University of Calgary

Schulich School of Engineering

Engineering Statics
ENGG 202

Winter 2023
Preface

These lecture notes are developed by Dr. Ahmad Ghasemloonia for teaching Engineering Statics
(ENGG 202) at the University of Calgary in Winter 2023 semester. Unless otherwise stated below the
figures, all figures and problems are adapted from Statics (RC Hibbeler, Prentice Hall, 14th edition) in
compliance with educational exceptions in the Canadian Copyright Act. This is copyright-protected
material and may only be reproduced, redistributed, or copied with the explicit consent of the copyright
holder or if the copying falls under an exception in the Copyright Act, such as fair dealing. These lecture
notes will be supplemented with additional information and explanation by the instructor in the lecture
videos. Dr. Hamid Mostaghimi at the University of Calgary provided editorial revisions for this package.
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles Page 9

1.1: Mechanics

1.2: Definitions

1.3: Newton’s Three Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Gravitation

1.4: Basic Quantities and Units of Measurement

1.5: General Procedure for Analysis

Chapter 2: Force Vectors Page 17

2.1: Introduction

2.2: Scalars and Vectors

2.3: Force Vector Operations

2.3.1: Multiplication and Division of a Force Vector by a Scalar

2.3.2: Force Vector Addition: Resultant Force

2.3.3: Force Vector Subtraction

2.3.4: Finding the Components of a Force

2.4: Coplanar Force Vectors Manipulation in Cartesian Coordinate

2.5: Three Dimensional Force Systems

2.6: Dot Product

Chapter 3: Particle Equilibrium Page 33

3.1: Introduction

3.2: Equilibrium of a Particle

3.3: The Free-Body Diagram

 3.4: Forces in Springs and Cables

3.5: Static Equilibrium of Particles in Two Dimensions

3.6: Static Equilibrium of Particles in Three Dimensions

Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies Page 41

4.1: Introduction

4.2: Moment of a Force about a Point - Scalar Formulation

4.3: Moment of a Force about a Point - Vector Formulation

4.4: Moment of a Force about an Arbitrary Axis

4.5: Moment of a Couple

4.6: Simplification of Force and Couple Systems

4.7: Center of Gravity and Centroid of the Rigid Body

4.8: Distributed Loads

Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies Page 65

5.1: Introduction

5.2: Static Equilibrium Conditions for Rigid Bodies

5.3: Static Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Coplanar (2D) Problems

5.4: Free-Body Diagrams and Support Reactions

5.5: Two-Force and Three-Force Members

5.6: Static Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensional Problems

5.7: Support Reactions in in Three Dimensional Problems

5.8: Statical Determinacy and Constraints

Chapter 6: Structural Analysis Page 85

6.1: Introduction

6.2: Simple Trusses

6.2.1: The Method of Joints

6.2.2: The Method of Sections

6.3: Frames and Machines

Chapter 7: Internal Forces Page 105

7.1: Introduction

7.2: Internal Loadings: Shear Force, Normal Force and Bending Moment

7.3: Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Chapter 8: Friction Page 121

8.1: Introduction

8.2: Dry (Coulomb) Friction

8.3: Types of Friction Problems

8.4: Wedges
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Statics and

General Principles
Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

1.1: Mechanics
Mechanics is the physical science that describes and predicts the state of objects in rest or motion under
the effect of forces acting on objects. Mechanics can be classified into three main categories:

 Rigid body mechanics

 Deformable body mechanics
 Fluid mechanics

In Statics we will focus on rigid body mechanics. Deformable body mechanics (also called mechanics of
materials or solid mechanics) is the subject which will be studied in upper year courses (ENME 317,
ENCI 317, ENCI 413, ENME 479, etc.) deals with the deformation of deformable materials under the
action of loads and the resulting state of stress in them. Fluid mechanics is the study of incompressible
and compressible fluids which will be discussed in upper-level courses such as ENME 341, ENCI 402,
ENME 495, etc. Study of mechanics goes back to 287-212 B.C., where Archimedes described the
principle of lever and buoyancy. Later on, Stevinus (1548-1620) developed the vectorial nature of forces.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) contributed to mechanics by experiments on falling stones. Newton (1642-
1727) developed the law of universal gravitational attraction and fundamental equations for mechanics
with his famous three laws of motion, which were extended later by D’Alembert, Lagrange and Hamilton.
Einstein’s theory of relativity challenged Newtonian Mechanics; however, Newtonian Mechanics is still
used to analyze and solve most mechanics problems.

Rigid body mechanics is divided into two categories:

 Statics – equilibrium of bodies (i.e., those at rest or moving with a constant velocity)
 Dynamics – the accelerated motion of bodies

Statics is the subject that we study in this course to understand the forces/moments acting on objects in
rest, the concept of internal/external forces in structures and the friction force. Dynamics is a subject that
will be taught in a future course (ENGG 349), that describes the accelerated motion of objects. Statics can
be considered as a special case of dynamics where the acceleration of an object is zero.

1.2: Definitions
In Statics, we introduce the fundamental principles on particles and then the concepts will be expanded to
rigid bodies. So, let’s start by some definitions.
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

Particle: A particle has a mass, but its dimensions can be neglected. In other words, the dimensions and
the shape of the object does not change the solution of the problem. For example, once we study the
motion of an airplane flying from Calgary to St. John’s (this is a problem in Dynamics), the dimensions of
the airplane compared to the flight path is negligible. Another way of discussing this idealization is once
all the forces acting on an object are acting at a unique point. Pay attention that the weight of the particle
is not ignored in the analysis. This is an idealization and is just to introduce the fundamental concepts.
Later on in the course, we will expand the fundamental concepts to objects with dimension (rigid bodies).

Rigid body: A rigid body is an object that its dimension is important in the study of the problem;
however, the distance between any two points on the object does not change after applying loads on the
object. This is an idealization of an object as the object deforms under loads, however, the deformations
could be negligible compared to the dimensions of the object and the small deformations do not affect the
equilibrium conditions. Since we do not consider the deformations in rigid body assumption, we do not
consider any material properties (except density or weight) in the static analysis of rigid bodies. The
material properties and their role in the deformations is the concept which will be studied in courses such
as Mechanics of Materials and Fundamentals of Engineering Materials.

Force: Force is the interaction of bodies on each other. The concept of force is mainly divided into two
major categories: contact forces and body forces. The contact forces exist when two bodies are in direct
contact with each other (e.g., you are pushing the wall with your hands). The body forces exist once an
object is in a force field (e.g., gravity field, magnetic field).

Forces can be also categorized as distributed loads and concentrated loads based on their point of
applications. Every force is applied to a finite area or volume (e.g., distributed across an area or a
volume). For example, the weight load of snow on the roof is distributed across the area of the roof
(figure on the left below). With techniques we introduce in this course, the distributed loads can be
simplified to concentrated loads acting at a single point on an object. If the area or the volume that the
load is applied to, is much less the area or the volume of the object, then the applied force can be modeled
at a single point on the object and is called concentrated force (figure on the right below). The assumption
of the concentrated force does not alter the accuracy of solutions. The weight of the body which is a
distributed load also is simplified as a concentrated force acting on the center of gravity of rigid bodies.

The force can be also divided into other categories such as internal or external forces, concurrent forces,
coplanar forces, etc., which will be discussed in future chapters.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

Figure from Wikimedia Figure from Wikimedia

1.3: Newton’s Three Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The fundamental principles of mechanics were developed by Isaac Newton (1642-1727). The three laws
of motion are defined with respect to a non-accelerating frame of reference (also called fixed, Newtonian
frame, or non-accelerating frame) that will be discussed in Dynamics (ENGG 349).

1st Law: An object remains at rest or moves at a constant speed along a straight path if the net force
acting on the object is zero.

2nd Law: If the net force acting on an object is not zero, the object accelerates in the direction of the net
force, where the magnitude of its acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the net force. The mass
(𝑚) is defined as resistance against the accelerated motion. If the particle has a mass of 𝑚, then:

𝐹⃗ 𝑚𝑎⃗

 In Statics: ∑𝐹⃗ 0.

3rd Law: For objects in contact, the action and reaction forces in contact (pull, push forces) are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, and have the same line of action (collinear reaction).

Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

Any two particles of mass 𝑀 and 𝑚 at a distance 𝑟 with respect to each other attract each other with equal
and opposite forces defined as:

The weight is derived from this law when an object is near the surface of the earth:

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

1.4: Basic Quantities and Units of Measurement

Space (length), time, mass and force are the four basic concepts (fundamental quantities) in mechanics.

Space defines the size of an object in two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) coordinate
systems. The position of a point in an object is defined in the same way by using the distance and the
angular positions of the point with respect to the origin of the coordinate system.

Time is the measure of the duration of an event. In Statics, time is not involved in the solution of
problems. Thus, Statics problems are not time dependent. In Dynamics, the solution of problems are time
dependent due to the accelerated motion of objects.

Mass is the measure of the quantity of the matter in an object or as defined in Dynamics, is the resistance
toward the change of the velocity. This concept is included in Statics problems as weight.

In Newtonian mechanics, space, mass and time are independent of each other; however, force (as
described in the Newton’s 2nd Law) is a dependent parameter on the mass and how the body accelerates.

Two systems of units (measurement units) are commonly used in engineering applications:

 SI Units: The International System of units (SI)

 U.S. Customary system of units (FPS)

The measurement units for the four basic concepts are summarized in the table below. As you can see, the
force is not an independent concept and its units can be derived from the units of the mass, time and
length by Newton’s 2nd Law of motion.

Measurement unit SI units FPS units

Length meters (m) feet (ft)
Time seconds (s) seconds (s)
Mass kilograms (kg) slug
Force newton (N) pounds (lb)
Acceleration of 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 9.81 𝑔 32.2
Gravity 𝑠 𝑠

In this course, we will work only with the SI units; however, the SI units can be easily converted to the
FPS units if required.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

Note: Although discussed in Chapter 1 of the textbook, in ENGG 202 students do not have to concern
themselves with significant digits. Rather, it is just important to carry enough figures (3 digits after the
decimal point) and not round too much in intermediate steps. This will ensure the resulting answer is not
significantly affected. At the same time, showing too many digits after the decimal place is not necessary
and only makes it more difficult to present clear solutions for grading on examinations.

1.5: General Procedure for Analysis

The most effective way of learning the principles of engineering mechanics is to solve problems. To be
successful, it is important to always present your work in a logical and orderly manner, as suggested:

 Read the problem carefully.

 Draw any necessary diagrams with a large scale and different colors.
 Summarize the problem data.
 Apply the relevant principles, generally in a mathematical form.
 Check that equations are dimensionally homogeneous.
 Solve the necessary equations (make sure there is enough equations for the unknowns).
 Clearly indicate the final answer with no more than three significant figures.
 Review the answer with technical judgment & common sense to determine if it seems reasonable.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statics and General Principles

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 Chapter 2

Force Vectors
Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.1: Introduction
In Chapter 1, we realized that forces are one of the basic quantities in mechanics. We defined the force as
the interaction of bodies on each other. We discussed that forces could be distributed or concentrated. In
this chapter, we will discuss the vector operation techniques and implement these techniques in finding
resultant forces or decomposing a force into its components along a set of arbitrary or orthogonal axes.
We will discuss the concurrent and coplanar system of forces. We will continue with 3D Cartesian
coordinate systems and the position vectors in the 3D coordinate systems. Finally, we will discuss how a
force can be decomposed along a particular direction and the implementation of the dot (inner) product in
this procedure. This chapter prepares us to mathematically formulate the equilibrium state of particles in
Chapter 3.

2.2: Scalars and Vectors

Physical parameters in mechanics are either vectorial or scalars:

 Scalar: is any physical quantity that could be positive or negative without defining any direction
for it. The magnitude is completely enough to define any scalar parameter. For example, the mass
of an airplane is a scalar quantity, or the length of a book is a scalar quantity.
 Vector: A quantity that requires both the magnitude and direction to be completely defined. For
example, once we talk about a force, it is important to mention both the magnitude of the force and
its direction.

A car on the highway is going:

 At a speed of 100 km/h – this is a scalar (there is no information about the direction).
 Velocity of the car would be represented as, for example, 100 km/h, North – this is a vector
(magnitude and direction).

Let’s look at the following picture where a force is sketched as:

Vector quantities are represented by boldface letters in our textbook; however, in these notes, we always
use the vector sign above the force symbol, e.g., vector 𝑨 is defined as 𝐴⃗.
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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.3: Force Vector Operations

A force is a vector quantity since it has a specified magnitude and direction (and the point of application).
In this section, we will discuss force vector manipulation techniques (multiplication, division, addition and
subtraction).

2.3.1: Multiplication and Division of a Force Vector by a Scalar

If we multiply a force vector by a positive scalar, then the length of the result force vector will be
increased proportional to the positive scalar. If we multiply a force vector by a negative scalar, then the
magnitude of the result force vector will be increased proportional to the magnitude of the scalar
magnitude, however the direction of the result force vector will be reversed.

2.3.2: Force Vector Addition: Resultant Force

In mechanics, particles are mostly under the interaction of multiple forces, and we are interested in finding
a single force that has the same net effect on the particle as of multiple forces. Such a force is called a
resultant force. Before we discuss the methods that can be implemented to find the resultant force, we
need to discuss two definitions related to force vectors:

 Concurrent forces: Two or more force vectors are considered concurrent at a point, when their
lines of action intersect at that point.
 Coplanar forces: All force vectors acting on a particle lie in a single plane.

Force vectors can be added together to find the resultant force with:

 the parallelogram law of addition,

 the triangle rule, and
 the algebraic method (will be discussed in Section 2.4).

Parallelogram law of force vector addition: If we have two arbitrary forces, 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ , then these two
forces can be added together to find the resultant force, 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ , with the parallelogram law using
the following procedure:

 Join the tails of the two forces at a point to make them concurrent.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

 From the head of 𝐹⃗ , draw a line parallel to 𝐹⃗ . Draw another line from the head of 𝐹⃗ parallel to
𝐹⃗ . These two lines intersect at point 𝑃.
 The diagonal of the resulting parallelogram that extends from the concurrent point to point 𝑃, is
the resultant force 𝐹⃗ .

NOTE: Force vectors in this method must be drawn to scale.

NOTE: The sum of scalar magnitudes of two forces is not equal to the magnitude of the resultant force.

Triangle rule for force vector addition: Alternatively, we can find the resultant force of two arbitrary
forces 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ using the triangle rule, which is a special case of the parallelogram law. The triangle rule
is considered as drawing only half of the parallelogram. In this method, force vector 𝐹⃗ is added to force
vector 𝐹⃗ in a “head-to-tail” fashion.

 Connect the head of 𝐹⃗ to the tail of 𝐹⃗

 Connect the tail of 𝐹⃗ to the haed of 𝐹⃗ and call it the resultant force 𝐹⃗ .

It is clear that the resultant force found by both methods results in the same vector.

In a similar way, the resultant force 𝐹⃗ can also be obtained by adding 𝐹⃗ to 𝐹⃗ .

From the discussion above it is obvious that force vector addition is commutative, or simply we can add
force vectors in any order, i.e., 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ .

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

It is important to know that once we want to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force,
we can use the law of sines and cosines. We usually need to state the direction of the resultant force with
respect to a reference axis, e.g., the resultant force is directed 30° clockwise (𝐶𝑊) with respect to the
positive 𝑥-axis.

Addition of several force vectors: If we want to find the resultant force of more than two force vectors,
we need to initially find the resultant force of two forces by either the parallelogram law or the triangle
law, and then add their resultant force to the third one. This process can be repeated if we have more than
three forces.

Also, the triangle rule can be implemented to add several force vectors.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.3.3: Force Vector Subtraction

Two force vectors can be subtracted with the parallelogram or the triangle laws. For subtraction of two
vectors, 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ , we just add vector 𝐹⃗ to vector 𝐹⃗ . Pay attention that vector 𝐹⃗ is the same vector as
𝐹⃗ , but in the opposite direction.

Is vector subtraction commutative?

Example 2.1: Determine the magnitude of the resultant force 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ and its direction, measured
counterclockwise (𝐶𝐶𝑊) from the positive 𝑥-axis. Solve the problem with both the parallelogram and the
triangle laws of vector addition.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.3.4: Finding the Components of a Force

A force vector acting on a particle can be decomposed (resolved) into multiple force components. This is
to analyze a force and its effect in certain directions. Any arbitrary force can be decomposed into its
components along any set of arbitrary axes. The most practical way of resolving a force is decomposing it
into two components along two axes to study the pulling or pushing effect in two specific directions.
These two axes could be perpendicular (will be studied in Section 2.4) or they can form an angle other
than 90° . To decompose a force into its components, draw two parallel lines from the head of the force
vector parallel to each axis. These lines intersect with the two axes and the result is a parallelogram.
Then connect the tail of the force vector to the two intersection points. The edges of the parallelogram
along the two axes are two components of the force. The magnitude of the components can be determined
using the sines and cosines rules. Let’s practice this by decomposing the force 𝐹⃗ into its components
along the 𝑢 and 𝑣 axes:

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Example 2.2: Decompose force 𝐹⃗ into its components acting along the 𝑢 and 𝑣 axes and determine the
magnitudes of the components.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.4: Coplanar Force Vectors Manipulation in Cartesian Coordinate

The graphical methods discussed in Section 2.3 for force vector manipulation are good to understand the
physics of the problem. Those techniques are practical in 2D force vectors, time-consuming, and difficult
to be implemented as finding angles and magnitudes require extensive use of trigonometry laws. We need
an analytical/mathematical method to decompose forces into their components and also to find the
resultant force. The Cartesian coordinate system is one of the most practical coordinate systems that can
be implemented in Statics to find the resultant force and also to determine the components of a force along
the orthogonal 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, i.e., finding rectangular components of a force.

In the Cartesian coordinates system, the Cartesian unit vectors 𝚤̂ and 𝚥̂ can be used to state any force in
terms of its rectangular components. A force 𝐹⃗ can be stated in terms of its Cartesian components and the
magnitude of the components can be found with the sines and cosines rules in a right triangle:

When we have the Cartesian components of a system of coplanar forces, we can add them by algebraic
sum of the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of all the forces to find the resultant force. The magnitude of the resultant
force and its direction then can be determined with the sines and cosines rule and the length of the
hypogenous in a right triangle.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Example 2.3: Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction measured counterclockwise
(𝐶𝐶𝑊) from the positive 𝑥-axis.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.5: Three Dimensional Force Systems

In mechanics, we have systems that forces are in three dimensions (3D) and we need to find methods to
analyze these forces. Also, we are required to decompose these forces into mutually perpendicular
components to set up the equilibrium equations in three-dimensional force systems. The Cartesian
coordinate system is the best system that these forces could be represented. To start analyzing the 3D
force systems, we are required to state the force in terms of the Cartesian unit vectors 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂, and 𝑘. In 3D
systems, we often know the magnitude of a force and two points on the line of action of the force. In this
section, we will define a method that enables us to write a 3D force in the three-dimensional coordinate
system. To do this, we start with the position vector of a point in 3D space.

Let’s consider point 𝐴 and its position vector sketched from the origin of the coordinate system to point 𝐴:

We can define the direction of vector 𝐴⃗ to be three angles that this vector makes with the positive 𝑥, 𝑦 and
𝑧 axes. These angles 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 are called coordinarte direction angels of vector 𝐴⃗ and can be
determined as:

The above three cosine magnitudes are called direction cosines of vector 𝐴⃗.

There is another alternate way of defining vector 𝐴⃗ by its unit vector:

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Note that the magnitude of the unit vector is 1 and the following equation can be used between the
direction cosines to find an unknown angle.

Now we can go ahead and define the position vectors in 3D space and then define a unit vector along two
points in 3D space that can be used to define a 3D force vector. Consider position vectors 𝑟⃗ and 𝑟⃗ :

With the same procedure described above, if we have a force vector 𝐹⃗ with any two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 along
its line of action, we can define the force vector in the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system as:

Now, we know a method to find a force in the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, if we have
multiple concurrent forces in the three-dimensional space, we can define each of these forces by finding
their unit vectors, representing each of them with their Cartesian components. Then, we can find the
resultant force by algebraically adding their 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 components:

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Example 2.4: Express 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ in the Cartesian vector form and then find the resultant force of these
two forces at point 𝐴. Also, determine the magnitude and the coordinate direction angles of the resultant
force at point 𝐴.

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

2.6: Dot Product

In mechanics, sometimes we need to find a component of a force along a line. In 2D problems, we
learned how to decompose a force into its components along an arbitrary system of axes using sine and
cosine laws. Now that we know how to represent 2D and 3D vectors in the Cartesian coordinate system,
we can use a vector operation called the dot (inner) product to find the components of a force along a
specific axis, or to find the angle between two force vectors. Let’s start by defining the dot product. If we
have two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ , the dot product opetation between these two vectors is defined as:

As you can see, the result of the dot product is a scalar value (could be positive or negative) and the order
of the dot product does not matter, i.e., 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ .

If vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are stated in the Cartesian coordinate system, then the dot product of these two vectors
is defined as:

Now that we know the definition of the dot product between two vectors, we can discuss its applications.
If we have a force vector 𝐹⃗ and if we know the unit vector of any arbitrary line, then we can find the
component of force vector 𝐹⃗ along this line by the dot product feature.

Additionally, if we want to know the angle between two force vectors, we can find the angle using the dot
product:

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Chapter 2: Force Vectors

Example 2.5: Determine the projection of the force 𝐹⃗ along the pole.

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 Chapter 3

Particle Equilibrium
Chapter 3: Particle Equilibrium

Chapter 3: Particle Equilibrium

3.1: Introduction
In Chapter 2, we learned how to define forces in 2D and 3D coordinate systems and how to decompose
them into their components along a line, a set of arbitrary axes or orthogonal Cartesian axes. In this
chapter, we will discuss the state of the static equilibrium for particles in 2D and 3D spaces. We will start
by the concept of the static equilibrium using Newton’s second law and then implement this equation for
the particles in the static equilibrium state, in 2D and 3D spaces. We will discuss the important concept of
free-body diagrams (FBDs) and how to draw an FBD for a particle. This concept will be used in future
courses and is one of the most important steps needs to be taken to solve a problem in mechanics. By the
end of this chapter, you will learn the applications of static equilibrium in real life examples. This chapter
helps us to determine the forces in cables, poles and rods, and you will use these techniques in future
course to predict the failure of different components.

3.2: Equilibrium of a Particle

A particle in 2D and 3D spaces is in static equilibrium if it remains at rest or moves at a constant velocity.
To satisfy this condition, if we use Newton’s second law, we know that the net or resultant force on the
particle must be zero:

So, we can use this equation in both 2D and 3D force systems to satisfy the static equilibrium condition.
As we remember from Chapter 1, a particle has mass and is dimensionless, so it is important to set up this
equation for a point in the system that is dimensionless and the line of action of forces are passing through
that point. To be able to do this, we need to know the concept of the free-body diagram. In Chapter 5,
once we discuss the concept of equilibrium of rigid bodies, you will realize that another parameter (the
moment) needs to be considered due to the dimensions of the system and will be set to zero to satisfy the
static equilibrium equation of rigid bodies.

3.3: The Free-Body Diagram

Drawing the free-body diagram (FBD) is always the first step in solving any problem in mechanics. It
provides a good insight into the forces acting on a system. To draw FBDs, consider a point (particle) in
the system where most of the forces (whether know or unknown) are passing through it (or their lines of
action are passing through that point). Sometimes in the problems, we might need to draw multiple FBDs

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Chapter 3: Particle Equilibrium

to solve the problem. Once you decided about the point (particle), isolate the particle from surrounding
and show all the forces acting on the particle.

To draw an FBD:

1. Define a reference coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian) and indicate the direction of the gravity vector.
2. Sketch the body (the particle).
3. Draw all forces acting on the particle with distinct labels.
 Draw all known forces with their correct directions.
 Assume directions of unknown forces, try to assume reasonably to aid in visualizing the problem.
4. Indicate any angles between forces and the reference coordinate system.
 Draw exaggerated angles to help identify if sines or cosines are needed for force components.
5. For a particle, all forces act at a point (i.e., concurrent).
 If you draw the body with its shape to show how the forces really act on it, assume all forces act
through the center of mass when solving for equilibrium.

3.4: Forces in Springs and Cables

A spring is a mechanical device that stores energy. When a spring is deformed, a force is developed in the
spring that resists its deformation. The force always acts in a way to restore the spring to its original
length. The force that is developed in a spring due to the change in its length is proportional to a constant
called spring stiffness (𝑘) and also is proportional to the change in its length (∆𝑥). The magnitude of force
exerted on a linearly elastic spring is 𝐹 𝑘∆𝑥.

 𝑘 is the stiffness of a spring and ∆𝑥 𝑙 𝑙 ) is the change in the length of the spring.
 𝑙 is the unstretched length measured from the spring’s unloaded position.
 𝑙 is the length of the spring after the load is applied.
 If ∆𝑥 is positive, causing an elongation, then 𝐹 must pull on the spring.
 If ∆𝑥 is negative, causing a shortening, then 𝐹 must push on the spring.

Cables and pulleys are mechanical components to transfer forces from a point to another point and also to
provide mechanical advantage in systems. In this course, it will be assumed that all cables (or cords) are
massless, and always act in tension. Additionally, we ignore the friction between cables and pulleys. Pay
attention that due to these assumptions, forces in cables remain the same from a point to another point
along the cable.

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Chapter 3: Particle Equilibrium

Example 3.1: In the system below, which point is the best point to draw the free-body diagram around it?
Draw the FBD of that point.

3.5: Static Equilibrium of Particles in Two Dimensions

As discussed in Section 3.2, the static equilibrium condition for particles occurs once the resultant force
on the particle satisfy the ∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 equation. In 2D systems, this equation can be expanded for any
particle in two dimensions (e.g., in Cartesian coordinate, this equation can be expanded in the 𝑥 and 𝑦
directions):

These two linear equations can be solved to find at most two unknowns in the problems which could be
magnitude of forces or the direction angles of forces with respect to a reference axis. It is important to
assume and show the positive directions for the coordinate axes in the problem as we are algebraically
adding the force components along the axes. There might be problems that you need to write this
equation for two particles to completely solve the problem and find all the unknowns. Additionally, if you
cannot decide about a correct direction of a force, assume a direction in the FBDs. Once you are solving
the systems of equations, if you get a negative answer for a magnitude of a force, then this indicates that
the direction that you initially assumed for that force is not correct and it needs to be reversed. You do not
need to solve the problem again and once reporting that force, just report the correct direction.

For springs, if the provided information in the problem indicates the direction of the force (tension or
compression), draw that force in the correct direction in FBDs. For cables, always draw the force in a
direction that indicates the cable is under tension.

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Example 3.2: If the mass of cylinder 𝐶 is 40 kg, determine the mass of cylinder 𝐴 in order to hold the
assembly in the position shown.

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3.6: Static Equilibrium of Particles in Three Dimensions

In the previous chapter, we learned how to state a 3D force in its Cartesian coordinate components.
Additionally, in Section 3.2, we realized that the static equilibrium condition for a particle occurs once the
resultant force on the particle satisfies the ∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 condition. In 3D systems, this equation can be
expanded for any particle in three directions (e.g., for Cartesian coordinate, this equation can be expanded
in the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 directions). Once we decided about the point that we need to draw its FBD (a point that
has most of the forces acting on it), then we need to expand the equilibrium equation in three orthogonal
directions:

This results in a system of three equations and three unknowns and can be solved to determine at most
three unknowns (force magnitudes or directions). Most of the 3D problems require stating the forces in
3D Cartesian coordinate system before setting up the static equilibrium equation.

Example 3.2: The shear leg derrick is used to haul a 200-kg net of fish onto the dock. Determine the
force along each of the legs 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐵 and in the winch cable 𝐷𝐵.

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 Chapter 4

Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

4.1: Introduction
In the previous chapter, we discussed the state of equilibrium for particles and realized that to satisfy the
static equilibrium condition for particles, ∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 equation should be satisfied. However, most of
systems in mechanics cannot be represented as particles and we mainly deal with structures with large
dimensions in mechanics. So, we need to start the discussion on the equilibrium of rigid bodies. Before
studying the equilibrium of rigid bodies in the next chapter, we need to study the effect of forces while
acting on rigid bodies and when the dimensions of the rigid body is involved in the analysis of problems.
Since forces are acting at different points on rigid bodies, they cause an effect that the rigid body will have
a tendency to rotate. The tendency to rotate is caused by the moment (also called torque) produced by
forces at different points on rigid bodies. In this chapter, we will study the concept of moment and its
formulation in scalar and vectorial notations and also discuss the concept of moment of a force about an
axis. Furthermore, we will discuss the concept of couple moments and discuss the methods that simplify
the force systems of rigid bodies. We will also discuss the concept of centroids and the center of gravity
of rigid bodies. We will conclude the chapter by simplifying the distributed loads on the beams and
obtaining their equivalent resultant forces. This chapter provides us with tools and methods to start the
discussion of equilibrium in rigid bodies required in Chapter 5.

4.2: Moment of a Force about a Point - Scalar Formulation

Consider the figure below where a wrench is used to screw or unscrew a bolt. The force that the hand
applies to the wrench causes the rotation of the wrench at point 𝑂 about the 𝑧-axis. This tendency to
rotate a rigid body about a point is caused by a mechanical concept called moment or torque. In future
courses, torque is used to describe the moment that causes twisting in rotary motions and moment is used
once causing bending in deformable materials. The moment caused by the force about point 𝑂 is
proportional to the magnitude of the force (the larger the force, the greater the moment) and also to the
perpendicular distance that the line of action of the force (moment arm) has with respect to point 𝑂.
Consider that if force 𝐹⃗ is a bit tilted (such as the middle figure), then the tendency of the wrench to rotate
about point 𝑂 is less compared to the state of full vertical force to the moment arm (figure on the left). If
the force 𝐹⃗ passes through point 𝑂 (figure on the right), then do you agree that this force does not cause
any moment about point 𝑂 and the wrench does not rotate? So, for having a moment about a point, there
should exist a force and also, the line of action of the force should not pass through that point.
Additionally, you can visualize in the figure that the moment is directed counterclockwise (𝐶𝐶𝑊) along
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the 𝑧-axis. If we change the direction of force 𝐹⃗ , then the direction of the moment will be reversed and it
will be clockwise (𝐶𝑊). Since we are talking about the direction of the moment, then definitely the
moment of a force about a point is a vectorial quantity, and anytime that we report the moment, the
direction of rotation should be also reported. The last point that needs emphasis is that although we are
talking about the moment of the force about a point (e.g., point 𝑂), in reality, we talk about the moment of
the force about an axis passing through point 𝑂 and normal to the plane that has the force vector on it.

Now that we defined the moment vector and affecting parameters on the moment vector, let’s define the
scalar equation of the moment. The moment vector of force 𝐹⃗ about point 𝑂 in the scalar notation is:

In the above equation, 𝐹⃗ is the magnitude of the force vector 𝐹⃗ and 𝑑 (the moent arm) is the
perpendicular distance from the point that we are interested to write the moment about, to any point on the
line of action of the force. From the above equation, we realize that the unit of the moment vector is 𝑁. 𝑚.
Since the moment is a vector, the direction should always be reported even if we used the scalar equation
to find the moment magnitude. In the following picture, we can see that the direction of the moment is
counterclockwise (positive 𝑧 direction). So, it is clear that in 2D problems while finding the moment, the
moment arm and the force are both in the 𝑥-𝑦 plane, and the moment vector is either in the positive 𝑧
direction (counterclockwise or 𝐶𝐶𝑊) or in the negative 𝑧 direction (clockwise or 𝐶𝑊). An alternative
way of defining the direction of the moment vector is using the right hand rule. Have your right hand
finger and in the direction of the moment arm pointing towards the force. Then, curl your fingers to the
positive direction of the force vector. Your thumb shows the direction of the moment vector either:

 Out of the page, positive 𝑧 direction, counterclockwise (𝐶𝐶𝑊), or

 Into the page, negative 𝑧 direction, clockwise (𝐶𝑊).

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If we have multiple forces in a rigid body, the resultant moment about any point is the algebraic sum of
the moments produced by each force about that point.

In 2D problems and while using the scalar equation to find the moment of a force about any point,
sometimes finding the vertical distance between the point that the moment is written about and the line of
action of the force, could be a difficult trigonometry problem. There is an alternative way of working
around this problem and that is using the Principle of Moments or Varignon’s theorem. This theorem
states that the moment vector of a force about a point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of
components of that force about the point. This theorem is widely used in 2D problems with the scalar
equation and mostly we decompose forces into two orthogonal components and find the moment of each
component about that point to avoid the complicated trigonometry of finding the vertical moment arm.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Example 4.1: Determine the resultant moment vector of the system of forces about point 𝑂.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

4.3: Moment of a Force about a Point - Vector Formulation

In 3D problems, it is extremely difficult to find the perpendicular distance (moment arm) between the
point that we want to set up the moment about and a point on the line of action of the force. In these
problems, it is preferred to use the vectorial formulation of the moment vector. In Chapter 2, we learned
how to state a force vector in its Cartesian components and also how to find position vectors in the
Cartesian coordinate system. To define the vectorial form of the moment equation, we need to use the
concept of the cross product between two vectors.

The cross product between two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is defined as:

The direction of the resultant cross product vector is determined using the right hand rule. Have your
right hand fingers in the direction of the first vector 𝐴⃗. Curl your fingers towards the positive direction of
the second vector 𝐵⃗ . Your thumb shows the direction of the resulting cross product vector. Pay attention
that cross product of two vectors is not commutative and if the order of the vectors is changed in the cross
product, then their result cross product vector would be a vector with the same magnitude in the opposite
direction.

Since we will be using the concept of cross product in this chapter, ensure that you review how to find the
cross product of two vectors from your previous math courses.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Now that we defined the cross product of two vectors, we can use this concept to find the moment vector
of a force about any point in 3D Cartesian coordinate system. The moment vector of the force 𝐹⃗ about
any arbitrary point is defined as:

Here the moment arm vector 𝑟⃗ is defined as a vector from the point that we want to set up the moment
about to any point on the line of action of the force 𝐹⃗ . Pay attention to define the position vector from the
point to any point on the line of action of the force, not vice versa. Since the result of the cross product of
two vectors is a vector, then the direction is important. In the Cartesian cross product, you will end up
with a vector for the moment that has 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂ and 𝑘 components. So, we can find the magnitude of the
moment and the direction cosines of the moment vector with the techniques we learned in Chapter 2.

Note that the Principle of Moment or Varignon’s theorem is also valid for 3D moment vectors.
Additionally, moment of a system of forces about a point is equal to the algebraic vector addition of the
moment of each of those forces about that point.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Example 4.3: If 𝐹⃗ 100𝚤̂ 120𝚥̂ 75𝑘 𝑁 and 𝐹⃗ 200𝚤̂ 250𝚥̂ 100𝑘 𝑁, determine the resultant
moment vector produced by these forces about point 𝑂.

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4.4: Moment of a Force about an Arbitrary Axis

Sometimes, the moment produced by a force about a specified axis must be determined. For example, in
the figure below to loosen a lug nut, we are only interested in knowing the moment of the force 𝐹⃗ about
the 𝑦-axis and the moment about other axes is not required. In Chapter 2, we learned that the dot product
feature could be used to find the components of a vector (in this section, the moment vector) about any
specific axis if we do the dot product between the unit vector of the axis and the moment vector. From the
previous section, we realized that in the vectorial form, the moment is the cross product between the
moment arm vector and the force vector. If we do the dot product between the unit vector of any arbitrary
axis and the moment vector, we can find the moment vector projection along that axis. As we recall, the
result of the dot product is a scalar quantity which makes sense, as in this section we are trying to find the
projection of a moment vector about an axis.

In the example above, the unit vector of the 𝑦-axis is 𝚥̂; however, there might be problems when we need
to initially find the unit vector of an axis with the techniques we learned in Chapter 2 (i.e., finding the
position vector between two points on the axis and then dividing the position vector by its length).

The dot product of the unit vector of the axis to the results of the cross product (moment vector) is called
mixed triple product or the scalar triple product.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Example 4.4: Determine the moment produced by of the force 𝐹⃗ which tends to rotate the rod about 𝐴𝐵
axis.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

4.5: Moment of a Couple

When there are two noncollinear, opposite and equal magnitude forces acting on a rigid body, this system
is called a couple. Since these two forces have equal magnitudes and are in the opposite directions, then
the resultant force on the rigid body will be zero, and therefore, the couple does not produce any tendency
for the rigid body to move (translate). However, each of these forces cause a moment about any arbitrary
point on the rigid body. Interestingly, the resultant moment of these two forces about any arbitrary point
on the rigid body has a magnitude which only depends on the magnitude of the forces and the vertical
distance between these two forces. That’s why the choice of the point is arbitrary, and the resultant
moment (called couple moment) is like a free vector moving all around the rigid body.

Imagine that you are holding a steering wheel and are pushing one side with 30 N and pulling the other
side with 30 N. The result is zero net force on the steering wheel (rigid body) and the rotation of the
steering wheel about the axis passing through the center of the steering wheel perpendicular to the page
which is the result of the couple moment caused by the couple.

Now that we know the concept of the couple and couple moment (the resulting moment by the couple),
we need to determine the magnitude of the couple moment and prove the statement that we discussed
above that the choice of the point to set up the moment about, is arbitrary and the magnitude of the couple
moment, is irrelevant to the choice of the point and is relevant to the magnitude of the forces and the
vertical distance (moment arm) between the line of action of the parallel forces:

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So, whenever we are asked to find the couple moment, no point will be determined and the questions that
involve couple moments never ask regarding the couple moment about a point, instead, we are always
asked to determine the couple moment on a rigid body. This is the reason that we call a couple moment a
free moment vector that is applied to the entire rigid body.

Since the couple moment is a vector, we always need to define the direction of the vector, which is either
clockwise (𝐶𝑊) or counterclockwise (𝐶𝐶𝑊). This could be just done by a visual observation of the
direction of forces.

If a rigid body is subject to multiple couples, the resultant couple moment is determined by algebraically
adding couple moments (consider 𝐶𝐶𝑊 as positive, and 𝐶𝑊 as negative). If the resultant couple moment
is positive, then the direction is counterclockwise and if the resultant couple moment is negative, the
direction is clockwise. Just to emphasize again, the couple moment is a free vector acting on a rigid body
regardless of any point to be considered on the rigid body and causes the rigid body to rotate.

For couples on the spatial rigid bodies (3D rigid bodies or 3D loadings), the scalar equation for finding the
couple moment is the same (i.e., scalar equation 𝐹⃗ 𝑑). For example, in the system below, we can
easily use the scalar equation to find the couple moments:

Sometimes, finding the vertical distance 𝑑 between the couple forces is not easy, and also decomposing
the resulting couple moment into orthogonal coordinate system is difficult. If there are difficulties with
the geometry of the problem, the attentive approach in 3D loadings would be using Cartesian cross
product equation for the moment, i.e., 𝑀⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝐹⃗ . In this equation, vector 𝑟⃗ is a position vector from any
point on the line of action of one of the couple forces to any point on the line of action of the other force.
The force vector 𝐹⃗ in the above equation is the force vector that the position vector 𝑟⃗ has its head on it.
Pay attention that we do not have a subscript point for the couple moment vector as we discussed that the
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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

couple moment is irrelevant to any choice of point on the rigid body, and it acts like a free vector on the
entire rigid body.

Example 4.5: If 𝐹⃗ 200 N, determine the resultant couple moment on the rigid body.

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Example 4.6: Determine the couple moment acting on the pipe shown below. Segment 𝐴𝐵 is directed
30° below the 𝑥𝑦 plane.

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4.6: Simplification of Force and Couple Systems

In mechanics, sometimes it is convenient to replace all forces and couple moments acting on the system
with a resultant force and a resultant moment at a point on the rigid body. This makes the stress and
dynamic analyses easier. These two systems are equivalent as the effect of the external forces and couple
moments will be the same.

As we recall from Chapter 2, the force has a line of action that can be transmitted via this line of action
(the Principle of Transmissibility). However, if we want to transfer a force to any arbitrary point on a
rigid body, which is not on the line of action of the force, this force produces a moment about that
arbitrary point. So, if we want to find the resultant force at an arbitrary point on the rigid body which is
not located on the line of action of the force, we need to find the moment of each force on the system
about that point and algebraically add them up.

The procedure is the same for both 2D and 3D systems and the equation is the same; however, in 2D
systems, most of the times we use the scalar equations.

2D systems

Figure from Statics by Meriam (8th ed.)

3D systems

It is clear from the above analysis that the resultant force direction and magnitude are independent of the
choice of the point, but the resultant moment is dependent on the choice of the point.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

Example 4.6: Replace the force system acting on the post by an equivalent resultant force and a couple
moment at point 𝐴.

4.7: Center of Gravity and Centroid of a Rigid Body

The weight of a body is not a point load (force) as we have assumed. It is actually distributed throughout
the body. The weight can be represented either by many forces (one per particle) or by a single force
(entire weight) acting at a single point – namely the center of gravity (𝐶𝐺) or the center of mass. Since
gravity is constant for infinitesimal elements, the center of mass is located at the same point as the center
of gravity for homogenous rigid bodies. Additionally, for homogenous rigid bodies, the center of gravity
is the same as the geometric center of the body. Centroid of the areas are used in mechanics of materials
to determine the area moment of inertia of cross sections (also called the second moment of area of cross
section) and in Dynamics, to determine the mass moment of inertia of rigid bodies. So, it is important to
be able to determine the centroid of rigid bodies or composite shapes.

In regular shapes (circles, rectangles, etc.), their centroids always lie on the line of symmetry of the body.
If there are two lines of symmetry, then the centroid is at the intersection of these two lines. The centroid
for most regular shapes is tabulated and presented in handbooks. So, we don’t have difficulties with
locating the center of gravity and centroid of these 2D and 3D rigid bodies.

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

In engineering problems, we mostly have composite bodies that include connected common shapes
(rectangles, circular, etc.). To find the geometric canter of the composite bodies, we need to divide the
composite shape into regular common shapes that their geometric centers are tabulated. Then, we use the
following equations to find the geometric canter of the composite body.

Below are the steps that outline the procedure of finding geometric centers of composite shapes:

 Break down the shape into sections or parts.

 Establish the coordinate axes on the sketch if not shown.
 Determine the coordinates of the center of gravity or centroid of each part (use the provided table).
 Compute the centroid for each region.
 𝑥̅ , 𝑦 and 𝑧̅ represent the coordinates of the centroid of the entire body.
 𝑥 , 𝑦 and 𝑧̃ represent the coordinates of the centroid of each part of the body.
 ∑ 𝐴 is the sum of the areas of all the parts of the body (the total area of the body).
 Tabulate the above data in a table that makes the procedure easier.

If the composite body has a hole, consider the hole as a shape and consider negative weight or area in the
above equations.

Example 4.7: Locate the centroid of the blue shaded area.

Figure from Statics by Beer (2nd ed.)

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Chapter 4: Force Systems in Rigid Bodies

4.8: Distributed Loads

Now that we know how to find the centroid of an area, we can discuss the concept of distributed loads in
engineering problems. As we remember from Chapter 1, every force is applied to a finite area or volume
(distributed across an area or volume). For example, the weight load of snow on the roof is distributed
across the area of the roof. In this section, we want to find techniques to simplify the distributed load as a
concentrated load acting at a single point on a rigid body.

Distributed loads in engineering problems are usually applied over beam type rigid bodies. Consider a
beam under the load applied by a pile of brick. The distributed load in this example is like a triangulate
load. We are interested to find an equivalent resultant load acting at a point on the beam. The magnitude
and the point of application of the resultant load should be determined in a way that both the original
system and the simplified system be equivalent. The distributed load is usually denoted by an intensity

(e.g., 100 ).

The resultant load should act at the centroid of the shape of the distributed load. For example, in the
figure above, since it is a triangular shape distributed load, the location of the resultant force is at 1/3 of
the length of the horizontal edge from the base of the triangle. The magnitude of the resultant force is
equal to the area under the distributed load. In the figure above, the resultant force has the magnitude of
the area of the triangle.

The distributed loading diagrams are often in the form of rectangular and triangular shapes or their
combinations. For the irregular shapes of the distributed loads, with the technique that we learned in
finding the centroid of composite bodies, we can divide them into rectangular and triangular shapes and
can find the resultant load of each of the regular shapes distributed loads, and then apply each of them at
the centroid of each regular shape.

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Example 4.8: Replace the distributed loading on the following beam with two equivalent resultant forces
(point loads). Clearly show the point of application of both resultant loads.

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 Chapter 5

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

5.1: Introduction
Now that we learned how to analyze a system of forces and couple moments in rigid bodies in Chapter 4,
we are ready to start analyzing the static equilibrium state for rigid bodies in two- and three-dimensional
systems. We will start this chapter by the concept of equilibrium and discuss the necessary and sufficient
conditions for static equilibrium of rigid bodies. We will continue with the concept of free-body diagrams
of rigid bodies which is one of the most important techniques in mechanics. Then, we will discuss the
support reactions and modeling supports in mechanics. We will continue with practical 2D problems in
rigid body statics and will conclude this chapter with the equilibrium of rigid bodies in 3D problems.

5.2: Static Equilibrium Conditions for Rigid Bodies

For a rigid body in static equilibrium state, the sufficient and necessary conditions for equilibrium is that
the resultant force vector and the resultant moment vector about any arbitrary point on the rigid body must
be equal zero. This is the condition that is derived from the Newton’s second law.

5.3: Static Equilibrium of Rigid bodies in Coplanar (2D) Problems

Most engineering problems can be modeled as 2D problems when the forces acting on the systems can be
simplified into coplanar forces. For example, the airplane which is a 3D rigid body can be simplified and
molded as a 2D mechanical system due to the symmetry.

The equations that discussed in Section 5.2, can be expanded into three independent scalar equations for
the static equilibrium of 2D rigid bodies (coplanar forces):

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Where point 𝑂 is an arbitrary point on the rigid body. Most of the time, it is better to consider point 𝑂 as a
point with most unknown forces passing through that point (or their lines of action) to end up having an
equation that can be solved for a single unknown. With this method, we could avoid solving a system of
three equations and three unknowns. It is also important to discuss that these three equations can be
expressed to solve at most three unknowns in the problem. So, if after writing the equations, there are
more than three unknowns for the rigid body in equilibrium, a further check and investigation of the free-
body diagram is required (the problem could be also statically indeterminate). We always need to have a
balance between the number of equations and the number of unknowns.

The three equations written above are independent equations, and if used, we cannot add any further
equation. If you consider writing the moment equation again about another point, then the resulting fourth
equation is a dependent equation, and the system of equations won’t be independent. This results in a null
equation (0 0). However, there are two other alternatives for above set of equations that could be
written. These alternative ways of writing the equilibrium equations are:

 Using one force equation (either in the 𝑥 or the 𝑦 direction) and two moment equations. However,
if the equation for the force is set up in the 𝑥-direction, then the line passing through points 𝐴 and
𝐵 should not be parallel to the 𝑦-axis:

 Using three moment equations and no force equation, however points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 should not form
a straight line.

Before we start using the equilibrium equations in 2D space, we need to talk about two very important
concepts. The free-body diagram that helps us to visualize the forces before setting up the equations and
the support reactions that mechanical systems are usually constrained with.

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5.4: Free-Body Diagrams and Support Reactions

A free-body diagram (FBD) is the representation of all the external forces acting on a rigid body. The
external forces are the result of a contact with other bodies (other than the components of the system) or
the forces because of the gravitational field (weight). Mechanical systems include connected rigid bodies
and in FBDs, we need to decide which body needs to be isolated from its surrounding. For example, let’s
look at the loader example below, where the loader is at rest. We can draw the FBD of the entire loader as
the figure on the left, or we can just isolate the bucket and the boom and draw their FBDs. In the figure
on the left, the piston reaction is not shown as we did not isolate the loader from the piston and the piston
force is called an internal force in this FBD. So, in FBDs if we do not detach the interconnected bodies,
we need to exclude those forces in the diagrams. Internal forces are collinear forces with the same
magnitude and in opposite directions that cancel out each other in the FBD of the whole system. We will
discuss this concept more in Chapter 6 in the study of frames and machines. In general, NO equilibrium
problem should be solved without first drawing the FBD.

Figure from Statics by Beer (2nd edition)

The rigid bodies are either connected together with different types of supports (pins, smooth contact, etc.)
or supported by the ground. For example, in the above FBDs, the loader is supported by the ground and
the boom is connected to the loader with pin joints. Therefore, we need to model the support reactions in
different types of supports and isolate the rigid body from its supports. In modeling the support reactions,
as a general rule of thumb, is that if a support prevents the translation of the rigid body in a particular
direction (maximum of two directions in 2D problems and three directions in 3D problems), then that
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support exerts forces on the rigid body in that direction. If a support prevents rotation of the rigid body,
then a couple moment is exerted on the rigid body from the support.

The reaction of different types of supports in mechanical systems are summarized in the following tables.
The table below lists ten common types of supports for bodies subjected to coplanar force systems:

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The following general procedure can be considered while drawing FBDs:

 Decide which rigid body/bodies need(s) to be isolated

 Draw big pictures with multiple colors
 Show the coordinate system with positive directions on the free-body diagram.
 Apply all the external forces and couple moments on the rigid body.
 Show important dimensions in the free-body diagrams.
 Label each force and couple moment.
 The external forces should be exactly applied at their points of application.
 The weight acts at the center of gravity of a rigid body.
 If a massless cable is in the free-body diagram, the cable needs to be replaced with a tension force.
 The spring in the rigid body should be replaced by either a tension or compression force (depends
on whether the spring is pulled or pushed).
 Once substituting the supports by their reaction(s), do not draw the supports in the free-body
diagrams.
 If you cannot decide about the direction of an unknown force, then assume a direction. Once
solving the equilibrium equations, if the magnitude of a force is obtained negative, then the
assumed direction was incorrect. You do not need to solve the problem again and just report the
correct direction in the final answers.

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Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Example 5.1: Draw the free-body diagram of the uniform beam that has a mass of 100 kg.

Example 5.2: Draw the free-body diagram of the foot lever shown in the figure on the left. The operator
applies a vertical force to the pedal so that the spring is stretched 150 millimeter mm and the force on
the member at 𝐵 is 100 N.

Example 5.3: Draw the free-body diagram of member 𝐴𝐵𝐶 which is supported by a smooth collar at 𝐴,
rocker at 𝐵, and short member 𝐶𝐷.

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5.5: Two-Force and Three-Force Members

Before we start solving equilibrium problems of 2D rigid bodies, we need to study the concept of two-
force and three-force members (links). The concept of two-force member helps us to simplify the free-
body diagrams and have less equations to solve for the static equilibrium.

If we have a rigid body with two distinct forces applied to two distinct points on the rigid body, to satisfy
the equilibrium conditions, these two forces should be equal, in opposite direction, and collinear. This
conditions could be derived by writing the equilibrium equations for two-force members; however, this
assumption makes the analysis shorter and easier.

Let’s consider the following 2D system where member (link) 𝐶𝐷 is massless (𝑖. 𝑒., no weight in the FBD).
If we draw the free-body diagram of member 𝐶𝐷, we will get:

In the example above, if member 𝐶𝐷 was not massless, then it could not be considered as a two-force
member. Remember that for the member to be considered as a two-force member, three should be just
two distinct forces applied to two distinct points on the member.

For the concept of three-force members under static equilibrium, it simply states that if we have three
forces acting on a rigid body, these three forces should be concurrent at a point on the plane, or parallel
forces. Otherwise, the zero-moment equation from equilibrium equations will not be satisfied.

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Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Example 5.4: Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pin 𝐴 and the reaction
on the beam at 𝐶.

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Example 5.5: The articulated crane boom has a weight of 125 N and center of gravity at 𝐺. If it supports
a load of 600 N, determine the force acting at pin 𝐴 and the force in hydraulic cylinder 𝐵𝐶 when the boom
is in the position shown.

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Example 5.6: Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at pin 𝐴 and the force in cable
𝐵𝐶. Neglect the mass and thickness of the members.

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Chapter 5: Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

5.6: Static Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensional Problems

As we remember from Section 5.2, two vectorial equations that are necessary and sufficient for static
equilibrium of rigid bodies are ∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 and ∑ 𝑀⃗ 0, where 𝐹⃗ and 𝑀⃗ are the resultamnt force and
moment (including external couple moments) acting on the rigid body. These two vectorial equations can
be expanded into six scalar equations for three-dimensional rigid bodies:

The above six independent scalar equations define the static equilibrium conditions for a rigid body in
space. To set up the first three equations, all the forces should be stated in terms of their Cartesian
components (with the method we learned in Chapter 2). For the moment equations, they are moment
equations caused by the external forces along the three orthogonal axes about any point and they could be
set up either by the scalar method or vectorial method. We will practice this in the example problems.
These six independent scalar equations can be solved to find at most six unknowns in the FBDs. One
important strategy for setting up these equations is that order of writing the equations depends on the ease
of the solutions and there are many ways to set up the equations to avoid solving a system of six equations
and six unknowns. For example, one moment equation could be set up at the start of the solutions to solve
one equation and to find an unknown. So, a smart strategy is requited while setting up the equations.

5.7: Support Reactions in in Three Dimensional Problems

Since we talked about FBDs, then the same as coplanar problems, we need to consider support reactions
in 3D problems. The following table summarizes various support reactions that could be used to replace
the supports in the FBDs.

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Example 5.7: Determine the support reactions at the smooth collar 𝐴 and the normal reaction at the roller
support 𝐵.

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Example 5.8: Determine the components of reaction acting at the smooth journal bearings 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶.

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5.8: Statical Determinacy and Constraints

The three independent scalar equations that we derived in this chapter for the static equilibrium of rigid
bodies in coplanar systems are necessary and sufficient conditions for the static equilibrium. As we saw,
supports constrain motion of rigid bodies in certain directions (translation and rotation). As we know by
now, the three scalar equations can be used to solve for at most three unknowns in two dimensional
problems under static equilibrium. However, there might be problems in rigid bodies that are constrained
by redundant supports that are more than necessary to maintain the static equilibrium. Such problems are
called statically indeterminate problems and the supports that are caucusing this indeterminacy are called
redundant supports. Let’s investigate the equilibrium condition for the following problem:

So, how can we set up the fourth equation to solve for the four unknowns in this problem? The fourth
equation could be added by analyzing the deflection of one of the points (either 𝐵 or 𝐶) as we know the
deflection of these points will be zero (compatibility equation); however, the flexural rigidity of the beam
needs to be considered and the beam needs to be considered as a deformable body. This concept will be
taught in mechanics of material courses (ENME 317, ENCI 317). The degree of statical indeterminacy is
determined by subtracting the number of unknowns from the number of independent static equilibrium
equations that can be set up for each problem. In the example discussed above, we have three equations
and four unknowns, therefore the degree of indeterminacy is one. All the problems that we discuss in
Statics are statically determinate problems.

Rigid bodies in 3D could be also in statically indeterminate state. Look at the pipe assembly in the figure
below, where there are eight unknown support reactions, however we cannot set up more than six
equilibrium equations for this spatial assembly.

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Another problem in equilibrium of rigid bodies is improper constraints. For some problems, we might
have an equal number of equilibrium equations and unknowns, however the supports are not proper, and
the rigid body is unstable. These problems will be studied in courses such as Dynamics (ENGG 349) and
Machine Dynamics (ENME 473). Two examples of the improper constrains for a 2D rigid body are
shown below.

A rigid body in 3D can be improperly constrained if the lines of action of all the support reactions
intersect a unique axis. Such a problem is shown in the figure below:

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 Chapter 6

Structural Analysis
Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

6.1: Introduction
In Chapter 5, we learned how to draw free-body diagrams of a single rigid body and used static
equilibrium equations to determine the support reactions or an external unknown force. However,
structures usually consist of several rigid bodies interconnected with pins and other means. As a result,
there are forces developed in the rigid bodies that are internal and cannot be determined unless we learn
methods to disassemble structures and determine these internal forces. We are interested in analyzing all
the forces (internal and external) in structures as design of them requires quantifying these forces. Once
we determined these forces, we can use the quantified forces in courses such as mechanics of materials
and mechanical engineering design, to design the dimensions and material properties of these structures.

In this chapter we mainly focus on three different types of structures: simple truss, frames, and machines.
Trusses are used in construction to carry loads (roof structure, bridge, etc.) and their members are two-
force members. Frames are like trusses; however, they consist of at least a rigid body that is a multi-force
member. Machines are structures to transfer loads and torques and have moving parts and have at least a
multi-force member (link).

The equations that we will use in this chapter are the same as the equilibrium equations of Chapter 5, i.e.,
∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 and ∑ 𝑀⃗ 0, where 𝐹⃗ and 𝑀⃗ are the resultamnt force and moment (including external couple
moment) acting on the rigid body and the structure.

6.2: Simple Trusses

A truss is a structure that consists of slender rigid bodies connected with pin joints. Trusses are light
structures that are formed in a way that they can carry large loads. The rigid bodies are mainly made of
wood or metal and their weight compared to the load carried by the truss is negligible, so we consider
truss members to be weightless. Trusses are usually 3 dimensional structures, but we can simplify their
structural analysis to two dimensional problems. Additionally, for three dimensional trusses, forces are
mainly in a single plane and that’s why a 2D analysis is sufficient. Such trusses are called plane trusses.
Trusses are usually made by joining triangular sections (three members). When we connect the members
by welded joints, we can assume that the connection is a pin joint if the center line of the members
interconnect at a unique point. Two 3D truss examples with their 2D simplified model are shown below.

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To design trusses, we need to determine the load developed in each link (member of the truss). The
weight of the members compared to the load applied to the truss is quite negligible. Additionally, no
external force is applied to any member of the truss and all the loadings are assumed to be applied only at
the joints. Even if the weights of the members need to be consisted in the analysis, half of the weight is
applied to any of the two joints of the member. Additionally, the pins are considered to be smooth, so no
moment is applied/born by any joint. All these assumptions enable us to safely assume that the members
in trusses are two-force members, and since the members are slender, they could be either in Tension (𝑇)
or compression (𝐶).

To further illustrate this, consider the following simple triangle truss where the free-body diagrams of the
joints and the members are shown. Pay attention to how the tension (𝑇) and compression (𝐶) directions
on the members and the joints are shown.

There are two methods that can be used to determine the magnitude of forces in each two-force member of
the plane trusses: the method of joints and the method of sections. All trusses analyzed in this course are
statically determinate.

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6.2.1: The Method of Joints

Since the entire truss is in static equilibrium, we can safely conclude that each joint in the truss is in static
equilibrium and this results in a particle (joint) equilibrium. Since we are considering the static
equilibrium for joints, the moment equation cannot be applied to the joints (no dimensions). So, we can
set up ∑ 𝐹 0 and ∑ 𝐹 0 for each joint.

The first question with this method will be which joint is the best joint to start the analysis with. Let’s
answer this question by considering the following truss:

We can start the joint analysis from any joint that has at most two unknown forces and one known force.
In the example above, joint 𝐵 is the joint that we can start the analysis from. Joints 𝐴 has four unknowns
(two support reactions at the pin and two unknown forces in members 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶), and joint 𝐶 has three
unknowns (one rocker support reaction and two unknown forces in members 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶). If you want to
start the analysis by either joints 𝐴 or 𝐶, you can use the equilibrium equations with the FBD of the entire
truss (method of Chapter 5) to find the three support reactions at supports 𝐴 and 𝐶, and then start with the
joint analysis at any of these joints. This is not however recommended.

It is worth mentioning that after finding two forces of joint 𝐵, you can continue with the force analysis at
joint 𝐶 and then continue with joint 𝐴. The support reactions that you determined with the method of the
joints in joints 𝐴 and 𝐶 are the same if you determine these support reactions with the method of Chapter 5
for the entire truss. This could be a method to cross validate your results. However, there are problems
that you have no other option unless determining some support reactions first before start of the analysis
with the method of joints.
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The second question that needs to be answered with this method is how we can determine the direction of
the unknown forces in the joints. In some joints, a visual inspection of the joint and the forces in the joints
can help us to determine the correct direction of the forces. For example, in the above truss at joint 𝐵,
since 500 N force is directed to the right, and since there should be an equilibrium in that joint, then the
force from member 𝐵𝐶 (the only member that has horizontal force component) must be directed towards
the joint, so it’s horizontal component will cancel the effect of 500 N force. It means member 𝐵𝐶 is under
compression (𝐶). For some joints and if there are more than one force or multiple members intersecting at
that joint, sometimes it is not possible to easily determine the direction of the unknowns forces. In such
problems, consider the members are in tension (𝑇), i.e., the force is directed out of the joint. Once solving
the two scalar equations, if you achieved a negative magnitude for the forces that you assumed their
directions, then it means the assumption that was made has not been correct and the member is under
compression (𝐶). You do not need to redo the analysis for that joint; however, if you are using the results
of this joint in the analysis of the next joint(s), use the correct directions.

Before we start solving some examples with this method, we need to discuss the concept of zero-force
members that makes the analysis easier for some trusses. Zero-force members are the members that they
do not carry any portion of the applied load to trusses and they are just used to increase the structural
stability. The zero-force members can be found by visual inspection of joints prior to starting the analysis.
When two noncollinear members are connected with a joint and if no external load is applied at that joint,
then those two members are zero-force members. Such members can be excluded from the truss before
we start the analysis (redraw the truss excluding these members). Let’s look at the following joint:

Pay attention that if an external load was applied at joint 𝐵, then member 𝐵𝐶 was not a zero-force
member.

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Example 6.1: Identify the zero-force members in the following trusses.

Example 6.2: Determine the force in each member of the following truss, and state if the members are in
tension or compression. Set 𝑃 5 kN.

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6.2.2: The Method of Sections

Sometimes, in the truss structural analysis, just the magnitude of the force in a few members are required.
In these problems, we can draw an imaginary line on the truss to cut the truss into sections. The
imaginary cut should be made in a way that the members with the required unknown force to be cut.
Since the entire truss is in the state of static equilibrium, then each section of the truss must be in
equilibrium. When we cut those members, the forces in those members (which are internal forces in the
FBD of the entire truss) will be external forces and they should be sketched on the free-body diagrams of
the cut sections. Let’s consider the following truss:

If, for example, we want to know the force in member 𝐻𝐸 only, the method of joints would be very
tedious. Instead, “section” the truss into two separate parts in order to cut the desired member (make a
complete cut).

Now we have two sections and each of which could be used to find the force 𝐻𝐸. Which section do you
think can be used?

Both sections have support reactions (𝐴 , 𝐾 , 𝐾 ). Therefore, we need to consider the complete truss first
to find these unknowns (at least all the unknowns in one section). The section on the left has just one
unknown support reaction (𝐴 ) and the section on the left is a good starting point. Pay attention to choose

a section that has at most three unknowns as we have just three equations for each section ∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 and
∑ 𝑀⃗ 0, where the moment equation can be set about any point including the points that are not even on
the truss. If we use the section on the left, the best equation to start with is the moment equation about
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point 𝐷 to find the force in member 𝐻𝐸 with just one equation. Then, we can set up the force equations in
the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions to find the other two unknowns (𝐻𝐷 and 𝐷𝐺). Pay attention that at the cut location,
the forces in two sections are collinear, with the same magnitude and in the opposite directions. If with
visual inspection you cannot decide about the proper direction of an unknown force, then consider the
force in tension (away from the cut) and then once you solved the equilibrium equations, if you got a
negative value for that unknown, it means that the direction should be reversed. You are not required to
solve the problem again with the correct direction, just report the correct direction in the final step. Note
that sometimes more than one cut is required to solve the problem or a combination of the method of
sections and the method of joints is required to solve the problem in an efficient way.

Solution procedure for the method of sections:

 Solve for the support reactions with the truss as a whole, if required
 Only need support reactions for the section to be considered.
 Draw the FBD of the section to be analyzed
 Assume unknown forces in tension if you cannot decide about the proper direction.
 Try to pick a section that cuts through three or less unknown members.
 In 2D equilibrium, we only have 3 equations, and therefore can only solve them for 3
unknowns.
 Apply the equations of equilibrium to the desired section and solve them to find the unknowns.
 Think about the moment equation about a point to cancel the moment of most of the unknowns in the
equation.
 Negative answers indicate that the correct sense is opposite to your assumption, i.e. the member is in
compression if you assumed all unknowns were in tension.

Example 6.3: Find forces of members 𝐸𝐹, 𝐹𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶. Determine if they are under tension or
compression?

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Example 6.3: Determine the forces of members 𝐸𝐷, 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐵𝐶 of the truss and state if the members are
in tension or compression. Set 𝑃 800 N.

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6.3: Frames and Machines

Frames and machines are structures that can carry or transmit loads. The difference between
frames/machines and trusses is the existence of at least a multi-force member in frames and machines.
The multi-force member is a member with at least three or more forces acting on it (remember in trusses,
all the members were two-force members). An example of a frame and machine are shown below.
Because of the multi-force member in frames and machines, the methods that we applied for the structural
analysis of trusses cannot be used for the analysis of frames and machines.

Figure from Statics by Beer (2nd edition)

The structural analysis of frames and machines usually consists of disassembling the frame/machine into
multiple rigid bodies that are interconnected with pins or other means of connecting the rigid bodies. If
you recall from Chapter 5, we learned how to determine the reaction supports and external forces from the
equilibrium analysis of the entire rigid body, but for the frames and machines, the internal forces cannot
be determined unless the interconnected rigid bodies are disassembled. Since the entire frame/machine is
in the static equilibrium, then each rigid body is in the static equilibrium.

In the process of disassembling the parts and drawing their FBDs, it is extremely important to be
consistent with drawing internal forces in the interconnected joints. Forces common to any two contacting
members act with equal magnitudes but opposite directions on the respective members in their FBDs. For
example, if we have two members connected by a pin joint, then the FBDs of these two members at the
location of the joint will be:

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Once the members are disassembled, the equilibrium equations could be set up for any of the rigid bodies.
The following procedure is recommended for static equilibrium analysis of frames and machines:

 Establish a coordinate system for the solution (e.g., the Cartesian coordinate system)
 Disassemble the structure to whatever degree necessary to find the desired forces.
 Do not separate into every member, but usually need more than one FBD to find all unknowns.
 Find support reactions by considering the FBD of the entire structure if needed.
 In most cases, we also need to use FBDs of internal members to do this.
 Forces common to any two contacting members act with equal magnitudes but opposite directions
on the respective members.
 If two members are treated as a “system” of connected members, then these forces are
“internal” and are not shown on the FBD of the entire system.
 If the free-body diagram of each member is drawn, the forces are “external” and must be
shown as equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on each of the two FBDs.
 If a member is a two-force member, draw the two forces collinear (reduces the number of unknowns).
 Balance analysis is very important in these problems as we are dealing with many unknowns and
equations.
 If the number of unknowns does not match the number of equations (three for the entire
frame/machine and three for each member), then do not solve the problem. It is mostly an
indication that FBDs are not set up in a proper way.

Example 6.4: Draw the FBD of the entire frame. Then draw the FBDs of each member of the frame.

Figure from Statics by Beer (2nd ed.)

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Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

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Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

Example 6.5: If the peg at 𝐵 is smooth, determine the components of reaction at the pin 𝐴 and fixed
support 𝐶.

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Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

Example 6.6: The frame is used to support the 100-kg cylinder 𝐸. Determine the horizontal and vertical
components of reactions at pins 𝐴 and 𝐷.

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Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

Example 6.7: If a clamping force of 300 N is required at 𝐴, determine the magnitude of force 𝐹 that must
be applied to the handle of the toggle clamp.

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Chapter 6: Structural Analysis

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 Chapter 7

Internal Forces
Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Chapter 7: Internal Forces

7.1: Introduction
Up to this chapter, we studied the equilibrium of a single rigid body and determined its support reactions
by static equilibrium equations. In Chapter 6, we studied trusses, frames and machines, where we found
the forces in two-force truss members and internal forces in frames and machines at the locations of the
interconnection between the rigid bodies of the frames/machines. For the two-force member trusses, the
only internal force in the members is an axial force, independent of the location of the section. However,
engineering structures and mainly beams are under transverse and axial loadings (multi-axis loading) that
results in normal force, shear force, and bending moment within the members. Understanding these
loadings at different locations of the structure (beam) helps us to understand the critical points in terms of
the loading and the resulting stress states. These analyses will help us to design the beams (cross sectional
areas and material properties) based on the resulting stress states and the failure criteria. The concept of
stress states and failure criteria will be discussed in Mechanics of Materials (ENME 317 and ENCI 317).

We will start this chapter by method of sections, where we can find the shear force, the normal force, and
the bending moment at any desired point on the structure (beam). Then, we will proceed with a more
generalized method to draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the entire beam which will
be widely used in mechanics of materials and mechanical engineering design.

7.2: Internal Loadings: Shear Force, Normal Force and Bending Moment
If you remember the truss analysis and the method of sections from Chapter 6, we determined the axial
force (tension or compression) of a member in a truss.

What if we have beams in a structure or just a single beam with some loading normal to the axis of the
bar? Transverse loading is a state of loading when at least there is a force component (or external
moment) applied to the beam and normal to the beam axis (𝑃⃗ in the figure below). Such loading causes

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

shear and bending in the beam. If the load has an angle other than 90° with respect to the beam axis (𝑃⃗ in
figure below), it causes normal (also called axial) force, shear force and bending moment.

Internal forces are not limited to only a tensile or compressive axial force (as in straight two-force
members). In any non-straight two-force member, or any multi-force member, they also produce shear
and bending, which deform the member. If we cut the above beam at section 𝐵, pay attention that the
loads on the left and right sides of the section at point 𝐵 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
This is so when two sides are reconnected, the net loads are zero at the section.

 Normal force: force component 𝑁⃗ acting perpendicular to the beam cross section.
 Shear force: force component 𝑉⃗ acting tangent to the beam cross section.
 Bending moment: the couple moment 𝑀⃗ .

The figure below illustrates the effects of the shear force and bending moment on a beam. Beams could
be under torsional loadings as well, that will be discussed in Mechanics of Materials and Mechanical
Engineering Design.

Figure from Statics by Meriam (8th ed.)

Figure from Statics by Meriam (8th ed.)

So, the question is how to find the magnitude of the normal force, the shear force and the bending moment
at any location on the beam. To find these forces and the bending moment, we can use the method of
sections. We need to draw an imaginary line on the point that we are interested to find the internal effects.
Then, we have two sections on the beam. Then, we need to draw FBDs of the sections and show the
normal force, the shear force, and the bending moment at the location of the cut. Then, we can choose the
section which is easier to set up the three equilibrium equations to find the internal effects. For example,
in the beam shown on the top of the page, choosing the right section is a smarter choice as we do no need
to determine the support reactions at 𝐴 to proceed with the equilibrium equations. There is a sign

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

convention that needs to be considered in finding these internal loadings and positive and negative values
for internal loadings have physical meanings. Therefore, we always need to consider the positive
directions for the shear force, the normal force, and the bending moment in the FBDs
 A positive normal force will create tension.
 A positive shear force will cause the beam segment on which it acts to rotate clockwise.
 A positive bending moment will bend the segment on which it acts in a concave upward manner.

If you consider the right section of the cut, it is required to consider the positive directions as follows:

Steps for determining the internal forces:

 Draw an imaginary cut at the point where you need to determine the internal forces.
 Decide which resulting section or piece is easier to set up the equations.
 Determine any support reactions or joint forces you need by drawing a FBD of the entire structure and
solving it for the unknown reactions. This is not always a necessary step if the support reactions are
not in the section that you decided to analyze.
 Draw a FBD of the section you decided to analyze. Include 𝑁, 𝑉, and 𝑀 loads at the “cut” surface in
their positive sign convention.
 If the cut is not within the distributed load on the beam, you may represent the distributed load with
the resultant point load applied at the geometric center of the distributed load.
 If the cut is within the distributed load, only consider the portion of the distributed load on the section
that you decided to analyze.
 Apply the three equilibrium equations to section’s FBD and solve them for unknown internal loads
and bending moment.
 Take the moment equilibrium equation at the section as this eliminates the shear and normal force
from the calculations.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Example 7.1: Determine the normal force, shear force, and bending moment at point 𝐶.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Example 7.2: Determine the normal force, shear force, and the bending moment at point 𝐵 of the beam.

Figure from Statics by Meriam (2nd ed.)

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Example 7.3: Determine the normal force, shear force, and moment at points 𝐷 and 𝐸 of the frame. Point
𝐷 is located halfway through member 𝐵𝐶.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

7.3: Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

As we discussed in the previous section, beams might have external loadings which are transverse to their
axis or may have couple moments acting on them. They could have different support types (fixed, pinned,
etc.) and as we realized due to the transvers loading, each cross-sectional area along the beam carries
normal/shear force and the bending moment. The normal force causes axial stress, whereas shear force
causes shear stress, and the bending moment causes normal stress. The failure criteria of the beams are
based on finding the critical points in the beams in terms of shear force and bending moment and the
associated shear and normal stresses. Knowing the maximum shear force and the maximum bending
moment and the point along the beam enables us to find the principal stresses at those critical cross
sections and design the beam cross-sectional properties and material properties to withstand the loads
without failure.

In order to know the location of the maximum shear force and the bending moment along the beam and
the associated maximum values, a practical way would be plotting the shear force and bending moment
diagrams against the distance along the beam. To do this, we need to divide the beam into sections
starting from the left side of the beam (origin for the distance at the left corner of the beam). Then, we
need to decide about the proper number of sections along the beam that we need to properly draw the
diagrams.

Whenever there is a change in the external forcing regime of the beam, we need to consider a new section.
It means, starting from the left side of the beam, whenever there is an external point load, a couple
moment, or a support (which applied external support reactions) in the span of the beam, a new section
should be considered. For the distributed loads, at the start of a distributed load, a new section should be
defined and integral equations should be used for the calculation of the shear force and the bending
moment caused by the distributed load. Once the distributed load is over, then a new section should be
defined. If from the above conditions, two of them apply at a single point, just one new section should be
defined.

When working on a section with the distributed load in a previous section, then that distributed load can
be substituted with the equivalent point load at the geometric center of the distributed load shape. Let’s
discuss how many sections we need in the following beams to draw their shear bending moment diagrams:

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Once we decided about the number of the sections that we need to draw the shear bending moment
diagrams, then we start by the first section from the left, have the origin on the left point of the beam and
draw the FBD of the section. The shear force and the bending moment should be applied at the end of the
section with the positive sign conventions introduced in Section 7.2. Then, we will write the two
equilibrium equations (∑ 𝐹⃗ 0 and ∑ 𝑀⃗ 0 for this section to find the shear force and the bending
moment as a function of 𝑥 (distance from the left point of the beam). Then, proceed to the next section
and consider the entire beam from the origin up to the location of the second cut and have the origin at the
same left end point of the beam. Draw the FBD of the second section with shear force and bending
moment applied at the cut location. Then, write two equilibrium equations again to find the shear force
and the bending moment of the second section as a function of 𝑥. Repeat this procedure for all the
sections. Finally, plot these functions to illustrate the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Before we start drawing the shear force and bending moment diagrams, it is worth talking about the
relations between shear force and bending moment equations and the distributed load on the beam. Let’s
consider the beam shown below and a section of the beam with the distributed load:

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

The above equation states that the slope of the shear force function across the beam equals the applied
loading. This equation can be used as a checker step whenever we derive the shear force function for the
sections across the beam.

Now consider the moment equation of the section with the distributed load:

This equation means that the slope of the bending moment function of any section is equal to the shear
force function of that section.

Pay attention that at any point across the sections, whenever there is an external force (sometimes due to
the support reaction at points other than the end points of the beam) or an external couple moment, then
there is a sudden jump in the shear force and the bending moment plots.

Example 7.4: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam below.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Example 7.5: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the following beam.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

Example 7.6: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam below.

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Chapter 7: Internal Forces

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Chapter 8

Friction
Chapter 8: Friction

Chapter 8: Friction
8.1: Introduction
In the previous chapters, where we had two contact surfaces between rigid bodies, we considered a normal
force at the point of the contact and stated that the surfaces are smooth. This was just an approximation.
In real life, two contact surfaces cannot be considered smooth even with proper lubrications. Once there
is a contact between two rough surfaces, at the location of the contact there are two forces: a normal force,
and a force tangent to the surfaces. The force that is tangent to the contact surfaces is called the friction
force. Friction is not always harmful as it makes any motion possible and helps us to walk (friction
between our shoes and the ground) and cut the wood with the chainsaw.

In this chapter, we will study the concept of force of friction and the microscopic roughness at the contact
surfaces that creates the friction force. We will discuss the concepts of static and kinetic coefficients of
friction and the concept of impending motion. We will discuss different scenarios that are associated with
problems involving friction and the static equilibrium condition. This chapter will provide the means for
the study of friction and the motion analysis that will be used in future courses such as Dynamics.

8.2: Dry (Coulomb) Friction

When there are two contact surfaces and there is a tendency for one of the surfaces to slide on the other
one, or whenever there is an actual motion between two surfaces, then a tangent force is developed
between the contact surfaces which is directed against the direction of the motion of the moving surface.
This tangent force is called the force of friction. The force of friction could be dry friction (Coulomb
friction), fluid friction (viscous friction), and internal friction. Dry friction is the result of moving rough
surfaces without lubrications and fluid friction is the friction caused by moving layers of fluid. Internal
friction is due to the resistive forces among the elements of a solid body when it undergoes deformations.
In this chapter, we study the dry friction.

To underhand the generation of the friction force in rough surfaces, let’s consider a box that moves on a
rough surface with microscopic roughness (irregularities). We are pulling the box to the right.

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Chapter 8: Friction

The resultant force (𝑅⃗) will be decomposed to a normal upward force (𝑁⃗) and a tangent resultant force (𝐹⃗ )
on the free-body diagram.

Note: The normal force is offset from the usual location of the center of gravity, 𝐺, to counter the tipping
caused by the force 𝑃⃗. The offset “𝑥” is determined by taking moments about the point of application of
𝑁⃗.

If 𝑃⃗ increases slowly from zero, eventually a magnitude is reached where the box is about to move
(impending motion). Any further increase in 𝑃⃗ will cause the box to start sliding. When a body is about
to move, the friction force is maximum and is defined as:

Where 𝐹⃗ is called the static friction force and 𝜇 is the coefficient of static friction. 𝐹⃗ is the maximum
possible friction force, and only exists if an object is on the verge of sliding (or impending motion).

If 𝑃⃗ is increased above 𝐹⃗ , the box will begin to slide, and the friction force suddenly drops as the box
tends to “ride” on the surface. The friction force in this stage will be defined as:

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Chapter 8: Friction

where 𝐹⃗ is the kinetic friction force and 𝜇 is the coefficient of kinetic friction. 𝐹⃗ is always less than 𝐹⃗ ,
and 𝜇 is typically 75% of 𝜇 . 𝜇 and 𝜇 are determined experimentally for different contact conditions
and materials, and are tabulated in engineering handbooks.

The graph below summarizes the above effects of friction, showing the variation of the frictional force 𝐹⃗
versus the applied load 𝑃⃗.

The friction force, 𝐹⃗ , is categorized in three different ways:

 Static frictional force: when equilibrium is maintained, and the force of friction can be derived
from the equilibrium equation (force of friction 𝜇 𝑁 𝜇 𝑁). If this assumption is made, then
we need to check |𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛| 𝜇 𝑁.
 Maximum static frictional force (𝐹⃗ ): when at a maximum value needed to maintain equilibrium.
 Kinetic friction force (𝐹⃗ ): when sliding occurs at the contact surface. This will be studied in
Dynamics.

Is it important to draw the correct direction of a friction force in an FBD? That depends:

 If the friction force is being solved as an unknown force, NO.

 Assume an arbitrary direction for the friction force.
 A negative sign on the result indicates an incorrect direction.
 If the friction force is defined by the equation 𝐹 𝜇𝑁 for either static or kinetic friction, YES.
 We would know if the object is on the verge of the slippage, or it is slipping.
 That information would uniquely identify the direction of the friction force on an FBD.

8.3: Types of Friction Problems

In general, there are four types of problems involving dry friction. They can be easily classified once we
know the FBD, the number of unknowns and the number of equilibrium equations.

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Chapter 8: Friction

1- No apparent impending motion (strictly equilibrium problems):

 The number of unknowns is equal to the number of available equilibrium equations.
 Determine the friction force from the equilibrium equations (force of friction 𝜇 𝑁 𝜇 𝑁).
 Determined friction forces must be checked to ensure they satisfy the inequality 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁.
 If untrue, slipping occurs and the body does not remain in equilibrium.
 If either check is untrue impending motion exists at that location, see next paragraph.

2- Impending motion at all points of contact:

 The total number of unknowns equals the total number of available equilibrium equations plus
the total number of available friction equations, 𝐹 𝜇𝑁.
 Remember for impending motion, then 𝐹⃗ 𝜇 𝑁; whereas if the body is slipping, then
𝐹⃗ 𝜇 𝑁.

3- Impending motion at some points of contact:

 The number of unknowns will be less than the number of available equilibrium equations plus
the number of available friction equations or conditional equations for tipping.
 There are several possibilities for motion or impending motion, thus we must determine which
kind of motion actually occurs.

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Chapter 8: Friction

4- Slip or Tip:
Imagine you are pushing on a crate on a rough surface with a weight of 𝑊.
 With a small magnitude of 𝑃⃗, the crate will remain in equilibrium.
 As 𝑃⃗ increases the crate will either:
 Be on the verge of slipping on the surface (𝐹 𝜇 𝑁).
 Or if the surface is very rough (large 𝜇 ), then the normal force shifts to the corner
(𝑥 𝑏/2). At this point the crate begins to tip over.
The crate has a greater chance of tipping if the surface is very rough (large 𝜇 ), if 𝑃⃗ is applied at a
greater height ℎ, and if its width 𝑏 is relatively small.

Will an applied force 𝑷⃗ cause the box to slip or tip?

 Determine the location of 𝑁⃗ (i.e., find 𝑥). Take moments about the point of application of 𝑁⃗.
 If 𝑥 𝑏/2, the box will tip.
 If 𝑥 𝑏/2, the box will not tip, but will it slip? Find the magnitude of the friction 𝐹⃗ .
 If 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁 the box slips.
 if 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁 the box does not slip.

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Chapter 8: Friction

What is the maximum value of 𝐏⃗ such that the box will neither slip nor tip?

 Set 𝑥 𝑏/2, i.e., the box is about to tip. Solve for 𝑃⃗.
 But will the box slip before it tips? Solve for 𝐹⃗ .
 If 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁 the box will tip before slip and you are done.
 If 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁 the box will slip and tip at the same instant, the location of 𝑁⃗ is correct, you are done.
 If 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁 the box slips before it tips, and the location of the 𝑁⃗ is incorrect (i.e., 𝑥 𝑏/2).
 Set 𝐹 𝜇 𝑁, and solve for x and 𝑃⃗.

Hints for solving friction problems

 Draw the necessary FBDs, and unless stated in the problem that impending motion or slipping
occurs, always show the frictional forces as unknowns (i.e., do not assume 𝐹 𝜇𝑁).
 Determine the number of unknowns and compare it to the number of available equilibrium
equations.
 If there are more unknowns than the equations of equilibrium, it is necessary to apply the
frictional equation at some (if not all) contact points to obtain the extra equations needed.
 If the equation 𝐹 𝜇𝑁 is used, you must show 𝐹⃗ acting in the correct direction on the FBD.
 If the status of the body (no motion, impending motion) is not clear, make an assumption on the
status of the body first.
 If any assumption is made in friction problems, the assumption needs to be validated at the end.

8.4: Wedges
Before we start solving some examples, we need to discuss the wedges used in machines to lift loads or
adjust the position of an abject. The weight of the wedge is less than the load to be lifted and that’s why
we ignore the weight of the wedge in FBDs. If we want to lift the load, then FBDs are sketched in the
following way:

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Chapter 8: Friction

Note that if the wedge is used to lower down the load, then the friction forces shown on the FBDs will act
in the reverse directions.

Example 8.1: A box is on a rough surface (𝜇 0.5, 𝜇 0.3). The weight of the box is 10 N and we
are pulling the box to the right with force 𝑃⃗. Increase the magnitude of 𝑃⃗ slightly from zero to 10 N with
the step size of 1 N. Determien the force of friction developed between the box and the rough surface for
every loading step. The dimension of the box guaranties no tipping occurs.

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Chapter 8: Friction

Example 8.2: The drum has a weight of 100 N and rests on the floor for which the coefficient of static
friction is 𝜇 0.6. If 𝑎 2 m and 𝑏 3 m, determine the smallest magnitude of force 𝑃⃗ that will cause
impending motion of the drum.

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Chapter 8: Friction

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Chapter 8: Friction

Example 8.3: A horizontal force 𝑃⃗ 100 N is just sufficient to hold the crate from sliding down the
plane, and a horizontal force 𝑃⃗ 300 N is required to just push the crate up the plane. Determine the
coefficient of static friction between the plane and the crate, and then find the mass of the crate.

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Chapter 8: Friction

Example 8.4: Block 𝐶 has a mass of 50 kg and is confined between two walls by smooth rollers. If the
block rests on top of the 40-𝑘𝑔 spool, determine the minimum cable force 𝑃⃗ needed to move the spool.
The cable is wrapped around the spool’s inner core. The coefficients of static friction at 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
𝜇 0.3 and 𝜇 0.6.

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Chapter 8: Friction

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