Electronics 11 01355

electronics
Review
A Review of Wireless Power Transfer Systems for Electric
Vehicle Battery Charging with a Focus on Inductive Coupling
Iman Okasili, Ahmad Elkhateb * and Timothy Littler
School of Electronics, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EEECS), Queen’s University,
Belfast BT9 5AH, UK; iokasili01@qub.ac.uk (I.O.); t.littler@qub.ac.uk (T.L.)
* Correspondence: a.elkhateb@qub.ac.uk
Abstract: This article classifies, describes, and critically compares different compensation schemes,
converter topologies, control methods, and coil structures of wireless power transfer systems for
electric vehicle battery charging, focusing on inductive power transfer. It outlines a path from
the conception of the technology to the modern and cutting edge of the technology. First, the
base principles of inductive coupling power transfer are supplied to give an appreciation for the
operation and design of the systems. Then, compensation topologies and soft-switching techniques
are introduced. Reimagined converter layouts that deviate from the typical power electronics
topologies are introduced. Control methods are detailed alongside topologies, and the generalities of
control are also included. The paper then addresses other essential aspects of wireless power transfer
systems such as coil design, infrastructure, cost, and safety standards to give a broader context for
the technology. Discussions and recommendations are also provided. This paper aims to explain the
technology, its modern advancements, and its importance. With the need for electrification mounting
and the automotive industry being at the forefront of concern, recent advances in wireless power
transfer will inevitably play an essential role in the coming years to propel electric vehicles into the
common mode of choice.
Citation: Okasili, I.; Elkhateb, A.;
Littler, T. A Review of Wireless Power
Keywords: electric vehicles; inductive power transfer; battery chargers; wireless power transfer;
Transfer Systems for Electric Vehicle
compensation; converters; static systems; dynamic systems
Battery Charging with a Focus on
Inductive Coupling. Electronics 2022,
11, 1355. https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics11091355
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Qi Zhu and
Aiguo Patrick Hu
As sustainability becomes a greater focus in the global community, the electrification
of industries is on the rise. Electrification offers sectors that traditionally are heavy polluters
Received: 17 March 2022 the opportunity to source their energy from more sustainable means. The automotive indus-
Accepted: 16 April 2022 try is at the forefront of this new wave of electrification but faces significant challenges in
Published: 24 April 2022 adopting electric vehicles (EV). Wireless power transfer (WPT) offers a means of mitigating
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the issues of range-per-charge and time-to-charge for EVs. Since expectations grow for
with regard to jurisdictional claims in the electrification of the automotive industry, pressure is mounting on manufacturers to
published maps and institutional affil- enhance and improve EV technology. Two of the most significant challenges in adopting
iations. EVs are the issues of range and charging times. Compared to internal combustion engine
(ICE) vehicles, EVs have traditionally had a smaller range in the distance travelled per
charge/refuel. This is due to the energy density difference of modern batteries against
that of petroleum and other fossil fuel sources. The energy density of standard gasoline is
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. around 8200 Wh/kg, over 10 times greater than that of mature EV battery technology [1]
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and still over double that of emerging technologies [2]. The glaring issues of EV use are
This article is an open access article
exacerbated in long journeys because of the need to stop more often for recharging. The
distributed under the terms and
problem has historically been compounded by the fact that ICE vehicles only take a few
conditions of the Creative Commons
minutes to refuel which in many cases was and is still far faster than the time needed to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
significantly charge an EV. In [3] a comparison of state-of-the-art extreme fast DC chargers
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
is given. It is reported that at the peak end, systems can supply enough charge to power the
4.0/).
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11091355 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 2 of 26
vehicle for around 200 miles in as little 10 min. However, this still remains the extreme case
and the same report details current high-end charging at around 25 min and over. Whilst
researchers are improving EVs by increasing efficiency and developing better batteries,
there has long been speculation on how to improve infrastructure to mitigate some of the
technology’s inherent limitations. WPT has been theorized for EVs for over 100 years [4]
to increase range. In the past 20–30 years, WPT for EVs has taken significant leaps in
modernizing the technology. There are two main categories to the technology, which are
static and dynamic charging. As the names imply, static charging is available when the
vehicle is stationary and dynamic charging is the process of supplying power to an EV
while it is moving. Early systems for WPT for EVs focused more on dynamic charging. The
work in [5] is one of the earliest proposals of roadway powered EVs (RPEVs). RPEVs are
EVs that derive all their energy from a primary side inductor implanted into the driving
surface received by a secondary inductor in the vehicle, thus limiting the journey range
to the length of the powered driving surface. This concept heavily inspired researchers,
and so, research began on the modern concept in 1990 [6]. One of the most significant
contributors to the field of dynamic WPT are researchers at the University of Auckland;
their work in the early 2000’s pioneered many important concepts [7–10]. The Korean
Advanced Institute of Science and Technology is also notable in this department with
its work on online electric vehicles (OLEVs). OLEVs are a hybrid of traditional battery
dependent EVs and RPEVs. The concept of an OLEV is to reduce battery size whilst still
maintaining a suitable range for standard driving. This technology has been shown to need
around 20% of the battery capacity of their plug-in charger counterparts [11]. With WPT
systems having already achieved power transfer over air gaps of up to 200 mm, and effi-
ciencies of approximately 96% [12], the feasibility of the technology is being certified. This
paper presents an overview of WPT systems advancements whilst highlighting important
milestones and challenges faced by researchers. The paper will begin with a recap of the
fundamentals of WPT systems to propagate a better understanding of past advancements
in the field and contemporary work. The paper will then address research in crucial areas,
referring to compensation schemes, control methods, converter topologies and coil design.
This paper will also detail broader topics such as safety standards and costs before finally
reflecting on the current technology with speculation on future systems.
2. Fundamentals of WPT Systems

This section will detail the base principles on which modern WPT transfer systems
are built, including a derivation of mutual inductance and coupling factor. A detailed
explanation of reflection is included to support the basic power transfer and efficiency
equations presented. This section illustrates key principles so as to supply a better context
for the challenges faced and the breakthroughs achieved in WPT.
2.1. Overall Systems Configuration

This paper focuses on WPT systems that make use of the inductive coupling method.
Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems use the generated magnetic field from
an inductor subject to a change in current as a means for transferring power wirelessly.
A typical WPT system consists of a primary and secondary side coupled by inductors. A
precursor to the system involves rectifying the domestic supply, and DC-DC conversion
takes place with power factor correction so that the system is supplied with a suitable
voltage. On the primary side of the system, there is an inverter for creating an AC waveform
to drive the coupled inductor network. Compensation schemes are employed on either side
of the inductors. The high-frequency output of the inverter is used to generate a magnetic
field from the primary winding, which in turn induces an AC current in the secondary.
The frequency used can be selected to resonate with the secondary compensations scheme
to significantly improve power transfer and efficiency. The waveform is then rectified to
charge the battery.
during the charge time, can be calculated using (1):
1 1
𝑊| = 𝐿 𝑖 ± 𝑀𝑖 𝑖 + 𝐿 𝑖 (1)
2 2
As seen in Figure 1, 𝐿 , 𝐿 and 𝑖 , 𝑖 are the self-inductances and currents of the primary
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 3 of 26
and secondary, respectively.
The energy in the system cannot be negative, so to gain a definition for 𝑀, we can exploit
this by assuming that the 𝑀 term is negative:
2.2. Mutual Inductance and Coupling Factor
1 1
The operating principle of 𝑊|ICPT = is𝐿 like
𝑖 that
+ 𝐿of 𝑖a transformer
− 𝑀𝑖 𝑖 (2)
in several aspects. The
2 2
significant divergence is the lack of a fully formed ferrite core. In the case of ICPT, there
Adding
is and subtracting
a significant the term
air gap present between𝐿 𝐿 𝑖the 𝑖 primary
to Equation
and(2) will allow
secondary for completing
windings. the
Thus, the
square to give (3):
principles of operation differ as the coupling factor is far below 1. The operation of a WPT
system is heavily dependent on1 the mutual inductance M; mutual inductance is linked to
how well the system is𝑊| = (which
coupled 2
𝐿 𝑖 −is commonly
𝐿 𝑖 ) + 𝐿referred
𝐿 𝑖 𝑖 −to𝑀𝑖as 𝑖the coupling factor(3)k.
From [13], we can derive expressions for M and k. When initially subjected to a DC current,
The first term on the right-hand side can approach 0 but cannot be negative, so for the
an inductor stores energy in its winding; 0 current is passing through the coils at time t = 0,
energy transfer to be positive, the definition of M must be:
and a growing/changing current i1 is first seen in the primary coil until it reaches its peak
at time t = t2 . Due to this growing/changing 𝐿 𝐿current
𝑀 in the primary, the secondary has (4) an
induced current i2 that follows the same trend over time as i1 . For the case of energizing a
The
pairratio of 𝑀/ 𝐿
of mutually 𝐿 is known
coupled inductorsas the coefficient
with of coupling
a DC current, or coupling
the energy stored,factor k:
W, during the
charge time, can be calculated using (1): 𝑀
𝑘= (5)
1 𝐿 𝐿 1
t2 2 2
W |t0 = L1 i1 ± Mi1 i2 + L2 i2 (1)
and 𝑘 can be any value between 0 2and 1, 0 𝑘 1.2The coupling factor is the ratio of
flux linkage
As seenbetween the1,primary and isecondary
L1 , L2 and coils. Figure 1 depicts how the coupling
in Figure 1 , i2 are the self-inductances and currents of the
factor is modelled as a circuit
primary and secondary, respectively. to represent the non-linked flux or flux leakage.
Figure 1. Basic Inductive Power Transfer System with leakage inductance.

Figure 1. Basic Inductive Power Transfer System with leakage inductance.
The energy in the system cannot be negative, so to gain a definition for M, we can
exploit this by assuming that the M term is negative:
1 1
W |tt20 =
L i 2 + L2 i2 2 − Mi1 i2 (2)
2 11 2
√
Adding and subtracting the term L1 L2 i1 i2 to Equation (2) will allow for completing
the square to give (3):
1 p 2 p
W |tt20 =
p
L1 i1 − L2 i2 + L1 L2 i1 i2 − Mi1 i2 (3)
2
The first term on the right-hand side can approach 0 but cannot be negative, so for the
energy transfer to be positive, the definition of M must be:
p
L1 L2 ≥ M (4)
√
The ratio of M/ L1 L2 is known as the coefficient of coupling or coupling factor k:
M
k= √ (5)
L1 L2
and k can be any value between 0 and 1, 0 ≤ k ≤ 1. The coupling factor is the ratio of flux
linkage between the primary and secondary coils. Figure 1 depicts how the coupling factor
is modelled as a circuit to represent the non-linked flux or flux leakage.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 4 of 26
2.3. Reflection
The nature of the system is such that as the primary causes an induced current in the
secondary, the secondary also has an opposing effect on the primary. The voltage induced
in the secondary by the primary current i1 is stated as jωMi1 and the reflected voltage from
the secondary current i2 onto the primary can be stated as − jωMi2 [14], where ω is the
angular frequency expressed as ω = 2π f .
Impedance is reflected from the secondary to the primary, and from Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law (KVL), we get:
Vs ω 2 M2
Zin = = jωL1 + (6)
I1 jωL2 + ZLD
where Zin and ZLD are the input and load impedance, respectively. The second term of the
right-hand side is the result of the mutual coupling and is the reflected impedance Zr :
ω 2 M2
Zr = (7)
jωL2 + ZLD
The impedance of the secondary Zs = jωL2 + ZLD so:
ω 2 M2
Zr = (8)
Zs
We can also express the load impedance as ZLD = R LD + jX LD , therefore:
ω 2 M2
Zr = (9)
R LD + j( X LD + ωL2 )
By rationalizing the denominator, the reflected impedance is expressed in terms of

real ( Re) and imaginary ( Im) parts:
ω 2 M2 R LD ω 2 M2 ( X LD + ωL2 )
Zr = 2
−j (10)
R2LD + ( X LD + ωL2 ) R2LD + ( X LD + ωL2 )2
where:
ω 2 M2 R LD
Re{ Zr } = (11)
R2LD + ( X LD + ωL2 )2
and:
ω 2 M2 ( X LD + ωL2 )
Im{ Zr } = − (12)
R2LD + ( X LD + ωL2 )2
The reflected reactance corresponds to the negative of the net reactance of X LD + ωL2
and, depending on this, it is either capacitive or inductive. Where X LD is capacitive and
equal to ωL2 then the reactance is 0, and the reflected impedance is purely resistive.
2.4. Power Transfer and Efficiency

The power transfer from the primary to the secondary is then stated as the real part of
the reflected resistance multiplied by the square of the primary current [14]:
P = ( ReZr ) I12 (13)
The efficiency of the system is expressed in an equivalent manner as a voltage divider

over both the primary and secondary. (14) shows the ratio between the reflect resistance
and the resistance of the primary. As power transferred is measured across the reflected
resistance, the larger the ratio of reflected resistance in relation to the resistance of the
primary the higher the efficiency of the system will be. (15) shows the ratio of load
resistance against total secondary side resistance. The greater the ratio of load resistance,
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 28
the more power is dissipated across the load in relation to the rest of the circuit during
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 operation: 5 of 26
𝑅𝑒𝑍
𝜂 = (14)
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑒𝑍
the more power is dissipated across the load in relation to the rest of the circuit during
operation: 𝑅
𝜂 = (15)
𝑅 r+ 𝑅
ReZ
ηp = (14)
where total efficiency is: R p + ReZr
R
ηs 𝜂= = 𝜂L ∗ 𝜂 (16)
(15)
R L + Rs
where total efficiency is:
3. Compensation Schemes η T = η p ∗ ηs (16)
WPT is reliant on coupled inductors as a means of transferring power. Due to the air-
3.core, there can beSchemes
Compensation leakage flux shown in Figures 1 and 2 as Lx(1−k), which causes the sys-
temWPT
to be is
inefficient.
reliant onCompensation
coupled inductors is usedas to eliminate
a means the presencepower.
of transferring of leakageDueflux and
to the
air-core, there can be leakage flux shown in Figures 1 and 2 as Lx (1 − k), which causes thea
improve system performance. In systems where the coupling factor 𝑘 0.5, such as
traditional
system to betransformer
inefficient. with a ferrite core,
Compensation the compensation
is used to eliminate the capacitance
presence should
of leakageresonate
flux
with
and the leakage
improve system inductance.
performance.Whereas in an air-core
In systems where the system
coupling 𝑘
with factor 0.5,
k >the0.5,compensa-
such as a
tion capacitance
traditional shouldwith
transformer be resonant
a ferrite with
core,thetheself-inductance to achieve a should
compensation capacitance zero-phase angle
resonate
(ZPA) and minimize the reactive part of the reflected impedance.
with the leakage inductance. Whereas in an air-core system with k < 0.5, the compensation Researchers realized
that the adoption
capacitance should be of resonant
compensation also
with the allowed for control
self-inductance to achieveof other parameters.
a zero-phase angle On (ZPA)the
primary
and side, the
minimize compensation
reactive part may of be
theused to minimize
reflected the VA
impedance. rating [15] realized
Researchers and achieve that ZPA
the
so that the
adoption real power matches
of compensation the apparent
also allowed power.
for control On the
of other secondaryOn
parameters. side,
the compensation
primary side,
is constructedmay
compensation for beresonance to maximize
used to minimize power
the VA transfer.
rating [15] and Compensation
achieve ZPA so is that
alsothe used
realto
employ
power soft switching
matches the apparent via zero
power.voltage
On the switching
secondary (ZVS)
side, or zero currentisswitching
compensation constructed (ZCS)
for
to minimize
resonance power loss
to maximize in the
power inverter.
transfer. Constant current
Compensation is also(CC)
usedand constant
to employ voltage
soft (CV)
switching
canzero
via alsovoltage
be realized by compensation
switching (ZVS) or zero[16–18].
currentThis can be(ZCS)
switching used to to minimize
significantlypowerimprove
loss
incharging,
the inverter.
and as Constant current (CC) and
such load-independent constantisvoltage
operation a highly (CV) can also
desirable beinrealized
trait EV batteryby
compensation
charging. [16–18]. This can be used to significantly improve charging, and as such
load-independent operation is a highly desirable trait in EV battery charging.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure2.2.Four
Figure Fourbasic
basiccompensation
compensationtopologies:
topologies:(a)
(a)SS,
SS,(b)
(b)SP,
SP,(c)
(c)PS
PSand
and(d)
(d)PP.
PP.
There are four basic topologies of compensation which can be seen in Figure 2, and
these are SS, SP, PS and PP, where “S” and “P” stand for series and parallel, respectively.
The order in which the “S” or “P” appears denotes their presence on either side of the
system. These compensation topologies have been extensively researched [14,16,19,20],
and it has been found that SS and SP are the more favorable of the basic topologies, with
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 6 of 26
some caveats. SS and SP are adequate for reducing the needed rating of the power supply.
SP compensation for EV charging is advantageous, as a voltage supplied SP topology
was found to have a load-independent output voltage characteristic. However, when SS
and SP operate with a voltage source and a no coupling factor situation (k = 0) caused by
misaligned or large air gaps, it can be unsafe for the power supply [21]. The focus of the
basic topologies is to choose a compensation capacitance to eliminate leakage inductance
for maximum power transfer. Since a constant voltage is wanted across the load, it can
be modelled as constant resistance. The reflected reactance is typically inductive, so any
employed compensation should take this into account. Using the reflected impedance
theory explained in Section 2 Fundamentals of WPT Systems, it is possible to calculate
the compensation capacitances of various topologies [14] to achieve ZPA, which is seen
in Table 1. In recent years, researchers have been creating novel forms of compensation
to maximize desirable traits. A circuit switching model proposed in [18] used the four
basic topologies in a single system. By employing switching techniques to change the
compensation topology from one to another, the system could take advantage of of SS
and PS simultaneously. [18] also details another system that was able to switch between
SP and PP compensation. Practical implementation of this has proved difficult as the
CV or CC operation heavily relies on a coupling factor. Higher-order compensation has
seen an increase in attention in recent years as topologies have been found to produce
desirable characteristics with manageable design constraints. One such example is the
double LCL (where ‘L’ is the presence of an inductor and ‘C’ is the presence of a capacitor,
their respective order is the order in which they appear in the topology) network analyzed
in [22–24]. LCL compensation offers protection to the compensating capacitor from the
square wave output of the inverter, which subjects the capacitor to large instantaneous
changes in voltage, thus impairing its lifespan. It achieves this by placing an inductor after
the inverter to curb the fast voltage change. LCL is usually employed on the primary as
it not only increases capacitor lifespan but also operates with a constant current that is
load-independent with no change concerning varying coupling factors. It can also operate
with ZVS and presents some higher-order harmonic filtering. LCC is another topology
explored in [25–30] that can realize many of the same benefits as LCL. The proposed tuning
method that can operate at a resonant frequency independent of the coupling factor. Both
LCL and LCC can achieve DC to DC efficiencies of around 96% at power outputs from
7.36–7.7 kW. Research into hybrid higher-order compensation schemes has proposed an
interesting system that uses the first and third harmonic waveforms [31]. The design of
the system uses an SS topology for the fundamental waveform and an LCL-S topology
for the third harmonic waveform. As described, the output power for both waveforms
have an opposing relationship with the system’s mutual inductance. A change in mutual
inductance causes the output power for one topology to rise and the other to fall. The use of
compensation networks in tandem allows for steadier output power and load voltage when
faced with a varying coupling factor. A study on divining topologies that exhibit CC and
CV operation for higher-order compensation with load-independent output characteristics
is in [17].
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 7 of 26
Table 1. Compensation Topology Characteristics.
Quality Reflected Primary Primary Current

Topology Operation Capabilities
Factor Q Resistance Capacitance at Resonance
SS ω0 L s ω0 M 2 Cs Ls Ui R Voltage source at secondary.
R R Lp ω0 M 2
SP R M2 R Cs L2s Ui L2s Current source at secondary.

ω0 L s L2s L p Ls − M2 M2 R
PS ω0 L s ω0 M 2 Cs Ls Ui R Voltage source at secondary.

R R M4 ω0 M 2
L p Cs L s R − L p
PP R M2 R ( L p Ls − M2 )Cs L2s Ui L2s Current source at secondary.

ω0 L s L2s M 4 Cs R M2 R
Ls +( L p Ls − M2 )2
h i CC operation at primary
Ui 1 L
Double RLs M2 R C1 = ω0 L p · Q 1 + ( L fp1 − 1) with unity-power-factor at
1
LCL ω0 L 2 2 L22
ω02 L1
+ 2 1 [23] secondary. Can be tuned to
ω0 [ ( 1 − K ) L p ]
achieve ZVS.
Can maintain resonance
Cf1 = 1
& √ with changing load and/or
Double RLs M2 R ω02 L f 1 L1 L2
ω0 L 2 2 ω0 L f 1 L f 2 · kUi [25] changing coupling factor.
LCC L22 C1 = 1
ω02 ( L p − L f 1 ) Can be tuned to achieve
ZVS.
Where: Lp , Ls , Cp and Cs , are the primary and secondary coils and compensation capacitors, respectively. Lf 1 , Cf 1 ,
Lf 2 and Cf 2 denote the additional inductors and capacitors on the primary and secondary, respectively. ω 0 is the
ω0 L p
resonant frequency, Q1 = R and Ui is the voltage output from the inverter on the primary.
4. Power Electronics and Control

This section focuses on the control and implementation of the driving hardware
present in WPT systems for EV battery charging.
4.1. Converters
There are several types of converters used in WPT systems. Figure 3 depicts the typical
arrangement of converters used in systems. On the primary side, converters are used to
control the power supply to the system. This is typically accomplished via a rectifier and
an inverter working in tandem to output the desired frequencies from a standard mains
supply. On the primary side, research on converters is mainly focused on the inverter
as it is the driver for the circuit’s operation. When designing inverters for WPT systems,
the focus is heavily centered on achieving resonance [32–36]. Resonance allows for zero
phase angle (ZPA) operation, which drastically increases power transfer efficiency as the
reflected reactance of the secondary on the primary is purely resistive, so real power
matches apparent power transferred. The switches in the inverter must be rated for the
power supply and able to operate at high frequencies. High frequency is needed to transfer
high power levels across an air gap. When operating at resonance, the compensation of
the system may also function as a filter to higher-order harmonics. In most cases, the
waveform supplied to the transmitting coil can be considered a sine wave and circuit
parameters are found by first harmonic analysis (FHA). In the case of WPT for EVs, the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have outlined that a bandwidth of 79 kHz − 90 kHz
is applicable [37]. On the secondary side of the circuit, the power electronics focus on
controlling the load parameters. CV operation is desirable for EV battery charging. Where
compensation has allowed for load-independent operation, only a rectifier is needed on the
secondary to supply a DC current to the load. In the instances where CV is not an inherent
part of the system, a DC-DC converter can be employed on the secondary side to control the
voltage across the load [38–40] and can also be used for impedance matching purposes [41].
In many cases, systems can typically operate with four converters. This poses a problem as
each converter used has its associated losses and increases the needed space. To combat
this, there has been some research conducted into simplifying systems and reducing the
number of converters. One such example would be the work in [42], where a direct AC-AC
fier is needed on the secondary to supply a DC current to the load. In the instances where
CV is not an inherent part of the system, a DC-DC converter can be employed on the
secondary side to control the voltage across the load [38–40] and can also be used for im-
pedance matching purposes [41]. In many cases, systems can typically operate with four
converters. This poses a problem as each converter used has its associated losses and in-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 8 of 26
creases the needed space. To combat this, there has been some research conducted into
simplifying systems and reducing the number of converters. One such example would be
the work in [42], where a direct AC-AC converter is employed, thus eliminating the need
converter
for a primaryis employed, thus eliminating
side rectifier. The proposed the need
systemfor ashowed
primarythe side rectifier. The
capability proposeda
to produce
system showed the capability
30 kHz waveform from a 50 Hz source. to produce a 30 kHz waveform from a 50
A promising technology is the class E2 DC-DC Hz source. A
promising technology is the class E 2 DC-DC converter which has been proposed for WPT
converter which has been proposed for WPT systems in [43–45]. A class E converter offers
2
systems
ZVS andin [43–45].
zero A class
derivative E2 converter
switching (ZDS)offers ZVS
for the and zero
inverter derivative
at an optimum switching
load condition (ZDS)
for the inverter at an optimum load condition R = R = 8/ π 2 + 4 ∗ V 2 /P where
𝑅 = 𝑅 = 8/(𝜋 + 4) ∗ 𝑉 /𝑃 where VI is the input voltage opt and Po is the output I o power.
VI is the input voltage and Po is the output power. For a range of 0 < R < Ropt , only
For a range of 0 𝑅 𝑅 , only ZVS is achieved, and for 𝑅 𝑅, neither ZVS nor
ZVS is achieved, and for Ropt < R, neither ZVS nor ZDS are present in operation. It has
ZDS are present in operation. It has been shown in [46] that ZVS/ZDS shares a similar
been shown in [46] that ZVS/ZDS shares a similar condition between coupling factors
condition between coupling factors as with load, where ZVS and ZDS is achieved at an
as with load, where ZVS and ZDS is achieved at an optimum coupling factor Kopt and
optimum coupling factor Kopt and ZVS is apparent in the range of 0 𝐾 𝐾 . Isolated
ZVS is apparent in the range of 0 < K < Kopt . Isolated converter topologies have been
converter topologies have been widely studied and implemented in recent years as a
widely studied and implemented in recent years as a means of ensuring good power quality
means of ensuring good power quality and safety for devices [47]. As the study of isolated
and safety for devices [47]. As the study of isolated converter topologies has broadened,
converter
the topologies
technology has broadened,
is speculated for use in theWPT.
technology is speculated
The literature shows thatfor usetherein may
WPT.beThe an
literature shows that there may be an interesting development
interesting development in isolated Buck-Boost converter topologies which could make in isolated Buck-Boost con-
verterapplicable
them topologiestowhich a WPT could make
setting. them applicable
Buck-boost converters to aallow
WPT for setting. Buck-boost
the voltage output con-of
verters allow for the voltage output of the DC-DC converter
the DC-DC converter to be greater or lower than that of the supply. This characteristic isto be greater or lower than
that of the on
dependent supply.
the duty This characteristic
cycle. is dependent
There are several on the
Buck-Boost duty cycle. There
configurations such asare several
Ćuk, Zeta,
Buck-Boost configurations such as Ćuk, Zeta, SEPIC and P5.
SEPIC and P5. Several configurations are speculated upon in [48–51], where the consensus Several configurations are
speculated upon in [48–51], where the consensus is that topologies
is that topologies with split capacitor configurations are better for isolated systems. This with split capacitor
configurations
is are better
due to their ability for isolated
to operate withsystems.
transformerThis action.
is due to Intheir
otherability to operate
topologies, energy withis
transformervia
transferred action. In other topologies,
intermediate inductanceenergy is transferred
and exhibits a DC fluxvia intermediate
bias. Energyinductance
transfer is
and exhibits
restricted by athe DC flux
core bias. Energy
volume, wheretransfer
magnetic is energy
restricted by the core stored
is temporarily volume, in where
the coupledmag-
netic energy is temporarily stored in the coupled inductors. The
inductors. The limits of energy storage are related to the hysteresis (BH) curve of the core, limits of energy storage
are related
where to the limits
saturation hysteresis
dictate(BH)thecurve
energy of storage
the core, where
cap. When saturation
a DC flux limits
bias dictate
is present,the
energy
the storage cap.
transformer When
is only a DC flux
operating inbias
a smallis present,
portionthe of transformer
the hysteresis is only
curve. operating
In contrast,in a
small portion
transformer of themakes
action hysteresis
use ofcurve. In contrast,
the negative and transformer action meaning
positive quadrants makes use of the
more neg-
energy
ative andThus,
storage. positive thisquadrants
method ofmeaning intermediatemore inductance
energy storage. seen Thus, this method
in topologies with of nointer-
split
mediate inductance
capacitor does not utilize seen thein topologies
core as wellwith no split capacitor
as immediate transformer doesaction.
not utilize the core
Topologies as
with
well as immediate transformer action. Topologies with a split
a split capacitor transformer configuration are shown in Figure 4 and can operate without capacitor transformer con-
afiguration are shown in Figure 4 and can operate without a DC flux bias.
DC flux bias.
Figure 3. WPT converter topologies. (Where PFC is power factor correction).
The research into these topologies as WPT systems for EV charging is only beginning
to gain traction. The work in [51] is the first to consider these converters in a WPT for EV
charging setting. The possible benefits of these buck-boost inspired WPT systems are a
reduction in total system size and components used. Thus, creating cheaper systems which
can be manufactured at greater ease. In recent years it has been speculated that EVs can
play an essential role in the decentralization of the grid infrastructure. With renewable
energy sources and embedded generation becoming more prevalent, many studies have
pointed to EVs as means of mass-energy storage [52,53]. This has prompted the need for
bi-directional topologies to facilitate the expedition of electrical energy from the vehicle
into the grid [54,55]. This is principally achieved by replacing the secondary side rectifier
with a full-bridge inverter, as seen in Figure 5.
s 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) 9 of 28
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 9 of 26
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Ćuk converter (b) P5 Converter.

(a)
reduction in total system size and components used. Thus, creating cheaper systems
which can be manufactured at greater ease. In recent years it has been speculated that EVs
can play an essential role in the decentralization of the grid infrastructure. With renewable
(b)
into the
Figure 4. (a) Ćuk Figure
converter gridP5[54,55].
(b)Ćuk
4. (a) This(b)isP5
Converter.
converter principally
Converter. achieved by replacing the secondary side rectifier
with a full-bridge inverter, as seen in Figure 5.
reduction in total system size and components used. Thus, creating cheaper systems
which can be manufactured at greater ease. In recent years it has been speculated that EVs
can play an essential role in the decentralization of the grid infrastructure. With renewable
into the grid [54,55]. This is principally achieved by replacing the secondary side rectifier
Figure5.5.Bi-Directional
Bi-Directional ConverterTopology.
Topology.
with a full-bridge inverter, as seen in Converter
Figure Figure 5.
4.2.
4.2.Control
ControlMethods
Methods
The
The activecontrol
active controlofofaaWPT
WPTsystem
systemisispredominantly
predominantlyfocused
focusedononmaximizing
maximizingsystem
system
efficiency
efficiency and power transfer. Typically, the design considerations foractive
and power transfer. Typically, the design considerations for activecontrol
controlofofaa
static WPT system is focused on achieving fast and optimal operation when
static WPT system is focused on achieving fast and optimal operation when the system is the system
isfirst
firstenergized.
energized.Whereas
Whereas dynamic,
dynamic, active
active control
control for for
WPT WPT systems
systems must must consider
consider a
a con-
continuously varying mutual inductance throughout the operation and thus
tinuously varying mutual inductance throughout the operation and thus requires contin- requires
continuous
uous feedback.feedback. The methods
The methods for this
for this rely rely on understanding
on understanding thestate
the system’s system’s state
concerning
concerning the coupling coefficient/mutual inductance. A general approach
the coupling coefficient/mutual inductance. A general approach for these measurements for these
measurements is found in [56,57].
is found in [56,57].
Frequency tuning is among the most popular methods for the control of WPT systems.
Figure 5. Bi-Directional Converter Topology.
Resonance is a key factor in high-efficiency system operation. The resonant frequency can
be determined for an inductor and capacitor combination is as follows:
4.2. Control Methods
The active control of a WPT system is predominantly focused 1 on maximizing system
f0 =
efficiency and power transfer. Typically, the design considerations (17)
2π L p C pfor active control of a
p
static WPT system is focused on achieving fast and optimal operation when the system is
first energized. Whereas dynamic, active control for WPT systems 1 must consider a con-
f0 = √ (18)
tinuously varying mutual inductance throughout the operation 2π Ls Cs thus requires contin-
and
uous feedback. The methods
where L p and for
C p ,this rely in
as seen onFigure
understanding the system’s
6, are the primary state concerning
and secondary inductor and compen-
the coupling coefficient/mutual inductance. A general approach for
sation capacitor. Ls and Cs are the respective secondary sidethese measurements
inductor and compensation
is found in [56,57].
capacitor. When operating at the resonant frequency, the current and voltage through the
components remain in phase. This means the compensating capacitor is effectively can-
celling the phase shift effect of the inductor. In most cases, the goal of frequency tuning is
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 10 of 26
for a system to achieve or operate close to resonance quickly when power transfer begins or
to maintain resonant operation under changing conditions. A change in mutual inductance
affects power transfer and the suitability of components for operation. From [58], it is
noted that systems with varying load conditions and changing distances between primary
and secondary coils experience different efficiencies and output power when using a static
operating frequency. Frequency tuning can be achieved through several methods, where
the underlying concept is to probe the system to attain information about the power quality
and/or power waveforms. This information is then applied to tune the frequency to a better
match for system operation. In [59,60], by probing the primary side voltages and currents
at specific parts of the system and using this information following the circuit’s operating
principles, the system’s effectiveness can be found. The control systems then employ
compensatory measures to adjust the frequency to get a more desirable operation. In some
instances, it is not desirable to operate at the exact resonant frequency. By operating just
outside the frequency, some circuits can avail of soft switching by leaving a small portion
of the reactive effect on either the current or voltage waveforms in the system. Work in [61]
highlights that with an LCL-S topology, the desired operating frequency lies just above that
of the resonant one. This frequency tuning method has shown an efficiency improvement
of up to 6% in some cases. This paper [61] bases its proposition on a technique where al-
though the component values and resonant conditions were known, a perturb and observe
method was used to achieve desired operation in a system that lacks such information. The
importance of the quality factor is worth noting as it is an integral part of understanding
system operation. A general maximum efficiency equation can be extrapolated from (16),
where the total efficiency is the ratio of power dissipated across the load to total power
dissipated as seen in (17):
I22 R Le
ηs = 2 (19)
I1 R1 + I22 R2 + I22 R Le
Quality factor in RLC circuits such as the ones seen in WPT systems is a gauge of
system behavior over a range of frequencies, where in a series circuit, the maximum current
is achieved at resonance. However, in a parallel circuit, the minimum current is achieved
at resonance. RLC circuits can operate as either purely resistive, inductive, or capacitive,
depending on the operating frequency and circuit topology. The quality factor denoted
by Q can be calculated using different approaches depending on what parameters are the
focus of the investigation. Focusing on WPT with inductive coupling with the system
depicted in Figure 1, Equations (18) and (19) are applicable:
ωL1
Q1 = (20)
R1
ωL2
Q2 = (21)
R2
where Q1 and Q2 denote the quality factor of the primary and secondary side coils, respec-
tively. The voltage of the secondary can be denoted as:
U2 = I22 ( R2 + R L ) = I1 ωM = I1 ωK
p
L1 L2 (22)
From (17)–(20) a general max efficiency can be extrapolated:
k 2 Q1 Q2
ηmax = p 2
(23)
(1 + 1 + k 2 Q1 Q2 )
From (17)–(20) a general max efficiency can be extrapolated:
𝑘 𝑄𝑄
𝜂 = (23)
(1 + 1+ 𝑘 𝑄 𝑄 )
This general efficiency equation focuses on coil efficiency while ignoring losses in con-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 11 of 26
verters and compensation topologies. This highlights the importance of the quality factor
in systems and shows system limitations.
Figure6.6.SS
Figure SSCompensated
CompensatedWPT
WPTSystem.
System.
This general
In recent yearsefficiency
research equation focuses
in frequency on coilhas
tunning efficiency
branched whileoutignoring
to look at losses
furtherin
converters and compensation topologies. This highlights the
possibilities for the control technique. As previously mentioned, a change in load condi- importance of the quality
factor in systems
tion and/or mutual andinductance
shows system can limitations.
change power output and efficiency. A phenomenon
first In recent years
mentioned research
in [14] knowninasfrequency
bifurcation tunning
has been hasobserved
branched out subjecting
when to look at systems
further
possibilities
to a varying formutual
the control technique.
inductance. As previously
Bifurcation is thementioned,
occurrence a change in load condition
of “frequency splitting”
and/or
where, mutual inductance
at a specific couplingcanfactor
change power
range, thereoutput
are twoandinstances
efficiency.ofAfrequencies
phenomenon thatfirst
are
mentioned in [14] known as bifurcation has been observed when
not resonant but still exhibit higher system efficiencies. Work in [62] highlights this phe- subjecting systems to a
varying mutual inductance. Bifurcation is the occurrence of
nomenon and presents a method of using one of the secondary frequencies as a means of “frequency splitting” where, at
adelivering
specific coupling
constant factor
powerrange,
and there are two
efficiency to ainstances
fixed load of frequencies
under a varying that are not resonant
coupling coeffi-
but still exhibit higher system efficiencies. Work in [62] highlights
cient. The study of WPT systems as two-port networks has gained notoriety in modern this phenomenon and
presents a method of using one of the secondary frequencies
research. As seen in [17,63], viewing the system as a two-port network can present valua- as a means of delivering
constant
ble insight power
into theanddesired
efficiency to a fixed
operation and load under auseful
is especially varying coupling coefficient.
in analyzing complex higher- The
study of WPT systems as two-port networks has gained notoriety
order systems. Derivations for the two-port network analysis of a network can be found in modern research. As
seen in [17,63], viewing the system as a two-port network
in [64]. A frequency tunning method in [65] proposes the objective of tuning via viewingcan present valuable insight
into the desired
the system operationnetwork
as a matching and is especially
and focuses useful
on theinminimization
analyzing complex higher-order
of the reflection coef-
systems. Derivations for the two-port network analysis of
ficient. The benefit of such a method is that whilst in the same coupling region a network can be found in [64].
as the A
frequency tunning method in [65] proposes the objective of tuning via viewing the system
bifurcation method when comparing the minimum reflection coefficient magnitude
as a matching network and focuses on the minimization of the reflection coefficient. The
(MRCM) method to ZPA tuning, the MRCM method is reported to display greater power
benefit of such a method is that whilst in the same coupling region as the bifurcation method
transfer and efficiency. Additionally, MRCM does not require information about the cou-
when comparing the minimum reflection coefficient magnitude (MRCM) method to ZPA
pling factor or primary and secondary resonators.
tuning, the MRCM method is reported to display greater power transfer and efficiency.
Outside of frequency tuning, there are other inverter and switching related control
Additionally, MRCM does not require information about the coupling factor or primary
methods. Phase shift control is a method of using switching to control the load resistance.
and secondary resonators.
The maximum power output can be obtained by matching the equivalent load to the con-
Outside of frequency tuning, there are other inverter and switching related control
jugate output impedance (𝑍 = 𝑍 ∗ ) [66]. Phase shift control can achieve this via control-
methods. Phase shift control is a method of using switching to control the load resis-
ling the voltage output of the inverter/rectifier to change the equivalent load resistance,
tance. The maximum power output can be obtained by matching the equivalent load
forthe
which a control method can be seen
to conjugate ∗
output impedance ( ZL in=[67].
Z0∗ ) The
[66].workPhase inshift
[68] highlights
control canthat the condi-
achieve this
via (𝑍 = 𝑍 )the
tioncontrolling forvoltage
maximum power
output transfer
of the is generally not
inverter/rectifier fulfilledthe
to change at the same point
equivalent load of
maximum efficiency which takes place at (𝑅 = 𝑅 , , 𝑋
resistance, for which a control method can be seen in [67]. The work in [68] highlights= −𝑋 ). It presents a means of
overcoming
that the conditionthis issue
( ZL =byZcontrolling
∗ a DC-to-DC converter to vary the equivalent re-
0 ) for maximum power transfer is generally not fulfilled at
sistance of the load to achieve
the same point of maximum efficiency which optimum efficiency
takes for placeevery
at R value= of output
R , X power.
= − X
The
L L,opt L s It
.
concept aofmeans
presents varying equivalent this
of overcoming parameters for a passive
issue by controlling component
a DC-to-DC has been
converter applied
to vary the
equivalent resistance of the load to achieve optimum efficiency for every value of output
power. The concept of varying equivalent parameters for a passive component has been
applied beyond just the load resistance. Within the last few years, research has been con-
ducted into reactive power compensation via switch-controlled methods. Switch control
methods first mentioned in [69] were proposed to control the equivalent inductance or
capacitance of either the inductor or capacitor in a resonant circuit to modulate the resonant
frequency to regulate the converters without a significant increase in switching losses. It is
also stated that switch-controlled capacitors (SCC), seen in Figure 7, are better suited to
higher frequency applications than switch-controlled inductors (SCI). When harmonics
beyond just the load resistance. Within the last few years, research has been conducted
into reactive power compensation via switch-controlled methods. Switch control methods
first mentioned in [69] were proposed to control the equivalent inductance or capacitance
of either the inductor or capacitor in a resonant circuit to modulate the resonant frequency
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 to regulate the converters without a significant increase in switching losses. It is also12 of 26
stated
that switch-controlled capacitors (SCC), seen in figure 7, are better suited to higher fre-
quency applications than switch-controlled inductors (SCI). When harmonics higher than
the second
higher are second
than the neglected, then the equivalent
are neglected, inductance
then the equivalent 𝐿 or capacitance
inductance 𝐶 canCbe
Lsc or capacitance sc
determined
can by (24):by (24):
be determined
𝐿 𝐶 1
Lsc =Csc = 1 (24)
𝐿 = 𝐶 = 2 − (2𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼)/𝜋 (24)
La Ca 2 − (2α − sin2α)/π
where 𝐿 and 𝐶 are the actual inductance and capacitance of the components, and 𝛼
where L a and Ca are the actual inductance and capacitance of the components, and α
denotes the phase shift between the voltage waveform across the SCI or SCC circuit and
denotes the phase shift between the voltage waveform across the SCI or SCC circuit and
the switching driving signal.
the switching driving signal.
Figure7.
Figure 7. Switch
Switch Controlled
ControlledCapacitor.
Capacitor.
In
In [70,71],
[70,71], methods
methods forfor utilizing
utilizing SCC
SCC in in WPT
WPT areare presented
presented to to achieve
achieve reactive com-
pensation
pensation to diminish frequency mismatch along with control for switching
to diminish frequency mismatch along with control for soft to increase
soft switching to in-
system efficiency.
crease system efficiency.
Another issue worth
Another issue worthnoting
notingisisthethe control
control forfor charging
charging times
times in WPT
in WPT systems.
systems. In
In plug-
plug-in electric
in electric vehicles
vehicles (PEVs),
(PEVs), the J1772A
the J1772A standard
standard [72] outlined
[72] outlined by theby SAEthedetails
SAE details
the usethe
of
use of a control
a control pilot for
pilot signal signal
the for the charger
charger interfaceinterface thatinformation
that relays relays information
about theabout the
charging
charging
state of thestate
EV.of thecontrol
The EV. The control
pilot signalpilot signalwidth
is a pulse is a pulse width signal
modulated modulatedthat issignal that
controlled
is controlled by the EV and read by the charger. The J1772 control pilot
by the EV and read by the charger. The J1772 control pilot is a 1 kHz ± 12 V square wave. is a 1 kHz ± 12 V
square wave. The value of the voltage defines different state. The EV indicates
The value of the voltage defines different state. The EV indicates its state via circuit re- its state via
circuit resistance.
sistance. The EVobserves
The EV supply supply observes
the voltagetheand
voltage and modifies
modifies the state accordingly.
the state accordingly. The con-
The conditions for each state described in J1772 are summarized
ditions for each state described in J1772 are summarized in Table 2 [72] in Table 2 [72]
andand reflected
reflected in
in Figure
Figure 8. 8.
Table2.2.EV
Table EVControl
ControlPilot
PilotSignal
SignalStates.
States.
EV EV Charging
State
State Pilot High Pilot Low
Pilot High Frequency
Pilot Low Frequency Charging Status
Resistance
Resistance Status
State A A +12 V+12 V N/A N/A
State DC DC ∞ ∞ Standby
Standby
State B +9 ± 1 V −12 V 1 kHz 2.74 kΩ EV detected
State B +9 ± 1 V −12 V 1 kHz 2.74 kΩ EV detected
State C +6 ± 1 V −12 V 1 kHz 882 Ω EV ready (Charging)
+ 3 ± 1 V − 12 V 1 kHz 246 Ω EV ready
State D
State C +6 ± 1 V −12 V 1 kHz 882 ΩVentilation required
State E 0V 0V N/A N/A No(Charging)
power
State F N/A −12 V N/A N/A Error
Ventilation
State D +3 ± 1 V −12 V 1 kHz 246 Ω
required
Communications play a vital role in WPT for EV battery charging. The control tech-
State E 0V 0V N/A N/A No power
niques mentioned in this section rely on communications to send measurements and
State F N/A −12 V N/A N/A Error
information from the vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa. This can be achieved
via two methods: to employ a stand-alone communications system and the second is to
use the power waveform. The first method can be achieved by several means, including
Bluetooth, Infrared and Near Field Connection (NFC). The system proposed by Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL) in [73] uses a dedicated short-range communication (DSRC)
link based on IEEE 802.11p Wi-Fi as a means of transmitting information from the sec-
ondary to the primary. The system employs dual Powerex Intellimod IGBTs in the H-bridge
with a TMS320F28335 DSP module for control. The information from the secondary is
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 13 of 26
used to determine control measures for the system. An example of the second method of
communication is explored in [38] which proposes a means of control for stationary EV
charging by utilizing the power supply waveform. The method explains that a shunt path
on the secondary side controlled by a switch to decouple the battery from the circuit can be
used to reflect an impedance change to the primary. A protection circuit also accompanies
this switching circuit to ensure the battery is not harmed. The waveform of the primary
is continuously probed to learn the state of the system to determine whether to supply
power to the transmitting coil. The most notable form of using the power waveform for
communication is the Qi standard. The Qi standard is often adopted for low power devices,
which modulates a 2 kHz signal within the power carrying waveform [74]. Methods such
as this save on costly additional communications and allow for more compact systems.
Figure 8. J1772 control pilot signal states.
5. Design Considerations
5.1. Coil Design
The coils of a WPT system are, in effect, the most critical aspect of the power transfer
process. Without the coils, there is no conversion from electrical to magnetic waveforms
and vice versa, enabling the transfer of power. As highlighted in Section 4, coil design
plays an integral part in system performance. From Equation (21), it is shown that the
quality factor of the coil is a key design consideration in overall system efficiency. This is
also explored in [75]. For a stationary two-coil system, the coupling coefficient is around
0.2 with quality factors of approximately 300. This relates to a theoretical maximum power
transfer efficiency of 96.7% [64]. The quality factor of the coils is related to the frequency
bandwidth to which they are subjected too. Modern systems operate in the kHz range
and due to the high frequency commonly used, Litz wire is the preferred winding as it
shows reduced losses compared to traditional copper wire. As mentioned in various earlier
sections, one of the most crucial factors in WPT systems is that of the coupling factor. The
coupling factor of a system significantly affects the performance [76], and in the following
subsections on stationary and dynamic charging, this design facet features prominently.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 14 of 26
5.1.1. Stationary Charging

The basic coil shapes for WPT systems are depicted in Figure 9a,b. The traditional
and most common coil referred to is the circular coil seen in Figure 9a. The refinement
of design for circular coils can be found in [77,78]. The design of circular couplers is
heavily influenced by the core. So far, the WPT system in this paper has been referred
to as operating with an air core. This may not always be strictly true as, for many cases,
systems have adapted to the use of ferrite in coil structures to guide magnetic flux. As
seen in Figure 9, the ferrite sits behind the coil. It also, in many cases, is accompanied by a
further aluminum backplate that acts as a shield to electromagnetic field (EMF) leakage.
The use of ferrite also contributes to the inductance of the coil, changing the quality factor.
The work in [79] explores the effects of ferrite and aluminum for different coil topologies.
From [76], it is found that the optimum design for a circular pad using ferrite as seen in
Figure 9a is satisfied by:
r2 r + r3
x = , r2 = 1 (25)
r4 2
where r1 is the distance from the centre of the pad to the inner circumference of the
winding, r2 is the distance from the centre of the pad to the middle of the winding,
r3 is the distance from the centre of the pad to the outer circumference of the winding
and r4 is the radius of the ferrite pad. x, in this case, is used in a larger equation to find
the magnetic flux generated from thetransmitting coil to a zero current secondary coil. It
appears in the equation as x2 1 − x2 where this factor should be maximized. By using
differentiation, the maximum point for x, in this case, is 0.707. Primary circular coils are
useful as they have omnidirectional characteristics and are simple to manufacture, but in
recent years innovation in coil design has led to some significant breakthroughs. In 2010
the flat solenoid coupler (FSC) structure depicted in Figure 9f was introduced in [80]. This
structure showed improved coupling factor, lateral misalignment tolerance and a short
winding cable, reducing losses. Whilst this structure has benefits, it suffers from large
electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation. The system generated flux on both sides of the
pad, meaning potential coupling with other conductors lowering efficiency and induction
heating of car chassis, which meant the system would need significant shielding. The
cons outweighed the pros for most cases in EV charging, and a single-sided flux path was
needed. The DD pad presented in [76] and shown in Figure 9c offered such a solution.
The DD pad boasts a five times greater charging area than the circular design with similar
material costs, improved lateral tolerance and the ability to transfer power at 200 mm. To
further increase the misalignment resilience of DD pads, an additional quadrature coil
named the Q coil is introduced in [81] to the topology resulting in the DDQ pad shown in
Figure 9e. In [82], a bipolar receiver pad was tested against a DDQ receiver when subjected
to DD and circular pad transmitters. It was found that a DDQ receiver over a DD pad
offered a five times greater charging zone than that of the DDQ receiver over a circular
transmitter. This paper also proposes a variant of the DD pad known as the bipolar pad
(BPP) depicted in Figure 9d. BPP pads differ in design from DD pads as they have larger D
windings that overlap one another. BPP shows similar characteristics to the DDQ but with
the added benefit of using approximately 25% less copper. The work in [12] explores the
resilience of DD and bipolar pads to horizontal misalignment in the range of ±300 mm,
showing that systems can maintain coupling factors from 0.18–0.31. They also showed
an ability to transfer 8 kW of power at air gaps of 200 mm with an efficiency of 95%. A
more recent comparative study on the planar square coupler (PSC) against the FSC was
also conducted in [83], showing that PSC exhibits desirable qualities from FSC, such as an
independent self-inductance in relation to coupling factor and a moderate misalignment
tolerance. PSC, which can be seen in Figure 9b, has the added benefit of not suffering
from such a significant leakage inductance issue. As coil design is one of the most heavily
researched areas in WPT for EV battery charging it is constantly evolving. In the past five
years, there have been many new novel avenues explored within the technology. One such
issue present in previously mentioned designs is that of null zones. Null zones refer to
significant leakage inductance issue. As coil design is one of the most heavily researched
areas in WPT for EV battery charging it is constantly evolving. In the past five years, there
have been many new novel avenues explored within the technology. One such issue pre-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 15 of 26
sent in previously mentioned designs is that of null zones. Null zones refer to zones of
low magnetic coupling when systems are subject to misalignment. This is explored in [84],
where it is stated that null zones for topologies such as circular and DD pads are at 40%
and 35% of pad zones of lowand
diameter magnetic
length,coupling when[82]
respectively. systems are subject
proposes to misalignment.
a Quadruple D-pad thatThis is explored
in [84], flux
boasts a single-sided wherewithit islow
stated that null
leakage and zones
lossesfor
withtopologies
the added such as circular
benefit and DD pads are at
of having
no null zone. In40%2019and 35% of pad
a topology diameter
presented in and
[85] length,
named respectively.
the Tachi coil[82] proposes
shows a newacon-
Quadruple D-pad
figuration that exhibits high misalignment tolerance. In general, the transfer efficiency benefit
that boasts a single-sided flux with low leakage and losses with the added is of having
no null zone. In 2019 a topology presented in [85] named
like that of circular and DD coils but, when subject to misalignment, presents a high cou- the Tachi coil shows a new config-
uration that exhibits high misalignment tolerance. In
pling factor and flux linkage. Reconfigurable and multi coils systems have also been de- general, the transfer efficiency is like
signed to change that of structure
coil circular and DD misalignment.
to suit coils but, whenInsubject[86], atoreconfigurable
misalignment,topology
presentsisa high coupling
presented. Thefactor and flux
technology linkage.
focuses onReconfigurable
impedance matching and multi coils systems
to maximize havetransfer
power also been designed to
with varying receiver distances. This is achieved by the introduction of an adjustable re- is presented.
change coil structure to suit misalignment. In [86], a reconfigurable topology
peater coil. TheThe technology
adjustable focuses
repeater coilonallows
impedance matching
the system to maximize
to change its inputpower transfer with varying
impedance
receiver distances. This is achieved by the introduction
to match the source impedance when the system is subject to varying receiver distances. of an adjustable repeater coil. The
The system boasts an improved transfer efficiency that allows for tunning of the coupling to match the
adjustable repeater coil allows the system to change its input impedance
coefficient andsource
qualityimpedance
factor. Thewhen workthe system
in [87] is subject
details a system to varying
with onereceiver distances.
additional coil The system
boasts and
on both the primary an improved
secondarytransfersides ofefficiency
the system.thatTheallows for tunning
four-coil systemofallows
the coupling
for coefficient
and quality factor. The work in [87] details a system with one additional coil on both the
constant current on the primary side and limits the increase in primary-side current when
primary and secondary sides of the system. The four-coil system allows for constant current
the secondary is not present. The system shows a less than 5% deviation when presented
on the primary side and limits the increase in primary-side current when the secondary
with varying loads between 40–60 Ω and maximum efficiency of 96.3% in well-aligned
is not present. The system shows a less than 5% deviation when presented with varying
cases.
loads between 40–60 Ω and maximum efficiency of 96.3% in well-aligned cases.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Coil Winding Ferrite Plate
Figure 9. Coil Structures

Figure 9.ofCoil
WPTStructures
Systems for
of EV
WPTBattery
SystemsCharging
for EVIncluding Ferrite Back-Plates.
Battery Charging (a)
Including Ferrite Back-Plates.
Circular Coil. (b) Planar Square Coil. (c) DD Coil. (d) Bi-Polar Pad. (e) DDQ Coil. (f) Solenoid Coil.
(a) Circular Coil. (b) Planar Square Coil. (c) DD Coil. (d) Bi-Polar Pad. (e) DDQ Coil. (f) Solenoid Coil.
5.1.2. Dynamic5.1.2.
Charging
Dynamic Charging
To continuously Tocharge a moving
continuously load asuch
charge as anload
moving RPEV suchor as
OLEV, dynamic
an RPEV battery
or OLEV, dynamic battery
charging has quite a different
charging set-up
has quite to that of
a different statictocharging.
set-up There
that of static are two There
charging. main topol-
are two main topolo-
ogies of poweredgiestrack in this form
of powered of in
track charging.
this formTheoffirst is a continuous
charging. The firsttrack depicted in track depicted
is a continuous
[10,36,88], where
in the inductive
[10,36,88], trackthe
where flows continuously
inductive through
track flows the powered
continuously driving
through thesur-
powered driving
face. There are surface. There are
several designs of aseveral designs
continuous of The
track. a continuous
most basictrack.
track The most in
explored basic
[89]track explored
consists of twoinconductors
[89] consists of two conductors
accompanied accompanied
by ferrite by ferrite
on the outside on the outside
and between the con- and between the
ductors to guideconductors
flux, known to guide flux, known
as the W-type track.as thenext
The W-type
mosttrack.
common Thetype
nextofmost common type of
contin-
continuous
uous track is the I-type which track
was isproposed
the I-typeinwhich was the
[90]. Both proposed
W-typein [90].
and Both
I-type the W-type
tracks can and I-type
tracks can be seen in Figure 10. For the W-type track, the distribution area of the ferrite
determines the power transfer distance. The track should be designed so that the width
of the track is four times greater than the distance of the pickup coil from the transmitter.
The I-type, on the other hand, has no relation between track width and pickup height. The
width between poles is chosen to maximize coupling, and the track width is chosen to
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 16 of 26
give desired lateral tolerance. Continuous tracks, whilst simple in design, come with some
inherent issues. The problem of low coupling due to the pickup only covering a small
part of the track at any time creates issues with efficiency and electromagnetic interference
(EMI). To combat this, a segmented track is explored in [91,92] to reduce the EMI issue. The
segment track is controlled only to be excited when an EV passes over it and shows the
ability to drive several RPEVs selectively. Whilst the efficiency of the track is still below
that of static charging at about 70–80%, the benefits of continual charging may outweigh
the cons. This segmented approach is like the second kind of topology commonly found in
dynamic charging. Intermittent coils explored in [93] can further reduce the EMI issue but
require extensive control to operate with suitable efficiency. In [94], a variant of the DD coil
is proposed to solve the issues of extremely low mutual inductance between intermittent
coils in dynamic charging. The crossed DD topology is used with LCC compensation to
realize a constant current with slow and smooth inductance variation. The pickup coils for
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW dynamic wireless power transfer are the same as the coils seen in static charging. The
17 of 28 work
in [95] points to multi-thread coils being the most effective design for dynamic charging as
they have advantages in misalignment tolerance and heating dissipation. A comparison of
the coil designs detailed in this section is in Table 3.
(a) (b)
FigureFigure
10. (a)10.
I-Type and (b)
(a) I-Type andW-Type Dynamic
(b) W-Type Track.Track.
Dynamic
5.2. Safety
5.2. Safety Standards
Standards
In theInearly
the early conception
conception of modern
of modern WPT WPT for EV forbattery
EV battery charging,
charging, one ofonetheofmain
the main
pushing points for the technology was safety. The SAE had proposed
pushing points for the technology was safety. The SAE had proposed an inductive coupler an inductive coupler
in the late 1990s, focusing on safe charging in challenging
in the late 1990s, focusing on safe charging in challenging weather conditions so weather conditions so users were
were not
notatatriskriskofof
encountering
encountering exposed
exposed high-power
high-power conductors
conductors [96]. As the
[96]. As design
the designchanged
overover
changed timetimeto accommodate
to accommodate for for
large airair
large gapsgapsand
andfocus
focusmore
more ononthetheergonomics
ergonomicsof the
of thesystem,
system,safety
safetyconcerns
concernsbegan
begantotoarise.
arise.InInSection
Section55of ofthis
thispaper,
paper,ititisismentioned,
mentioned,there
is an issue of EMI present in modern systems. In many
there is an issue of EMI present in modern systems. In many cases, aluminum shielding cases, aluminum shielding is
employed in coil design to reduce EMI. Also mentioned in Section
is employed in coil design to reduce EMI. Also mentioned in Section 5 is ferrite back plat- 5 is ferrite back plating
which is employed to control the flux path and reduce unwanted
ing which is employed to control the flux path and reduce unwanted coupling to other coupling to other devices
andand
devices infrastructure.
infrastructure. Due to the
Due chassis
to the of aofcar
chassis typically
a car being
typically made
being of steel,
made the onboard
of steel, the
passengers
onboard passengers using a WPT
using system
a WPT to charge
system theirtheir
to charge EV areEVwell protected
are well against
protected any radiation.
against any
In terms
radiation. of human
In terms protection,
of human the concern
protection, is for people(s)
the concern in close proximity
is for people(s) outside of the
in close proximity
vehicle. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
outside of the vehicle. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protec- Protection (ICNIRP)
is often looked to for guidance in this case. At the dawn of modern
tion (ICNIRP) is often looked to for guidance in this case. At the dawn of modern systems, systems, the INCIRP
released a standard in 1998 detailing a limit for public exposure
the INCIRP released a standard in 1998 detailing a limit for public exposure to magnetic to magnetic field strength
for different bandwidths of charging frequency. After ten years of advancements and study,
field strength for different bandwidths of charging frequency. After ten years of advance-
in 2010 the INCIRP changed their standards to reflect a new understanding of the topic.
ments and study, in 2010 the INCIRP changed their standards to reflect a new understand-
The 2010 guidelines on varying frequencies from 1 kHz to 100 kHz are outlined in [97],
ing of the topic. The 2010 guidelines on varying frequencies from 1 kHz to 100 kHz are
and the 2009 guidelines for static frequencies between 0 Hz–100 kHz are outlined in [98].
outlined in [97], and the 2009 guidelines for static frequencies between 0 Hz– 100 kHz are
As WPT for EV battery charging is proposed to operate from 79–90 kHz, these guidelines
outlined in [98]. As WPT for EV battery charging is proposed to operate from 79 – 90 kHz,
apply. It is stated that for the public, a system with varying magnetic fields, such as is
these guidelines apply. It is stated that for the public, a system with varying magnetic
present in WPT. Exposure should be limited to 27 µT (where T = Tesla, Unit for Magnetic
fields, such as is present in WPT. Exposure should be limited to 27 μT (where T = Tesla,
Unit for Magnetic Flux/Magnetic Field Strength). For occupational exposure, the limit is
set at 100 μT. The SAE also released the j2954 standard [37] and proposed guidelines for
interoperability, EMF, Safety testing and defined charging levels based on similar ones
seen in the J1772 standard.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 17 of 26
Flux/Magnetic Field Strength). For occupational exposure, the limit is set at 100 µT. The
SAE also released the j2954 standard [37] and proposed guidelines for interoperability, EMF,
Safety testing and defined charging levels based on similar ones seen in the J1772 standard.
Table 3. Coil Functionality and Comparison.
Coil Type Misalignment Tolerance EMI & EMF When to Use

Omnidirectional
Consistent through characteristics allows
Back plate allows for
various orientations but smooth operation for
Circular shielding and single
suffers from null zones cases in which the EV
sided flux path.
and limited range. may approach the coil
from various angles.
Allows for high coupling
Operation over
FSC factor and good tolerance High EMI & EMF.
considerable air gaps.
for lateral displacement.
Somewhat stable
charging over a
Back plate allows for
significant area within Effective for situations
DD shielding and single
and beyond the perimeter with low misalignment.
sided flux path.
of the pad. Suffers from
null zones.
Offers a large charging
Further increase in Back plate allows for
area when over a DD pad.
DDQ misalignment tolerance shielding and single
Good for situations with
over DD pad. sided flux path.
high misalignment.
Back plate allows for Reduction in material
BPP Like that of DDQ. shielding and single costs means it is a great
sided flux path. alternative to DDQ pads.
5.3. Infrastructure and Cost

EV technology, as all emerging technology, is constantly scrutinized for the cost to
performance ratio. For over 100 years, the technology has been stifled by the limitations and
excessive costs of the battery. With modern EV batteries costing several hundred £/kWh
and standard battery capacity being 40 kWh+ (Based on a Nissan Leaf [99]), the proportion
in which the battery increases the price of an EV is readily apparent. As mentioned,
WPT has been shown to reduce the battery size needed, which in turn could significantly
decrease EV prices—but what are the costs for WPT systems? It is hard to determine as the
technology is relatively new, and many systems differ in their chosen approach. The more
costly option in WPT is dynamic charging, as it incurs not only the cost of the system but
also high installation costs. In [100], the cost of installing both a W-type and I-type track
is detailed. It shows a total cost of $1.07 million/km and $0.85 million/km, respectively.
In [101], the estimate is as much as $2.4 million/lane/mile. Considering the length of
suitable roadway in developed countries (in [101], it is stated that there are 2.6 million
miles of paved roadways in the USA), the cost alone for total electrification is staggering.
However, with the use of OLEVs, not every road would need to be upgraded as the EV
would still have a means of propulsion outside of the powered roadways. It is stated
in [102] that if 1% of urban roadways were powered, most vehicles could meet the 300 miles
per charge target that matches standard ICE vehicles. Due to the cost and raw materials
needed, dynamic charging may never be rolled out universally. However, there is still a
compelling case for the technology. If implemented properly, the technology could see the
unlimited range for EVs within city areas and possibly inter-city connections. Stationary
EV charging is a different matter. The role of stationary charging is to make charging
easier and safer. A 3.3 kW system akin to level 1 charging from Plugless Power can cost
around $2000 [103]. This is a considerable cost increase from standard PEV chargers, but
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 18 of 26
the technology is only starting to be commercialized, and as demand grows, it would be

expected to become more competitive. In general, the issue with the commercialization of
EVs and their associated technologies have been in a catch-22 situation for decades. The
uptake of EVs is needed as an incentive to build more infrastructure and charging products,
but in the same vein, it is the infrastructure and products that need to become more widely
available to allow for greater uptake in EVs. With government legislation and growing
interest in technology, the rate of electrification will hopefully increase.
6. Discussion
WPT technologies’ biggest competitor is standard wired charging, which is currently
the most practical and dominant option. Within the last decade, there has also been the
emergence of another solution to extend the EV range. Battery swapping stations explored
in [104] are a new method for curbing range anxiety with EV users. The principle of the
technology is to have a service station that swaps the spent battery of an EV amid its journey
for a fully charged one from the station’s stock. The empty battery is then recharged at the
station, and the process is repeated. This functionally eliminates long charge wait times
for EVs and, with planning, could make a long-range journey as seamless as that of using
an ICE vehicle for the same purpose. This was trialed by a few companies, but it did not
gain much traction. Scalability is a problem for this technology as, in theory, it requires a
surplus of batteries in circulation so that there is no significant backlog of users waiting
on charged batteries. It also requires expensive service stations, and interoperability for
battery types and capacity would prove difficult.
To understand the advancement and scope of WPT for EV battery charging a chrono-
logical timeline is included below.
The information presented in Table 4 gives an overall impression of the developments
and key areas of interest amongst researchers from the conception of the technology to the
present. It is apparent that overall concerns with systems changed as new developments
were made. In the early pre-2000’s the focus was to validate that through magnetic coupling,
substantial power could be transmitted. When this theory proved correct, a more practical
mindset was adopted which is seen through the attention of the SAE and consideration
towards the application of the technology. In the first decade of the 2000s research heavily
focused on maintaining resonant operation to ensure good efficiency. This was principally
achieved by studying compensation topologies and resulted in a new area of interest,
namely, constant current and constant voltage. The realization that it may be possible to
ensure suitable charging parameters for an EV from passive components put compensation
design at the forefront of interest. However, in 2010 a more fundamental area of the
technology regained notoriety. Coil design benefited from the increased power of general
computing since the early 1990s. Whilst even in the earliest design [6] the coupled inductors
are seen with ferrite moldings used to direct flux, new software packages and fast general
computing allowed for researchers to produce more compact and detailed solutions. Better
realization of magnetic flux paths meant designs with improved coupling factors meant
the large air gap problem was slowly being overcome. At this point in the story of WPT
for EV battery charging it is apparent that the overall system can be treated as a cascade
of sub systems. Frequency tuning, compensation and coil design all present their own
unique and vast challenges. In the middle of the 2010’s, reaching closer to the current
day, research around compensation and frequency tuning began to shift focus. Concern
was now being paid to the power electronics in the form of wanting soft switching to
increase efficiency. Compensation designs were now becoming increasingly complex as
higher-order topologies were being explored. The goal for WPT systems that formed the
middle of the 2010s remains almost identical today. From Table 4, it can be stated that
a desired system exhibits the ability to provide a constant fixed voltage to the load for
charging along with constant resonant operation and ZVS for maximum efficiency. In fact,
a system of this specification could be achieved with a double LCC topology with input
voltage control from a Buck-Boost converter. New coils only served to make this easier as
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 19 of 26
design is now focusing on steady and high coupling factors for misalignment. As stated in
Section 4 an area that has remained mostly unchanged from early systems is the overall
converter architecture. There have been some attempts at modifying the power electronics
to streamline the system seen in [42,44,45] but the area is still lacking.
Table 4. WPT Advancement Timeline.
Period Year Example Summary

The first instance of modern dynamic WPT design where coupled
1990 [6]
inductors are used.
1990–1995
High frequnecy (10 kHz) employed to transfer kilowatts of power.
1994 [7]
Introduction of power electronics to drive the system.
1997 [96] SAE shows interest in WPT for safe delivery of power to an EV.
Early consideration for practical application of WPT in a people
2000 [8]
1995–2001 mover system.
A review of challenges faced in WPT for EV battery charging.
2001 [36]
Disucssing resonance and quality factor.
Further investigation into resonance and quality factor in relation
2004 [14]
to varying system frequency.
Investigates issues arising from varying coupling factor and phase
2002–2007 2005 [88]
shift.
Preposes a high-order compensation (LCL) network for WPT.
2005 [22] Emphasises importance on desirable traits, such as CC and CV at
resonance.
Showcases a new frequency tuning method for LCL compensation
2009 [33]
networks.
2009 [98] ICNIRP guidelines on static frequencies.
2010 [97] ICNIRP guidelines on varying frequencies.
A revisiting of the coupler design to improve performance by better
2010 [80]
directing the magnetic flux.
2007–2012
Introduction of BPP to further improve coupling factor and
2011 [81]
mislagnment tolerance.
2011 [11] Full OLEV system constructed for testing.
Frequency tunning used to mitigate misalignment issues with
2012 [60]
standard circular coils.
A direct AC-AC converter system, this is one of the first preposals
2012 [42]
for streamlining the system.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 20 of 26
Table 4. Cont.
Period Year Example Summary

2013 [76] Further research in the DD pad.
Introduction of Class E2 converters for WPT, showcases a heavily
2013 [44]
streamlined system.
2013 [91] Further design consideration for OLEV supply side.
Further design improvments to BPP with the system able to tranfer
2014 [12]
power across 200 mm airgap.
An investigatioin into power supply types combined with the basic
2015 [21]
compensation topologies.
Preposes using switching to avail of mutliple compensation
2015 [18]
topolgies in a single system.
A comprehensive design for LCC compensation showcasing
2015 [25]
operation with ZVS and a constant resonance.
2013–2018
Inverstigation into double the LCL network showcasing CC & ZVS
2016 [23]
operation.
First instance of preposing split capacitor with sinlge switch
2016 [48] converter topologies. Presents a new P5 buck-boost topolgy with
reduced split capacitor size.
A comprehensive inverstigation into higher-order compensation to
2017 [17]
find desirable operation.
Preposes a method for control of the primary power output in
2017 [38]
relation to battery charge without wireless communications.
2017 [45] Further analysis on class E2 converters for WPT.
Employing a controller to gain CC/CV operation from basic
2018 [16]
compensation topolgies.
A switch controlled capacitor is used to maintain resonant
2019 [71]
operation.
2019 [46] ZVS for class E inverter over varying coupling factor.
The first instance of single switched Buck-Boost converts
2019 [51]
considered as full WPT systems.
New coil for misalignment tolerance to ensure a consistant power
2019 [85]
supply to the secondary.
Preposes a system that uses a switch controller capacitor bank to
2019 [86]
compensate for air gap variation.
2019 [34] Multi-load WPT system resiliant to changes in load.
2019–2022
Further reseatch into switch controller capacitors for resonance
2020 [70]
issues.
2020 [54] Introduction of Bi-directionality for vehicle to grid purposes.
Utilises the 3rd harmonic in conjuction with a modifcation of the
2020 [31] basic compensation topologies to increase stability over varying
coupling factor.
Showcases an impedance matching network that can be tuned to
2020 [57]
maximize efficiency over varying coupling factors.
Preposes using variable freuqnecy to ensure good effiency and CV
2021 [61]
operation for the load.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 21 of 26
7. Conclusions
In this article, a comprehensive review of the WPT systems for electric battery charging
focusing on inductive power transfer is presented. The basic WPT principles of electric
battery charging is investigated. The compensation topologies are compared, including
quality factor, reflected resistance, primary capacitance, primary current, resonance and
operation capabilities. Power electronics converter topologies are detailed to give an
understanding of the driving mechanisms within the system. The paper also addresses
coil design, infrastructure, cost and safety standards. WPT for EV battery charging offers
an ergonomic means of tackling the range and charge time anxieties surrounding EVs.
Every year research pushes the technology further, and with the emergence of commercial
units, the technology is about to gain its foothold. Whilst the advancements in recent
years have been significant. There are still important challenges to overcome. One such
issue is that WPT systems require more converter stages than their plug-in counterparts.
Since the conception of the modern WPT system, the overall basic topology has remained
undisturbed. Typically, even the most modern systems rely on the same power electronics
set-up, which can be costly and require significant onboard space. This paper details many
advancements in system topologies and operation. A revisiting of the power electronics in
WPT for EV battery charging could be highly beneficial in increasing the commercial ability
of the technology. One such area that has not been widely explored is DC-DC converter
topologies as full WPT systems. As mentioned in Section 4, research has shown that split
capacitor DC-DC converter topologies exhibit desirable traits for WPT with an overall
reduction in converter stages and switches. It is stated in the literature that the current
Buck-Boost systems struggle when operating over a limited/small magnetizing inductance.
The isolated Cuk and P5 converters mentioned in Section 4 both use a high frequency
transformer which has a large magnetizing inductance; this allows the system to maintain
its Buck-Boost characteristic. For the case of WPT for EV battery charging, the mutual
inductance would equate to the magnetizing inductance. This means the magnetizing
inductance of a WPT system is far smaller than that of a ferrite core transformer. Thus,
the Buck-Boost characteristic may not be maintained in this scenario with current designs.
However, if the Buck-Boost characteristic can be maintained then a significant reduction in
the needed converter stages can be realized for WPT systems. This system would eliminate
the need for up to four of the converter stages, reducing the system to only 2, which is
in-line with the standard plug-in systems. It would also allow for built in control of the
output voltage via duty cycle control, ensuring a consistent 400 V that is needed for EV
battery charging. The system may also avail of a reduction in the necessary communications
needed for control of the output. If the input voltage and current are known along with the
duty cycle, there is then an expected output. Thus, the system could operate with single
side control, needing only information from the power transmitting side. This innovative
technology looks as promising as the class E2 converter, which is a similar technology that
is gaining traction for use in WPT systems. Further research is needed into the application
of these Buck-Boost converters in the context of wireless EV battery charging.
Funding: The work of A. Elkhateb was supported in part by the the UK Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) under Grant EP/T026162/1.
Acknowledgments: I. Okasili would like to acknowledge the PhD scholarship provided by the
Department for Economy (DfE), Northern Ireland, to carry out this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1355 22 of 26
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2. Fundamentals of WPT Systems

2.1. Overall Systems Configuration

Figure 1. Basic Inductive Power Transfer System with leakage inductance.

The impedance of the secondary Zs = jωL2 + ZLD so:

We can also express the load impedance as ZLD = R LD + jX LD , therefore:

By rationalizing the denominator, the reflected impedance is expressed in terms of

2.4. Power Transfer and Efficiency

P = ( ReZr ) I12 (13)

The efficiency of the system is expressed in an equivalent manner as a voltage divider

Table 1. Compensation Topology Characteristics.

Quality Reflected Primary Primary Current

SP R M2 R Cs L2s Ui L2s Current source at secondary.

PS ω0 L s ω0 M 2 Cs Ls Ui R Voltage source at secondary.

PP R M2 R ( L p Ls − M2 )Cs L2s Ui L2s Current source at secondary.

4. Power Electronics and Control

Figure 3. WPT converter topologies. (Where PFC is power factor correction).

Figure 4. (a) Ćuk converter (b) P5 Converter.

From (17)–(20) a general max efficiency can be extrapolated:

Figure 8. J1772 control pilot signal states.

5.1.1. Stationary Charging

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Coil Winding Ferrite Plate

Figure 9. Coil Structures

Table 3. Coil Functionality and Comparison.

Coil Type Misalignment Tolerance EMI & EMF When to Use

5.3. Infrastructure and Cost

the technology is only starting to be commercialized, and as demand grows, it would be

Table 4. WPT Advancement Timeline.

Period Year Example Summary

Period Year Example Summary

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