NDEJJE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Course name: ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Course code: MEC1101
Credit Units: 4 CU

Instructor: Mr. Deogracius Mwesige Bakole

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024

Course Description:
This course introduces engineering students to the analysis of basic static and dynamic
systems encountered in engineering design practice. The course addresses the modelling
and analysis of static equilibrium and dynamic system problems with an emphasis on real
world engineering applications and problem solving.
Course Objectives:
In this course students will
 Develop a clear understanding of the basic principles that govern the statics and
dynamics of particles and rigid bodies;
 Develop an ability to use that understanding in finding solutions to engineering
problems.
 Develop the student’s ability to understand the effect of forces on static and
dynamic systems.
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this course, the student should be able to:
 Draw free-body diagrams of mechanical elements
 Solve forces acting on structural elements and supports
 Identify the real-world problems associated with engineering mechanics
Course content
1. Statics
 Introduction to mechanics (2 hours)
Idealization and principles of mechanics, important coordinate systems and
vector quantities. Equilibrium of a particle, Newton’s laws of motion.
 Force systems & Equivalent systems of forces (10 hours)
 Force systems (2D and 3D)
 Static Equilibrium of rigid bodies, Constraints, resolving forces, Forces and
stresses, Deformations, Loading diagram, Free body diagram and force
Polygon.
 Structures (8 hours)
Analysis of structures including plane trusses, frames and machines using the
following methods; -
 Method of joints
 Method of sections
 Forces in Beams and Cables (8 hours)
Internal forces in members, types of loading and support, shear and bending
moments in beam, shear and bending moment diagrams, general loading, shear
and moment relationships. Cables with concentrated loads, cables with
distributed loads, parabolic cables and catenary cables.
  Geometrical Properties of cross sections; - (8 hours)
 Introduction
 Centroid and centroid axes
 Parallel axes theorem.
 Second moment in Inertia of areas and masses
 Friction (8 hours)
Introduction to friction, laws of dry friction, application of friction in machines
(wedges, screws, disks, wheels, axles and flexible belts)

Method of Virtual work (4 Hours)

Work, equilibrium of particles and rigid bodies, potential energy and stability
2. Dynamics ( 8 hours)
 Kinematics of particles
 Rectilinear motion
 Plane curvilinear motion
 Rectangular coordinates
 Normal and tangential coordinates
 Polar coordinates
 Space curvilinear motion
 Kinetics of particles
 Force mass and acceleration
 Work and energy
 Impulse and momentum
Mode of Delivery
The mode of delivery is through lectures, tutorials and assignments.
Mode of Assessment Percentage Contribution
Continuous Assessment 40 %
Final Examination 60 %
Total 100
Continuous assessment: This shall consist of PROJECT, tests and assignments and
Quizzes, number and weights attached to each shall be agreed upon based on time.
Recommended references
1. Beer. F.P (2006), Vector Mechanics for Engineers; Dynamics, 8th Edition, Mc Graw-
Hill
2. J.L Meriam and L.G Kraige. Engineering Mechanics (Statics), Vol: 2, 7th Edition, John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
3. J.L Meriam and L.G Kraige. Engineering Mechanics (Dynamics), Vol: 2, 7 th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
4. Timoshenko and Young. Engineering Mechanics 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill and
Kogakusha, Ltd.
5. R.C Hibbeler (2008), Engineering Statics, 12th Edition, Prentice Hall.
6. R.C Hibbeler (2010), Engineering Dynamics, 12th Edition, Prentice Hall.
7. Charles E, Carleton G. Fanger (1970), Engineering Mechanics, Statics and
Dynamics, Merrill Publishing Company
8. Adrian Roberts (2003), Statics and dynamics with background mathematics,
Cambridge University Press.
 STATIC- MECHANICS
INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS
The branch of physics which studies the actions of forces on materials is called
mechanics. OR in simple terms Mechanics is the physical science which deals with the
state of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. A force can be thought of as a
push or a pull on an object. For example, if you tie a rope to a hook in a wall and pull on
the rope, you are said to be applying a force to the rope. If the rope is strong enough not
to break (fail) it is said to be resisting the force applied to it. A force could also be applied
to a moving object such as a wrench falling from a grid. In this case gravity is the force
pulling the wrench toward the center of the earth. As you let go of the wrench it starts out
not moving at all, but then gravity pulls it down. This is called acceleration.
Although the principles of mechanics are few, they have wide application in engineering
in fields such as the study of machine design, fluid flow, molecular, atomic and sub atomic
behavior, structural engineering atomic and molecular behavior, rocket and space craft
design, robotics, electrical machines and instrumentation among others. Though
engineering mechanics as a branch of physics is divided into two branches that is statics
and dynamics, most of the study in this course will be contained in the field of statics.
Statics is the branch of mechanics which studies bodies held motionless by balanced
forces or a branch of mechanics which deals with bodies at rest under the action of forces.
Static bodies are usually said to be under static equilibrium. Static Equilibrium
is the condition upon which all forces in a system balance out so as not to produce any
motion. A static load is one in which a load is applied gently and acts there, unmoving for
an extended period of time. For example, a curtain hanging from a batten is a static load.
The magnitude of the static loads are easily calculated once materials being used are
known based on element sizes.
Dynamics on the other hand, is the study of bodies in motion and forces which are
dependent upon time. When an external force is applied to an object, the object produces
forces (internal forces) to counter the external force. These internal forces produce stress
in the object. This stress is a measure of the ability of a material to resist external forces.
On their first encounter with statics and dynamics, students often have difficulty with
three particular aspects of the subject. These are (1) visualization of the physical
properties involved, (2) expression of the latter in mathematical terms and (3)
manipulation of the mathematics in order to solve the various problems that arise.
Dynamic loads, can be much more difficult to predict. A dynamic load is one in which the
magnitude of the force changes with time. An actor walking down a staircase is a dynamic
load.
Strength of materials is the study of the properties of materials which produce those
internal forces necessary to resist external force. In other words, Strength of Materials
study allows us to determine if a material (such as a cable) is capable of resisting the
external forces. Statics, dynamics and strength of materials, combined together usually
form what is known as Engineering mechanics.

Definition of Basic Terms and Concepts

It is impossible to study forces and strength of materials without the use of mathematics.
It is therefore important and advisable for the learners to review basic laws of algebra
and trigonometry. The knowledge of equations, linear algebraic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. General knowledge relating to trigonometry is
very important including Pythagoras theorem, Sine and Cosine rules among others.

Figure 1. Triangles illustrate Pythagoras, Sine and Cosine laws

The sine and Cosine rules are most applicable to non-right-angled triangles
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠; = =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐶

𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐵

𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝑎2 = 𝑐 2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑐𝑏𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎
tan 𝑋 = = ; sin 𝑋 = = ; cos 𝑋 = =
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑏 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑏
Pythagorean theorem is applicable only to right angled triangles like the triangle left of
figure 1 and is stated as;

𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑒 = √𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 2 + 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 2 ; 𝑏 = √(𝑐)2 + (𝑎)2

In the study of any subject it is always fundamental to get to know basic concepts and
definitions, and for the study of mechanics the following are some of the key concepts to
understand; -
Space: Is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by
linear and angular measurements relative to a coordinate system. For three dimensional
problems, three independent coordinates are required. For two dimensional problems,
only two coordinates are required.
Time: Is the measure of succession of events, and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is
not directly involved in the analysis of statics problems.
Mass: Is the measure of inertia of a body, or the resistance to change in its motion. Mass
can also be thought of as a quantity of matter in a body. The mass of a body is independent
of its position or motion.
A particle: Is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical sense, a particle is a
body whose dimensions are considered to be near zero so that it is analyzed as a mass
concentrated at a point.
Rigid body: A body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any two of
its points is negligible for the purpose at hand.
Displacement: is vector describes movement of a particle from one point to another.
Force: Qualitatively a force is defined as that quantity which tries to move the object on
which it acts. Force is characterized by its magnitude, direction and point of application.
It is important to note that you cannot see a force but its effect.
Acceleration is a vector and as such has a magnitude and direction. Usually acceleration
is thought of as getting faster, but, because of its vector nature, you can have an
acceleration vector pointing in the opposite direction of the velocity (also a vector). This
would be reducing the velocity or deceleration.
Impact load is a sub-category of live loads (other examples of live loads include; snow
loads, wind loads, earthquake loads…). The simplest case of an impact load is dropping a
block on a beam.
Stress: Internal forces produced by structural members which resist forces supplied by
outside influence.
Strength of Materials: The study of the properties of materials which produce resisting
forces (stress).
Moment: Is defined as the tendency of a force to rotate a body about an axis.
Couple: the tendency of two equal, opposite non-collinear forces to rotate a body.
Torque: an alternate term for a moment and/or torque.
Units of measurement

There are two commonly used systems of measurement in the world today. One is usually
called ―the English system (more accurately called the ―U.S. Customary System or
sometimes the ―Imperial system) and the other is the Metric system or SI (for Systeme
International). Throughout this course SI units will be used (preferred) alongside
English/American units. Ultimately, it is not important which system is used so long as
consistency is maintained.
It is important, whenever solving problems that appropriate units are used and recorded.
F = 8 is meaningless without units attached, F= 8 N. would be more appropriate. In
addition to being descriptive, units can be used as a check as you perform calculations.
First off, you can only add or subtract quantities of the same units.
SI Units
Mass-Kilogram – kg
Length – meter – m
Time - seconds – s
Force - Newton – N

Newton’s laws of motion

1st Law: a particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with a constant
velocity if there is no unbalanced force acting on it.

2nd Law: the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on it
and is in the direction of this force. It may be stated as F= ma, where F is the vector sum
of forces acting on the particle and a is the resulting acceleration. OR the resulting force
acting on a particle is proportional to the time rate of change of momentum of the particle
and this change is in the direction of the force.
3rd Law: The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The computation of the weight of a body depends on the law of gravitation, which is
expressed as:

𝑀1 𝑀2
𝐹 =𝐺
𝑟2

Where F- Mutual force of attraction between two particles

G-Constant of gravitation (6.673 x 10-11 m3/kg. s2)

M1, M2 – masses of the two particles

r- Distance between the centres of the two particles.

Scalars: These are quantities which are described simply in terms of magnitude.
Examples of scalar quantities include; - Time, Length, mass, Volume, density, speed,
energy, temperature.

Vectors: Is a quantity that has both a magnitude (amount) and a direction. Magnitude is
simply a quantity such as 15 m or 100 kg or 30 seconds. Examples of vectors include; -
force, velocity or displacement(movement), acceleration, moment and momentum. For
example, a force can, be described as 15 N acting in some direction or angle. Because
vector quantities possess direction as well as magnitude, they must always obey the
parallelogram law of addition. A vector quantity cab be represented graphically by a
segment of a straight line, called a vector.

Figure 2. VECTOR
Types of Vectors:

Free Vector: this is a type of vector whose action is not confined to or associated with a
unique line in space. It is only necessary that it preserves its magnitude and direction.
Fixed Vector: This is a vector that acts at a fixed point.
Sliding vector: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of application.
Equal vectors: these are vectors with the same magnitude and direction
Negative vectors: This is a vector which has a direction opposite to its positive
counterpart, but has the same magnitude.
Coplanar vectors: these are vectors which lie in the same plane.
Concurrent vectors: these are vectors which have lines of action that pass through the
same point.
Collinear vectors: these are vectors with the same line of action.

Figure 3.Types of Vectors

Whereas scalars are manipulated using standard algebraic rules vector numbers,
however cannot be manipulated as simply. Vectors have their own special algebraic
operations. They can be added, subtracted, multiplied by a number or have their direction
changed.
Vector Addition

1) Graphical Method

Vectors do not follow the same algebraic rules as do scalars. Suppose a car moves from
point A some distance east to point B and then some distance North to point C. The result
of its travel is a vector from A to C. The vehicles displacement or motion can be
represented as a vector AB followed by vector BC, which is the same as vector AB + BC
giving a total displacement AC. Vector AC is known as the sum or resultant.
 Figure 4. Vector Addition
Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of addition. It states that two free vectors V1
and V2 may be replaced by an equivalent vector V obtained as the diagonal of the
parallelogram constructed on the vectors V1 and V2.

V1 and V2 are the components of the vector V and V is called the resultant of the vectors
V1 and V2.

Figure 5. Parallelogram Law-Addition of Vectors

Alternatively, instead of constructing a parallelogram of forces, the result can be

obtained by constructing a triangle of forces as
 Figure 6. Triangle of forces
If more than two forces act at a point, successive application of the parallelogram law can
be carried out to obtain a resultant force. It is important to note that when the magnitude
has been determined it is important to determine the direction too.

NOTE: In graphical method it is always important to have the vectors arranged in tip to tail
approach for a correct answer of the resultant to be obtained and Laws of Sines and Cosines
are in most cases very helpful.

Vector Convention

The sign convention is useful when adding or subtracting two vectors which do not form
a triangle as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Vector sign Convention

From Fig 6 both AB and CD have magnitudes of 30 KN; however, AB is acting at 00 and
therefore has a positive value. CD on the other hand is acting at 1800 and therefore has a
negative value. Because these two vectors do not form a triangle, parallelogram law and
triangle of forces method cannot be applied but they can still be added.

AB + CD =

30 + (-30) = 0
 2) Component Method (Method of Resolving)

A vector can be described using the vectors’ components. These components are two
vectors, one parallel to the X- axis and the other to Y-axis. The advantage of adding vectors
in component form is simpler and quicker especially when dealing with more than two
vectors. Vector components are commonly noted as Ax and Ay where A is the magnitude
of the vector and the subscripts x and y refer to the portion of vector A which is parallel
to the x or y axis respectively.

Figure 8. Resolving of Vector Components

Given Vector A makes an angle β with the X-Axis, then, Ax = A Cos β; Ay = A Sinβ
The rule for adding vector components;
1) Resolve the vectors into their components, e.g. Ax, Ay; Bx, By and Cx, Cy
2) Add the components separately for each;
X -axis(X)= Ax + Bx +Cx and
Y-axis(Y)= Ay +By + Cy
3) If necessary, to get a resultant (R), recombine the components into a vector
𝑅 = √𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2
𝑋
4) Angle β made by the resultant R; 𝛽 = tan−1 𝑌

NOTE: In resolving of vector components, it is always important to keep in mind the

interpretation of the angle as guided in Figure 8.
Example

A car drives 36 km East of the gas station. It then drives 45 Km North. Finally, it drives 25
Km Northeast. Sketch the route of the car. At the car’s destination, how far along a straight
line from the gas station is it? Use both Graphical and method of components to determine
the resultant and its direction.
Formulating problems and obtaining solutions for analysis

In statics, as in all engineering problems, there is need to use a precise and logical method
for formulating problems and obtaining their solutions. Problems are formulated and
developed with corresponding solutions are developed through the following sequence
of steps.

1) Formulate the problem

a) State the given data
b) State the desired result
c) State your assumptions and approximations
2) Develop the solution
a) Draw any diagrams you need to understand the relationships
b) State the governing principles to be applied to the solution
c) Make calculations
d) Ensure that the calculations are consistent with the accuracy justified by the
data
e) Ensure that consistent units throughout the calculations are used
f) Ensure that the answers are reasonable in terms of magnitudes, directions by
applying common sense.
g) Draw conclusions.
FORCE
Structures built must perform the task of withstanding forces applied to them. These
forces can be the result of many things; most often in engineering mechanics the forces
involved are due to gravity. The study of statics is concerned with two fundamental
quantities: length or distance, which requires no explanation, and force. The quantity
length can be seen with the eye but with force, the only thing that is ever seen is its effect.
We can see a spring being stretched or a rubber ball being squashed but what is seen is
only the effect of a force being applied and not the force itself. With a rigid body there is
no distortion due to the force and in statics it does not move either. Hence, there is no
visual indication of forces being applied. Force cannot be seen or measured directly but
must always be imagined. A force is a vector and therefore has both a magnitude and
direction and is subject to vector algebra.

Static Equilibrium

These are systems where all of the forces (due to gravity created by the structural
members supporting the loads) are balanced. Unbalanced forces result into motion of a
given body.

Failure in structures: This is when structural members are not capable of resisting the
forces being subjected to it. In order to have a system in equilibrium the net force acting
on it must be zero.
In order to have a system in equilibrium the net force acting on it must be zero. In other
words, when all of the forces involved are added together, they will add up to zero.

Formally, static equilibrium is written as follows:

Which states that the sum of the forces in the vertical direction and the sum of the forces
in the horizontal direction must both sum to 0 for there to be an equilibrium state and
moments must be equal to zero. Summing forces and moments in Z-axis then the problem
is a 3D problem which will not be emphasized in this course.

Example: Three confused stagehands are pushing on a wagon. Dave (A) is pushing with
a force of 100 KN at an angle of 250 . Jason (B) is pushing with a force of 25 KN at an angle
of 450 and Mary (C) is pushing with a force of 185 KN at 2500. Is this system in
equilibrium? If not, what vector D is necessary to make it so?

Moments

A moment is defined as the tendency of a force to cause rotation about a point or an axis.
It is also sometimes referred to as torque, however this is somewhat of a misnomer. Both
torque and moment refer to the tendency of a force to produce rotation, however torque
is usually used in relation to something that is actually turning, such as the wheel of a car
or a wrench on a bolt head. A moment, contrast is purely the tendency of the force to
produce rotation.

The magnitude of the moment is given by the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance to the point the rotation is centered upon.

M=F*d
Where M = Moment
F = Force
d = Perpendicular distance from pivot point to location where the force is acting.
(moment arm).
Force Systems

There are two main force systems with standard symbols as shown

1. Uniformly distributed loads.

Figure 9. UDL

The uniformly distributed Load represents the case where the load is spread out over the
length of a beam in an even way. The distributed load is usually represented by the letter
“w” and will be in units such as KN/m; KN/m2.
2. Single point load / Concentrated load with units such as KN among others

Figure 10. Single Point load

Single point load is used when you have a load concentrated in a single localized area. In
real world, nothing occupies a true “point” though in mathematical sense the area is
insignificant for such approximations to be made. For example, a 1.2 KN actor standing
on a platform would be treated as a point load, even though his or her weight is spread
over the area of both his feet.
3. Variable force

NOTE: The resultant of a distributed load passes through the centroid, as shown below
For general load distribution

Starting with a differential increment of force dR=ϣdx. The total load R is then;

The resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under consideration. The x-
coordinate of the centroid is found by the principle of moments.

The vertical coordinate of the centroid does not need to be found. Once the distributed
loads have been reduced to their equivalent concentrated loads, the external reactions
acting on the beam can be found using static analysis already developed in earlier
chapters.
Examples: Converting a point/concentrated load into a UDL and vice-versa.
3) Coplanar forces: These are forces acting in two planes
These types of forces are divided into the following categories
i ) Concurrent forces- these are multiple forces acting on the same point
ii ) Non-concurrent forces-multiple forces acting on different points of the same
mass
 iii ) Parallel forces-multiple forces acting parallel to each other, but not acting
on the same point

Figure 11. Types of Coplanar force systems

4) Non- coplanar forces: These are forces which lie in more than two planes-3
Constraints and/or Connections (2 D analysis)
A constraint commonly known as connections is any restriction to movement of a body
1) Roller and/or Rocker: These supports transmit a compressive force normal to the
reacting surface. Movement is restrained only vertically.

2) Pin or hinge support: Movement is restrained in both X and Y but rotation is

possible. An example is a steel bolt between two steel plates.
 3) Built-in or fixed support: The this has an ability to restrict movement in both X and
Y and rotation

Resolving two concurrent forces

Resolving (adding or subtracting) two concurrent forces can be solved by either the
graphic method, or through the method of components. Often, graphic method is simpler,
especially if the two forces meet at right angles. (refer to Vector addition methods as
described before)

Example

Two stagehands are pulling ropes tied to a wagon with four sets of swivel casters. Due to
a lack of communication the two stagehands are not pulling in the same direction.
Stagehand A is pulling the wagon directly stage left at an angle of 0° with a force of 50 KN
and Stagehand B is pulling slightly upstage left at angle of 25° with a force of 75 KN. As
shown in figure 12. Are these two forces concurrent? By using the graphic method and
method of components determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its angle of
action?

Figure 12
Resolving three or more concurrent forces

When there are three or more concurrent forces, it is usually simpler and more
straightforward to apply the method of components to sum the forces. It is possible to
solve it graphically; however, the trigonometry tends to be more involved. The process is
exactly the same as it is for resolving two concurrent forces using the component method.

Resolving parallel force systems

When there are multiple parallel forces acting on a body and these forces do not pass
through a common point it is known as a parallel force system. The magnitude and
direction of the resultant can be determined by the summation of the forces. Remember,
the only thing that is important to the vector is the magnitude and direction.

Example 1

Imagine a 270 N person standing at the center of an 8 m long beam. The beam is
supported by pins on either end. Assuming the beam does not bend determine the
reaction forces at the ends.

Example 2

Determine the magnitude and distance of action from left support of resultant of the
parallel forces acting on the beam in Figure 13. Ignore the weight of the beam (Forces in
KN, and distance in m)

Figure 13-Parallel force system

Forces and stresses

Three basic things as shown in Figure 14 that can happen to a structural member when a
force is applied to it.
 Stretched longer due to a tensile force.
  Crushed smaller due to a compressive force.
 The material layers are forced to slide past adjacent layers of the material and this
is known as shear.

Figure 14
All structural members subjected to an external force will always try to resist and thus
developing stresses. This resisting force is known as the stress and is defined as the
internal force per unit area of the cross section of the resisting material.
The general formula for simple direct stress is

Where; s = unit/allowable stress for the material in question

P = applied load
A = cross-sectional area of the material in question.
Another situation for shear is where a load is placed upon a beam, which is supported by
a wall on each end. Failure in shear in this case results in the ends of the beam sliding past
the portion of the beam supported by the wall as shown in figure 15.
 Figure 15. Shear force acting on a beam

Example 1
A steel bar has a 38,000 N load hanging vertically on it (which makes it a tensile force). If
the allowable unit tensile stress for steel is 22,000 N/mm2, what is the required cross-
sectional area of the steel rod? What diameter rod would be appropriate?
Example 2
What is the weight limit of a short square post, measuring 10 cm, by 100 mm, if the
allowable unit compressive stress is 1000N/mm2?
Example 3
Two lengths of steel strap are bolted together using a single 25 mm bolt. These two
lengths of steel strap are being pulled apart with a force of 15, 000 N. Assuming the shear
strength of the bolt is 58,000 N/mm2, will the bolt fail? If Yes, what would you propose
to overcome the failure?
Deformations
When a material produces stress to counter some external force, that material deforms
to some degree. That is to say it changes shape. It may be crushed shorter, stretched
longer or any other variation thereof. In fact, it is the deformation that actually causes the
stress. As a compressive force is applied to the material, the molecules which make up
the material start to be pushed together. The forces of repulsion between the molecules
push the molecules apart to where they want to live. This is an oversimplified view of
what happens but it is essentially correct. The same physics applies to a material in
tension. As the load tries to pull the material apart, the material sets up internal forces to
counteract the external forces pulling on it.
How much will a material deform? The modulus of Elasticity is the constant relating the
amount of deformation in a member with the load on that member. It is given by the
expression.

where e = total elongation in inches

P = force in pounds
l = starting length in inches of the material in question
A = cross sectional area in square inches of the material in question
E = modulus of elasticity in pounds per square inch of the material in question
For wood, E ranges from 1,000,000 PSI to 1,900,000 PSI and mild steel is 29,000,000 PSI,
Example 1
A 1 in. diameter steel rod has a 15,000 lb. load applied to it. The rod is 10 feet long. How
much will the rod elongate under this force? Take E steel = 29,000,000 PSI.

( 1 PSI = 0.00689 MPa, 1 lb = 0.454 Kg, 1 in =2.54 cm, 1 ft = 0.3048 m)

Loading diagram, Free body diagrams and force polygons

When attempting to analyze a system, there must be a way of symbolically representing

the system. A loading diagram, is essentially a drawing of the structure being analyzed. It
shows all structural members as well as all external loads applied to the structural
members. As a general rule it will not show details of the structure such as bolts, nails,
pulleys etc., nor will it depict the thickness of structural members in any kind.

In applying the principles of mechanics to analyze forces acting on a body, it is essential

that we isolate the body in question from all other bodies so that a complete and accurate
account of all forces acting on this body can be taken. The diagram of such an isolated
body with the representation of all external forces acting on it is called a free body
diagram.

A free body diagram is the most important single step in the solution of problems in
mechanics. It is a diagrammatic representation of the isolated system treated as a single
body. Constructing a FBD requires knowledge of the following basic characteristics of
forces.
 Forces can be applied either by direct physical contact or by remote action.
 Forces can be either internal or external
 Application of force is accompanied by reactive force and both applied and
reactive forces may be either concentrated or distributed.
Procedure for constructing a free body diagram

1) Decide which system to isolate based on one or more of the desired unknown
quantities
2) Isolate the chosen system by checking its complete external boundary. Indicate on
this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. These forces are either active or
reactive. Active forces tend to set the particle in motion e.g weight and reactive
forces are caused by constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion
3) The known forces should be labelled with their proper magnitudes and directions.
Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of unknown forces or
angles
If the sense of a vector is unknown, assign an arbitrary sense. The subsequent
calculations from the equilibrium equations will yield a positive quantity if the
correct sense was assumed and a negative quantity if the incorrect sense was
assumed. It is necessary to be consistent with the assigned characteristics of
unknown forces throughout the calculations
4) Show the choice of coordinate axes directly on the diagram.

In a free body diagram, all details are removed from the problem and only symbolic
representations of all force vectors are indicated. These force vectors are derived from
the loads affecting the system in addition to the stresses being induced in the structural
members of the system. In a free body diagram, forces acting and their directions are
shown and how they relate to other forces in the system. It should be drawn to scale
regarding length.
Figure 16 (a) shows an example of a loading diagram, and figure 16 b shows the free body
diagram derived from it.
 Figure 16
Vectors AB and BC represent forces developed by stress in member AB and BC. For the
time being, we will make the assumption that they are two-force members, meaning that
the member is subject to equal, opposite and collinear forces. This assumption allows us
to say that the forces involved will always act along the length of the member and will
always produce either tension or compression, never bending.
Force Polygon
To create a force polygon, you disassemble the free body diagram vectors and reassemble
them into a polygon form, in this case (and in most cases) the polygon is a triangle. From
the free body diagram, we can generate a force polygon. A force polygon is used to
analytically discover the values of the forces in a system. The force polygon for the system
in figure 16 b is shown in figure 17.

Figure 17 Force Polygon for FBD in Figure 16

The free-body diagram method is the key to the understanding of mechanics. This is so
because the isolation of a body is the tool by which cause and effects are clearly separated.

Trial Question:

A speaker cluster is going to be hung in an arena setting from roof trusses. The roof
trusses are 20 m apart and the speaker cluster needs to hang 5 m to the left of one roof
truss and 20 m below the roof trusses. The speaker cluster will weigh 10,000 kg. when
completely loaded. By use of a force polygon determine how much tension will be in the
two cables used to hang it?
STRUCTURES

The focus of this chapter is on determining forces internal to a structure i.e. forces of
action and reaction between connected members.

An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or

transfer forces and safely withstand the loads applied to it. Examples of structures:
trusses, frames, beams, columns, and machines etc.

Only statically determinate structures will be considered in this chapter.

Plane trusses

A truss is a structure/framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a

rigid structure e.g. bridges, roof supports, derricks and pylons etc. A truss is a very simple
yet highly effective device used to transfer loads back to some form of support, the same
way a beam does. It is, however, more efficient and lighter than an equivalent beam
carrying the same load over the same span. The structure consists of straight, two-force
members (compressive or tensile). Forces distributed through a truss are assumed to
always be transmitted axially, that is to say the line of action of the force is parallel to the
axis of the structural member involved. Members usually lie in one plane (although not
always) and are joined to other members to form triangles. Joints are assumed to be
pinned or frictionless hinges, even though this is not entirely true.

Trusses are used regularly in architecture because of their cost per strength ratio and
they are becoming more and more common in theatrical venues. Lightweight aluminum
trusses are very commonly seen in touring productions to hang lighting instruments or
soft goods. Truss frames are also commonly used to stretch soft goods on, or used as
lightweight scenic elements.

When members of a truss lie essentially in the same plane, the truss is called a plane truss.

Plane trusses are commonly utilized in pairs, placed parallel on each side and connected
by cross beams, as applied in bridges and similar structures.

Types of Common Trusses (Simplified Truss Design p. 115-128)

Simple Triangle
The simplest of trusses is made of one triangle with two members in tension and one in
compression. This system is limited in its span by the compressive member (see figure
3a). As the span length increases, the compressive member must get longer, and as the
compressive member gets longer, it is going to have to have greater strength to resist
buckling.

Howe

The Howe truss is characterized by the fact that the tension members between the two
chords are all vertical while the angled members are in compression (see figure 3b).

Pratt

The Pratt is characterized by the fact that all of the compression members are vertical
and all of the tensional members are angled and parallel to each other (see figure 3c).

Warren

The Warren truss is the most likely truss to be encountered. All members of the top and
bottom chords being of equal lengths characterize this type of truss. All of the diagonal
members, be they in compression or tension, also have equal length and alternate being
in compression and tension (see figure 3d).
The basic element of a plane truss is a triangle. Structures built from a basic triangle are
called simple trusses.

These truss classifications are named after engineers who either invented the style or
who made the style famous. All of these descriptions as to diagonal members being in
either compression or tension, hold true only for symmetrically loaded trusses. Non-
symmetrically loaded trusses can cause some confusion as to what classification the truss
falls in and many trusses become classified as ―modified Warren‖, or ―modified Pratt‖.

To analyze a simple truss several assumptions are made:

1. All members are two force members and lie in the same plane. A two-force member is
one in equilibrium under the action of two forces only. The two forces are applied at the
ends of the member and are necessarily equal, opposite and collinear for equilibrium.

2. The weight of the member is small compared to the force it supports and loads and
reaction are applied only at the joints of the truss. If not the effect of the weight must be
accounted for. The weight W of the member is replaced by two forces, each, acting at each
end of the member. These forces are treated as external loads applied at pin connections.

3. The truss members are connected with frictionless pins: The members are assumed to
be pin jointed, even when welded or riveted connections are used to join structural
members
4. All external forces are applied at the pin connections. Provision for expansion and
contraction due to temperature changes and deformation resulting from applied loading
is usually made at one of the supports, such as by provision of a rocker, roller or some
other kind of slip joint.

5. All members are straight and are two-force members

6. The line of action of the internal force within each member is axial.

7. The change in length of any member due to tension of compression is not of sufficient
magnitude to cause an appreciable change in the overall geometry of the truss.

8. The weight of each member is very small in comparison with the loads supported and
is therefore neglected.

Method of analysis of plane trusses

To determine the forces internal to a truss:

i. Dismember the structure and analyze separate free body diagrams of the individual
members or combination of members

ii. The analysis requires careful application of Newton’s 3rd law of motion.

Three methods are used for truss analysis:

i. Method of joints

ii. Method of sections

iii. Maxwell’s diagram

Of the three known methods of analysis only two methods (method of joints and method
of sections) will be discussed in this course.

Method of joints

The forces in the members of a truss are found by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium
for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint. This method deals with
equilibrium of concurrent forces, and only two independent equilibrium equations are
involved.
Begin analysis with any joint where at least one Known load exists and where not more
than two unknown forces are present.

The external reactions are usually determined first by applying equilibrium equations to
the truss as a whole. Then analysis of the remainder of the truss is performed. Note:
Tension arrows are always indicated by an arrow away from the pin and compression by
an arrow toward the pin. It is often convenient to indicate the tension T and compression
C of the various members directly on the original truss diagram. Initial assignment of the
direction of the force is arbitrary. A negative computed force value indicates that the
initially assumed direction is incorrect. Consistency must always be maintained using
Newton’s 3rd law of motion.

Checking for determinacy

For a truss that is statically determinate externally, the relation m+3=2j holds. Where: m
– number of members/ bars j- Number of pins/joints If m+3>2j, there are more members
than the independent equations and the truss is statically indeterminate internally, with
redundant members present.

If m+3<2j, there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss will collapse under
load.

Redundant/ zero force members

The only use of zero force members is to increase stability of the truss during
construction or provide support when applied loading is changed.

The force F=0 and F1=F2. This condition holds regardless of the angle θ and holds if
collinear members are in tension or compression. If an external force with a component
in the y direction is applied to the joint, then F would no longer be zero. Find other
special cases

Example

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. Indicate whether the members
are in tension or compression

ANS: FAB =750N (Compression); FAD=450N (Tension); FDB=250N (Tensile); FDC= 200N
(Compressive); FCB=600N (Compressive)
NOTE: The method of joints is used when the forces in all members of a truss are
required.

Example 2

Find the stresses in all members in the loading diagram shown below(All forces in KN);

Example 3

Determine the force in each member of the truss loaded and supported as shown. Indicate
whether the member is in tension or compression

Ans: AY = 1250N EY = 750N FAB = 2500N(C), FAH=2170N(T), FBH = FDF =FGD = 0N,
FHG = 2170N (T), FGF = FFE = 1300N(T), FBG = 1000N(C), FBC = 1500N(C),
FCG = 1500N(T), FCD = 1500N(C), FDE = 1500N(C)
Example 4

Determine the axial force Si in each bar of the plane truss supported and loaded as shown.

ANS: S1=-1000N, S3=2000N,S5=-2000N, S7=-3000N, S8=3000N,S9=-707N

Example 5.
Each member of the truss is a uniform 8m bar with a mass of 400kg. Calculate the average
tension or compression in each member due to weights of the members.

Ans: FAB=FBC = 5.66KN T, FAE=FCD = 11.33KN C, FBD = FBE=4.53KN T, FED = 7.93KN C

Method of sections

If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be found, the method of sections
generally provides the most direct means of finding these forces. The method consists of
passing an imaginary section through the truss, cutting it into two parts. Provided the
entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of the two parts must also be in equilibrium. As a
result, the three equations of equilibrium may be applied to either of the parts to
determine the member forces at the cut section. Since only three independent
equilibrium equations can be applied to the isolated position of the truss, not more than
three members whose forces are unknown should be cut consequently. In order for the
portion of the truss on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium, it is necessary to
apply to each cut member the force which was exerted on it by the member cut away as
illustrated below.

The sense of the arrows may be drawn with their proper sense of a visual approximation
of the equilibrium requirements. An entire section of the truss is considered as a single
body in equilibrium and forces n members internal to the section are not involved in the
analysis of the section as a whole. When taking moments, a suitable moment center,
either on or off the section should be chosen through which as many unknown forces as
possible pass.
 The cutting section is preferably passed through the members and not joints

Sometimes the method of joints and sections can be combined for an efficient solution.

Example

Determine the force in members FE, FC and BC of the truss shown. Indicate whether the
members are in tension or compression.

ANS: BC=800N Tensile; FE=800N Tensile; FC=500N Tensile;

Revision questions
Determine the forces in members CD and CE using method of sections.

Determine the forces in members FH, GH and GI of the roof truss.

FRAMES AND MACHINES

Frames are structures that always contain at least one member acted on by forces at three
or more points. These members are called multiforce members. Frames are constructed
and supported so as to prevent any motion. Frame like structures that are not fully
constrained and are designed to transmit and alter the effects of a force or couple are
called machines or mechanisms.

Analysis of a frame

Analysis of a statically determinate frame or machine starts with calculation of external

reactions. The system/entire frame is isolated using a free body diagram and the 3
equations of equilibrium are used to determine the external reactions.

To determine the internal forces holding the different parts of the frame together, the
frame is dismembered and free body diagrams of the individual parts are drawn.
Consistent representation of the forces on the diagrams of interacting bodies is absolutely
necessary, with the same force in two separate members being represented in opposite
directions.

Two force members should be considered first in the analysis. This analysis is illustrated
in the figure below

Frames which cease to be rigid when detached from their supports

The frame analyzed above was designed in such a way that it could keep the same shape
without the help of its supports. Many frames however will collapse if detached from their
supports: such frames cannot be considered as rigid body; it should therefore be
considered made of two distinct rigid parts AC and CB
Four unknown force components act on AC, while only three independent equations may
be used to express that the body is in equilibrium, similarly for CB.

Write MA=0 for the free body AC and MB=0 for CB. Solve the two simultaneous
equations to find CX and CY.

FX=0 and FY=0 is used for each of the free bodies to obtain AX, AY, BX and BY.

Since the equations of equilibrium are satisfied by the forces acting on AC and CB, they
must be satisfied by the forces acting on the two free bodies considered simultaneously.

Since the internal forces at C cancel each other, the equations of equilibrium must be
satisfied by the external forces shown on the free body diagram of the frame ACB
although it is not a rigid body. These equations may be used to determine some of the
components of the reactions at A and B. However, the reactions cannot be completely
determined from the free body of the whole frame. The equilibrium conditions for ACB are
necessary for equilibrium of a non-rigid structure but not sufficient conditions.

Alternatively, one can utilize the fbd ACB as well as AC and CB. Write the ƐMA=0 and
ƐMB=0 for ACB to obtain By and Ay. Write ƐMC=0, ƐFX=0 and ƐFY=0 for free body AC to
obtain AX, CX and CY. Finally writing ƐFX=0 for ACB to obtain BX.

To determine whether a structure is statically determinate and rigid, draw a fbd for each
of its component parts, count the reactions and internal forces involved. Determine the
number of independent equilibrium equations (excluding equations expressing the
equilibrium of the whole structure or groups of components already analyzed).

If there are more unknowns than equations, the structure is statically indeterminate. If
there are fewer unknowns than equations, the structure is nonrigid. If there are as many
unknowns as equations, and if all unknowns may be determined and all equations
satisfied under general loading conditions, the structure is statically determinate and
rigid. If all unknowns cannot be determined and all equations cannot be satisfied, the
structure is statically indeterminate and nonrigid.
Forces in Beams and Cables
Internal forces in members, types of loading and support, shear and bending moments in
beam, shear and bending moment diagrams, general loading, shear and moment
relationships. Cables with concentrated loads, cables with distributed loads, parabolic
cables and catenary cables.
Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads.
Beams are usually long prismatic members/bars designed to support loads, applied
normal to the axes of the bars.
Beams supported so that their external support reactions can be calculated by the
methods of statics alone are called statically determinate beams A beam that has more
supports than needed to provide equilibrium is statically indeterminate Only statically
determinate beams will be analyzed.
7 - 1 Types of Beams

Beams are among the most common structural members. The frame of a platform and a
pipe batten are both examples of beams commonly found in theatrical applications. A
beam is a structural member used to resist transverse loads. The supports for beams are
usually near the ends and apply their resistive forces (reactions). The loads acting on a
beam tend to bend the member, as opposed to lengthening or shorting the member (as in
a truss). There is a subtle but important difference between a beam and a truss. First of
all, a truss is assumed to not deflect where as a beam develops its resistance to the load
by bending. As a load is applied to a beam it bends, which sends the fibers or molecules
on one side of the beam into compression and the fibers or molecules on the opposite
side into tension. It is the ability of these fibers to resist these compressive and tensional
forces that allows the beam to resist the load. However, these compression and tensional
forces are not equally distributed across the cross section of the beam. The greatest force
occurs near the outside of the beam and it decreases as you approach the center of the
beam, until you reach the centerline of the beam where all compression and tension
forces reach zero. Therefore it is the characteristics of the cross section of the beam that
determines its ability to resist bending.

There are, in general, five basic types of beams, which are described by the number of and
position of supports. They are described here (see Figure 1). (Simplified Mechanics and
Strength of Materials p.125 -126)

A simple beam rests on a support on each end, with the ends free to rotate. A board placed
on top of two blocks is a good example.
A cantilever beam is supported on one end only. This one end is fixed in rotation and
translation. A beam embedded in a concrete wall is a typical example.

An overhanging beam is one in which the end (or ends) project over the support. The
overhanging beam is commonly mislabeled as a cantilever.

A continuous beam rests on more than two supports. The side of a 4 x 8 platform with
three legs is an example of a continuous beam.

A restrained beam has both ends fixed in translation and rotation. A beam embedded in a
wall on both sides is an example of a restrained beam.

The beam type is determined by how its ends are supported. There are two types of end
supports, the Pin and the Roller (see Figure 2). The roller end support will allow the beam
to slide left and right, but will not allow it to move up or down (it will only supply a
vertical reaction). The Pin end support will prevent the beam from sliding left and right
in addition to preventing it from moving up and down (it will supply both vertical and
horizontal reactions).

Beams can also be identified by the external loading they support i.e. concentrated loads
as shown above, and distributed loads. The intensity ϣ of a distributed load can be
expressed as a force per unit length of the beam. The loading intensity may be constant
or variable, continuous or discontinuous (changes magnitude abruptly) as previously
described.
Beam Loads

There are two types of loads commonly supported by a beam, concentrated and
distributed. A concentrated load is when the load acts at a single point of a beam (or at
least a very small area when compared to the length of the beam). This, of course, is
impossible in reality, but the assumption does work. A concentrated load could be a
column being supported by a beam, for example. A distributed load is when the load is
spread out over a large length of the beam. A row a bricks lined up end to end along a
beam is an example of a distributed load. There will be times when a number of closely
spaced concentrated loads will be calculated as if they were a distributed load and it is
possible to convert a distributed load into an equivalent concentrated load. The total load
acting at the midpoint of its length can represent a distributed load. Both of these cases
will be discussed later in this chapter. A sub category of the distributed load is the
uniformly distributed load in which the load applies a constant magnitude of force per
linear unit of the length of the beam.

Determining Beam Reactions

A reaction is the upward force supplied by the supports of the beam that resist the loads.
If there is only one load, centered on a beam, and two supports located at either end of
the beam, it is intuitive to see that each support will hold half the load. However, this case
is somewhat rare. What we need to do in most cases is study the moments acting on the
beam in a way similar to the process we used for the case of non-symmetrically loaded
trusses.

Example 1

There is a 10 m beam with supports at each end and two loads placed on it. The first load
(40 KN) is 2 m from left side and the second load (55 KN) is 6 m from the first load. Find
the value of the two reactions neglecting the weight of the beam and assuming pinned
connection at both ends. All forces acting downwards.

Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to the uniform load
distribution
Vertical Shear in Beams

There are generally two separate types of shear in beams. They are vertical shear
(denoted with a capital V) and horizontal shear (denoted with a lower-case v). Vertical
shear is defined as the tendency for one part of a member to move vertically with respect
to the adjacent part of the member.

If we refer to the entire uniformly distributed load acting on the beam in figure 2 as W,
and we assume that the loading is symmetrical, then we can say that the value for each of
the reactions is W/2. If we look at just the left support we see that the support is pushing
up (positive) on the beam with a value of W/2. Just to the right of the support the load is
pushing downward (negative) and we can say that the magnitude of the tendency of the
left and right portions to slide past each other (the vertical shear) is equal to the value of
the reaction, W/2. As we move out over the beam to the right, the value of the distributed
load increases (because we are including more of it in our study area) and that subtracts
from the shear force by an amount equal to the value of the load. The magnitude of the
vertical shear at any section of a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of all vertical forces on
one side of the section. Written mathematically.

When designing beams, it is usually useful to draw a shear diagram showing visually the
value of the vertical shear at all points along the beam. These shear diagrams are simply
a graph with the distance along the beam on the X axis and the value of the vertical shear
along the Y axis.
Example 2

Using the same beam from example 1, calculate the values of vertical shear and show the
corresponding shear diagram.

Example 3

Find the vertical shear and draw the shear diagram for a 12 m beam with an equally
distributed load on it of 50 KN/m.

Bending Moments in Beams

The moment of a force is the tendency of that force to produce rotation about a certain
point. This point is called the center of moments, and the perpendicular distance between
the center of moments and the point at which the force is applied is known as the moment
arm. Remember that a moment that tends to produce clockwise rotation is designated
with a negative sign and a moment which tends to produce a counter-clockwise rotation
is designated with a positive sign.

Example 4:

There is a simply supported beam, 16 m long, with a concentrated load of 4000 KN placed
upon it 10 m from the left side. Draw a shear diagram and a moment diagram.