wind—relative wind modified by (creating undesirable torque on the airfoil structure) and
induced flow. greater production costs.

2-7
Blade Twist There are two parts to wind passing a rotor blade:
Because of lift differential due to differing rotational relative • Horizontal part—caused by the blades turning
wind values along the blade, the blade should be designed plus movement of the helicopter through the air
with a twist to alleviate internal blade stress and distribute [Figure 2-14]
the lifting force more evenly along the blade. Blade twist
provides higher pitch angles at the root where velocity is • Vertical part—caused by the air being forced down
low and lower pitch angles nearer the tip where velocity through the rotor blades plus any movement of the air
is higher. This increases the induced air velocity and blade relative to the blades caused by the helicopter climbing
loading near the inboard section of the blade. [Figure 2-12] or descending [Figures 2-15 and 2-16]

Rotational Relative Wind (Tip-Path Plane)

Rotor Blade and Hub Definitions
The rotation of rotor blades as they turn about the mast
• Hub—on the mast is the center point and attaching produces rotational relative wind (tip-path plane). The term
point for the root of the blade rotational refers to the method of producing relative wind.
• Tip—the farthest outboard section of the rotor blade Rotational relative wind flows opposite the physical flightpath
of the airfoil, striking the blade at 90° to the leading edge and
• Root—the inner end of the blade and is the point that parallel to the plane of rotation; and it is constantly changing
attaches to the hub in direction during rotation. Rotational relative wind velocity
• Twist—the change in blade incidence from the root is highest at blade tips, decreasing uniformly to zero at the
to the outer blade axis of rotation (center of the mast). [Figure 2-17]

The angular position of the main rotor blades is measured Resultant Relative Wind
from the helicopter’s longitudinal axis, which is usually the The resultant relative wind at a hover is rotational relative
nose position and the blade. The radial position of a segment wind modified by induced flow. This is inclined downward
of the blade is the distance from the hub as a fraction of the at some angle and opposite the effective flightpath of the
total distance. airfoil, rather than the physical flightpath (rotational relative
wind). The resultant relative wind also serves as the reference
Airflow and Reactions in the Rotor plane for development of lift, drag, and total aerodynamic
System force (TAF) vectors on the airfoil. [Figure 2-18] When the
Relative Wind helicopter has horizontal motion, airspeed further modifies
Knowledge of relative wind is essential for an understanding the resultant relative wind. The airspeed component of
of aerodynamics and its practical flight application for the relative wind results from the helicopter moving through
pilot. Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement the air. This airspeed component is added to, or subtracted
of an airfoil through the air creates relative wind. Relative from, the rotational relative wind depending on whether
wind moves in a parallel but opposite direction to movement the blade is advancing or retreating in relation to helicopter
of the airfoil. [Figure 2-13] movement. Introduction of airspeed relative wind also

A B C

Tip

Root

Trim tab

A Section near root B Section in center C Section near tip

Note: “More nose-down” tilt to blade section closer to tip

Figure 2-12. Blade twist.

2-8
 Relative wind
Airfoil direction Results in

Results in
n e wind
d irectio Relativ
Airfoil

Relativ
Airfoil e wind
directi Results in
on

Figure 2-13. Relative wind.

Airspeed knots
387
290
183
96

Figure 2-14. Horizontal component of relative wind.

Axis of rotation

Figure 2-16. Normal induced flow velocities along the blade span
during hovering flight. Downward velocity is highest at the blade
tip where blade speed is highest. As blade speed decreases nearer
the center of the disk, downward velocity is less.

Figure 2-15. Induced flow.

2-9
 vertical, and induced drag to be reduced. These conditions
Angle of incidence
allow the rotor system to be more efficient. Maximum
ground effect is achieved when hovering over smooth hard
Center of pressure
surfaces. When hovering over surfaces as tall grass, trees,
Rotational relative wind
bushes, rough terrain, and water, maximum ground effect
is reduced. Rotor efficiency is increased by ground effect
Flightpath of airfoil to a height of about one rotor diameter (measured from the
Chord line
ground to the rotor disk) for most helicopters. Since the
induced flow velocities are decreased, the AOA is increased,
Figure 2-17. Rotational relative wind.
which requires a reduced blade pitch angle and a reduction
in induced drag. This reduces the power required to hover
IGE. [Figure 2-20]
Resultant relative wind

Angle of attack
Out of Ground Effect (OGE)
Center of pressure The benefit of placing the helicopter near the ground is lost
above IGE altitude. Above this altitude, the power required
Rotational relative wind to hover remains nearly constant, given similar conditions
(such as wind). Induced flow velocity is increased, resulting
Induced flow
Chord line in a decrease in AOA and a decrease in lift. Under the
correct circumstances, this downward flow can become so
Figure 2-18. Resultant relative wind. localized that the helicopter and locally disturbed air will sink
at alarming rates. This effect is called settling with power
modifies induced flow. Generally, the downward velocity and is discussed at length in a later chapter. A higher blade
of induced flow is reduced. The pattern of air circulation pitch angle is required to maintain the same AOA as in IGE
through the disk changes when the aircraft has horizontal hover. The increased pitch angle also creates more drag. This
motion. As the helicopter gains airspeed, the addition of increased pitch angle and drag requires more power to hover
forward velocity results in decreased induced flow velocity. OGE than IGE. [Figure 2-21]
This change results in an improved efficiency (additional lift)
being produced from a given blade pitch setting. Rotor Blade Angles
There are two angles that enable a rotor system to produce
Induced Flow (Downwash) the lift required for a helicopter to fly: angle of incidence
At flat pitch, air leaves the trailing edge of the rotor blade in and angle of attack.
the same direction it moved across the leading edge; no lift
or induced flow is being produced. As blade pitch angle is Angle of Incidence
increased, the rotor system induces a downward flow of air Angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line of a
through the rotor blades creating a downward component of main or tail rotor blade and the rotor hub. It is a mechanical
air that is added to the rotational relative wind. Because the angle rather than an aerodynamic angle and is sometimes
blades are moving horizontally, some of the air is displaced referred to as blade pitch angle. [Figure 2-22] In the absence
downward. The blades travel along the same path and pass a of induced flow, AOA and angle of incidence are the same.
given point in rapid succession. Rotor blade action changes Whenever induced flow, up flow (inflow), or airspeed
the still air to a column of descending air. Therefore, each modifies the relative wind, the AOA is different from the
blade has a decreased AOA due to the downwash. This angle of incidence. Collective input and cyclic feathering
downward flow of air is called induced flow (downwash). change the angle of incidence. A change in the angle of
It is most pronounced at a hover under no-wind conditions. incidence changes the AOA, which changes the coefficient
[Figure 2-19] of lift, thereby changing the lift produced by the airfoil.

In Ground Effect (IGE) Angle of Attack

Ground effect is the increased efficiency of the rotor system AOA is the angle between the airfoil chord line and resultant
caused by interference of the airflow when near the ground. relative wind. [Figure 2-23] AOA is an aerodynamic angle
The air pressure or density is increased, which acts to and not easy to measure. It can change with no change in
decrease the downward velocity of air. Ground effect permits the blade pitch angle (angle of incidence, discussed earlier).
relative wind to be more horizontal, lift vector to be more

2-10
 Angle of attack
Angle of attack

Less induced flow B Greater induced flow A

Rotational relative wind Resultant relative wind Rotational relative wind Resultant relative wind

Downward velocity of air molecules used by aft section of rotor

More horizontal
10–20 knots A
flow of air

Figure 2-19. A helicopter in forward flight, or hovering with a headwind or crosswind, has more molecules of air entering the aft portion
of the rotor blade. Therefore, the angle of attack is less and the induced flow is greater at the rear of the rotor disk.

Reduced rotor-tip vortex Altitude at one rotor diameter or less

Axis of rotation
Reduced induced drag angle

Angle of attack Lift

Red
uced TA
blad F
e pit
Resultant relative wind ch a
ngle
Reduced induced flow velocity Rotational relative wind Drag

Lift vector more vertical

Figure 2-20. In ground effect (IGE).

2-11
 Large rotor-tip vortex Altitude greater than one rotor diameter

Lift is perpendicular to resultant relative wind

Axis of rotation
Larger induced drag angle

Angle of attack Lift

Hig
h bl
ade TA
pitc F
Resultant relative wind h an
gle

Larger induced flow velocity Rotational relative wind

Lift vector inclined to rear Dra

g

Figure 2-21. Out of ground effect (OGE).

it becomes more difficult for air to flow smoothly across the

Angle of incidence top of the airfoil. At this point, the airflow begins to separate
from the airfoil and enters a burbling or turbulent pattern.
Center of pressure The turbulence results in a large increase in drag and loss of
lift in the area where it is taking place. Increasing the AOA
Tip-path plane increases lift until the critical angle of attack is reached. Any
increase in the AOA beyond this point produces a stall and
Chord line a rapid decrease in lift.

Several factors may change the rotor blade AOA. The pilot
Figure 2-22. Angle of incidence.
has little direct control over AOA except indirectly through
the flight control input. Collective and cyclic feathering help
Relative Wind
to make these changes. Feathering is the rotation of the blade
Angle of Attack
about its spanwise axis by collective/cyclic inputs causing
Pitch An
changes in blade pitch angle. Collective feathering changes
gle
Reference Plane angle of incidence equally and in the same direction on all
rotor blades simultaneously. This action changes AOA,
which changes coefficient of lift (CL), and affects overall
Axis of Rotation lift of the rotor system.
Chord Line

Cyclic feathering changes angle of incidence differentially

Figure 2-23. The AOA is the angle between the airfoil chord line
around the rotor system. Cyclic feathering creates a
and resultant relative wind.
differential lift in the rotor system by changing the AOA
When the AOA is increased, air flowing over the airfoil is differentially across the rotor system. Aviators use cyclic
diverted over a greater distance, resulting in an increase of feathering to control attitude of the rotor system. It is the
air velocity and more lift. As the AOA is increased further, means to control rearward tilt of the rotor (blowback) caused

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by flapping action and (along with blade flapping) counteract the thrust component, which acts horizontally to accelerate or
dissymmetry of lift (discussed in chapter 3). Cyclic feathering decelerate the helicopter in the desired direction. Pilots direct
causes attitude of the rotor disk to change but does not change the thrust of the rotor system by using the cyclic to change the
the amount of lift the rotor system is producing. tip-path plane as compared to the visible horizon to induce
travel or compensate for the wind and hold a position. At a
Most of the changes in AOA come from change in airspeed hover in a no-wind condition, all opposing forces (lift, thrust,
and rate of climb or descent; others such as flapping occur drag, and weight) are in balance; they are equal and opposite.
automatically due to rotor system design. Flapping is the Therefore, lift and weight are equal, resulting in the helicopter
up and down movement of rotor blades about a hinge on a remaining at a stationary hover. [Figure 2-24]
fully articulated rotor system. The semi-rigid system does
not have a hinge but flap as a unit. The rigid rotor system
has no vertical or horizontal hinges so the blades cannot flap
or drag, but they can flex. By flexing, the blades themselves

Lift
compensate for the forces which previously required rugged
hinges. It occurs in response to changes in lift due to changing
velocity or cyclic feathering. No flapping occurs when the tip-
path plane is perpendicular to the mast. The flapping action
alone, or along with cyclic feathering, controls dissymmetry
of lift. Flapping is the primary means of compensating for Thrust Drag
dissymmetry of lift.

Pilots adjust AOA through normal control manipulation of

Weight
the pitch angle of the blades. If the pitch angle is increased,
the AOA increases; if the pitch angle is reduced, the AOA
is reduced.

Figure 2-24. To maintain a hover at a constant altitude, the lift

Powered Flight
must equal the weight of the helicopter. Thrust must equal any
In powered flight (hovering, vertical, forward, sideward, wind and tail rotor thrust to maintain position. The power must be
or rearward), the total lift and thrust forces of a rotor are sufficient to turn the rotors and overcome the various drags and
perpendicular to the tip-path plane or plane of rotation of frictions involved.
the rotor.

Hovering Flight While hovering, the amount of main rotor thrust can be
changed to maintain the desired hovering altitude. This is
Hovering is the most challenging part of flying a helicopter.
done by changing the angle of incidence (by moving the
This is because a helicopter generates its own gusty air
collective) of the rotor blades and hence the angle of attack
while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage and flight
(AOA) of the main rotor blades. Changing the AOA changes
control surfaces. The end result is constant control inputs
the drag on the rotor blades, and the power delivered by the
and corrections by the pilot to keep the helicopter where
engine must change as well to keep the rotor speed constant.
it is required to be. Despite the complexity of the task, the
control inputs in a hover are simple. The cyclic is used to
The weight that must be supported is the total weight of the
eliminate drift in the horizontal plane, controlling forward,
helicopter and its occupants. If the amount of lift is greater
backward, right and left movement or travel. The throttle, if
than the actual weight, the helicopter accelerates upwards
not governor controlled, is used to control revolutions per
until the lift force equals the weight gain altitude; if thrust is
minute (rpm). The collective is used to maintain altitude. The
less than weight, the helicopter accelerates downward. When
pedals are used to control nose direction or heading. It is the
operating near the ground, the effects of the proximity to the
interaction of these controls that makes hovering difficult,
surface change this response.
since an adjustment in any one control requires an adjustment
of the other two, creating a cycle of constant correction.
The drag of a hovering helicopter is mainly induced drag
During hovering flight, a helicopter maintains a constant
incurred while the blades are producing lift. There is, however,
position over a selected point, usually a few feet above the
some profile drag on the blades as they rotate through the air
ground. The ability of the helicopter to hover comes from the
and a small amount of parasite drag from the non-lift-producing
both the lift component, which is the force developed by the
surfaces of the helicopter, such as the rotor hub, cowlings, and
main rotor(s) to overcome gravity and aircraft weight, and

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