POF PPL 2 Handouts

Principles of flight notes
Part 2
Theories and principles that are acted on a plane

1. Bernoulli’s principle
States that an increase in speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a
decrease in the fluid’s potential energy
Daniel Bernoulli – Swiss mathematician and physicist. Remembered by his application of mathematics to
mechanics, especially fluid mechanics.
Lower pressure is caused by the increase speed of the air over the wing. Lower pressure = Increase in
speed. Higher pressure is caused by the slow speed of the air below the wing increasing its pressure thus
pushing it upward.
2. Newton’s Law of motion

a. Newton’s first law of motion – law of inertia
b. Newton’s second law of motion – law of acceleration
c. Newton’s third law of motion – law of action and reaction
Isaac Newton – English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, and physicist. Widely recognized as the
most influential scientist of all time.
Newton’s first law – law of inertia

States that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to
change its state by the action of an external force.
Newton’s second law – law of acceleration

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force, in the same direction to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
(F=M(a))
Newton’s third law – law of action-reaction

A force is a push or pull that acts upon an object as a results of its interaction with another object.
For every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Airflow and Airfoils

Flow of air and parts of an airplane that contributes lift
Airflow
1. Flow of air around an airfoil
Types of airflow
1. Streamline airflow – called as laminar airflow because there is no turbulent flow
2. Turbulent airflow – does not follow a streamline pattern. Also known as unsteady flow, vortices
or eddying, and is undesirable feature in most phases of flight.
Parts of a turbulent airflow

1. Transition point – point where the airflow around an airfoil becomes turbulent
2. Separation point – it is where the airfoil separates from the turbulent wind and becomes severe.
3. Turbulent flow
Airfoil – surfaces designed to lift an airplane

1. Wings
2. Horizontal stabilizers
3. Vertical Stabilizers
Control surfaces
1. Aileron
2. Rudder
3. Elevator
Shapes of airfoil
1. Symmetrical airfoil – low coefficient of lift
2. Asymmetrical airfoil – higher coefficient of lift
Why asymmetrical airfoil creates more lift than symmetrical airfoil?

Ans: Due to the fundamental theory of aerodynamics concerning Bernoulli’s principle. A curved surface
on the top creates more velocity thus has lower pressure or potential energy and the surface below
creates a slower velocity thus creating a higher pressure pushing the wing upward by newton’s third law
of motion.
In a symmetrical airfoil air flows evenly from top and bottom thus no lift is created at 0 degree angle of
attack. You have to increase your angle of attack (pitch) to create more lift.
Four forces of flight

1. Lift
2. Weight
3. Thrust
4. Drag
Weight
1. A body’s mass or the quantity of matter contained by it.
2. A unit of heaviness
3. Airplane has weight, the weight of gravity that acts through the center of the airplane.
4. Gravitational force
Gross weight
Weight of the aircraft including the fuel, oil,
“The weight of an aircraft is dependent on the load it has to carry and the amount of fuel on board”
Center of gravity
1. Point of where the aircraft would balance.
2. Center of gravity affects the stability of the aircraft.
3. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the CG should maintain within specified limits established by
the aircraft manufacturer
“The CG always differs depending on the factors that affects weight”
Lift
1. Generated aerodynamically by the flow of air around wings
2. As the airplane moves through the air it will experience drag
How lift is created?

Ans: Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s law of motion
“Air density always affects the creation of lift”

The decrease of air density reduces the performance of the aircraft. decrease air density is equals to
increase of temperature meaning air molecules are far from each other which makes it hider to bite
Drag
1. Retarding force
2. Unless counter-acted it will cause the plane to decelerate or lose speed
Types of drag
1. Parasitic drag – combination of skin friction drag, form drag, interference drag
2. Induced drag – by product of lift
Induced drag
1. By product of lift
2. Lift creates vortices over the wing
Parasitic drag
1. Form drag
Arises due to the shape of the object. Larger bodies creates more form drag than bodies who are
thinner.
2. Skin friction drag

Arises from the friction of the fluid against the skin of the object that is moving through it.
Arises from the interaction of the fluid against the skin of the body
*You can reduce skin friction drag by smoothing out the rough surfaces on the skin like replacing the
screws with flush rivets, painting the body, waxing, cleaning, polishing the surfaces of the plane.
3. Interference drag
When airflow around one part of an object (fuselage) must occupy the same space as the airflow around
another part (wings).
Thrust
1. Force that propels the aircraft in the direction of motion. Engines produce thrust
Weight = lift
Drag = thrust
During unaccelerated flight/ straight and level flight

The four forces are all equal
Acceleration
Thrust should be more than drag.
Deceleration
More drag than thrust
Forces acting on a turn
Banking
1. The force causing centripetal acceleration is the horizontal component of lift acting on an
aircraft.
2. The steeper the bank angle, the more lift force required from the wings
Load factor
1. Load factor increases on a turn
2. Represents the global measure of stress to which the aircraft is subjected to.
3. Units are referred to as “G”
4. Ratio between two forces (lift and weight), it is dimensionless
1G = Unaccelerated flight, where weight is equal to lift

2G = 60 degree angle of bank
So when you turn you increase load factor

To solve for the load factor should always be cos(angle) = adjacent / hypotenuse
Adverse yaw
1. Natural and undesirable tendency for an aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction
“When you bank to the left, the right wing has more lift compared to the left wing causing it to
momentarily to yaw right”
Left turning tendencies

1. Torque effect
2. P-factor
3. Spiraling slipstream
4. Gyroscopic precession
Torque effect
1. The rotation of the propeller and engine is clockwise in sight of the pilot then there will be an
opposite reaction transmitted.
2. Newton’s third law of motion
P-Factor
1. The right side of the propeller bites more air than the ascending propeller (left)
2. Creates a downwash effect
Spiraling slipstream
1. Flow of air generated by the propeller that hits the left side of the vertical stabilizer
Gyroscopic Precession
1. Natural and undesirable tendency for an aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction
Stall and stability
Stall
1. When a wing reaches the critical angle of attack
How to recognize a stall?

Ans: airframe shakes known as “pre-buffet” and a stall warning device sounds to warn the pilot that you
are approaching the stall angle.
How to recover from a stall?

Ans: Lower angle of attack
Factors that affects stall

1. Load factor - as load factor increases, stall speed increases as well.
2. Weight – lift must be equal to weight. An increase in aircraft’s weight increases the airplane’s
stall speed
3. Turning – same as load factor as load factor is increased by turning or banking
4. Flaps – flaps decreases stall speed because it increases the camber thus increasing the
coefficient of lift.
5. Wing contamination – causes an early separation of the boundary layer due to dirt, ice, hoar
frost and bugs thus increasing stall speed.
Spin
1. When one wing is stalled than the other
2. The wing on the inside turn is more stalled than the one on the outside turn
“Never do a spin because it is not legally required”
P.A.R.E acronym
P – power back
A – Ailerons neutral
R – Rudder opposite to spin
E – Elevator down
Airplane axes
1. Longitudinal axis – the roll axis, motion of this axis is called roll. An angular displacement is
called bank. Ailerons governs this axis
2. Lateral axis – Motions is called pitch. Elevators are the primary control of pitch
3. Vertical axis – Motion of this axis is called yaw. Rudder is the primary control of this axis.
Stability
1. Ability of the aircraft to correct conditions that acts on it.
2. Some aircraft are very stable like airplanes used for training. Other aircrafts, like fighter jets are
very unstable.
2 types of stability
1. Static stability
2. Dynamic stability
Static stability
-Initial tendency of the aircraft to return to its original position when disturbed
1. Positive
2. Neutral
3. Negative
Positive static Stability

1. An aircraft that has positive static stability tends to return to its original attitude when it’s
disturbed.
Neutral Static Stability
1. Tends to stay in its new attitude when its disturbed
Negative Static Stability

1. Tends to continue moving away from its original attitude when disturbed
Dynamic stability
1. Is how an airplane reacts overtime to a disturbance
a. Positive
b. Neutral
c. Negative
Positive dynamic stability

1. Has oscillations that dampens out overtime
Neutral dynamic stability

1. Has oscillations that never dampens out unless corrected.
Negative dynamic stability

1. Stability gets worse over time
2. Pitch oscillations are amplified over time
“Stable aircrafts are less maneuverable than unstable aircrafts”

“Too stable = Less maneuverable”
“Less stable = more maneuverable”
Ground effect
1. Increased lift force and decreased aerodynamic drag that an aircraft’s wings generate when they
are close to a fixed surface.
2. When landing, ground effect can give the pilot the feeling of floating.
*End*

POF PPL 2 Handouts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POF PPL 2 Handouts

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

POF PPL 2 Handouts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Principles of flight notes

Theories and principles that are acted on a plane

2. Newton’s Law of motion

Newton’s first law – law of inertia

Newton’s second law – law of acceleration

Newton’s third law – law of action-reaction

Airflow and Airfoils

Parts of a turbulent airflow

Airfoil – surfaces designed to lift an airplane

Why asymmetrical airfoil creates more lift than symmetrical airfoil?

Four forces of flight

“The CG always differs depending on the factors that affects weight”

How lift is created?

“Air density always affects the creation of lift”

2. Skin friction drag

During unaccelerated flight/ straight and level flight

Forces acting on a turn

1G = Unaccelerated flight, where weight is equal to lift

So when you turn you increase load factor

Left turning tendencies

Stall and stability

How to recognize a stall?

How to recover from a stall?

Factors that affects stall

“Never do a spin because it is not legally required”

Positive static Stability

Negative Static Stability

Positive dynamic stability

Neutral dynamic stability

Negative dynamic stability

“Stable aircrafts are less maneuverable than unstable aircrafts”

You might also like