Analysis, Design, and Comparison of V2V Chargers For Flexible Grid Integration
Analysis, Design, and Comparison of V2V Chargers For Flexible Grid Integration
Abstract—This study proposes a flexible, compact, efficient, and are very limited, many of the problems—such as increased dis-
cost effective electric vehicle-to-electric vehicle charge sharing so- tribution level peak demand tied to grid integration of EVs—are
lution that will lead to faster and wider customer adoption of
not clearly differentiated [2]–[4]. Studies show that residential
electric vehicles (EVs) as an alternative to current grid-to-vehicle
charging methodologies. The energy will be transferred between Level 2 EV charging will result in disruptive problems in the
EVs using a bidirectional dc–dc converter in a conductive way, future distribution grid if not managed well [2]–[9]. This phe-
which can take place at parking lots of workplaces, campuses, or nomenon requires tightly controlled residential charging man-
residential premises and highways. The proposed design provides agement solutions not to violate distribution system constraints,
compact infrastructure, wide input and output voltage ranges with which limit EV charging power and increase charging time.
bidirectional buck–boost operation, and fast power transfer com-
pared to Level 2 charging stations. A complete design comparison Therefore, residential EV charging must be accompanied by fast
between Si and SiC based converters has been carried out based dc charging stations that can be connected at the medium voltage
on the available power modules and magnetic cores. The compar- level and have less impact on the distribution grid operation
ison demonstrates the effect of switching frequency and switch to sustain the EV growth [10]. Approximately 40 million EVs
selection on the size of passive components, the converter efficiency, expected to be on the road in the US by 2030 will require 400-K
and the power density of the converter. The developed study eval-
uated three different bidirectional dc–dc converter topologies and new dc fast charging (DCFC) outlets [11]. Furthermore, an
validated the developed prototype with experimental results. average US driver operates his/her vehicle 59.69 min/d [12] and
requests DCFC mainly around noon and between 3–6 P.M. [13].
Index Terms—Electric vehicles (EVs), EV chargers, SiC charger
design, electric vehicle-to-electric vehicle (V2V) charging.
Consequently, to respond to this tight spatio-temporal charging
request within a city, an upfront cost over $90 K per DCFC
station is needed [14]. Furthermore, issues around land owner-
I. INTRODUCTION ship, municipal permitting, electrical grid limitations, and other
ODAY, real-time charging from the utility grid is rec- factors have slowed the DCFC installations [15].
T ognized to be the mainstream way of “fueling” electric
vehicles (EVs). However, since the current EV penetration rates
Electric vehicle-to-electric vehicle (V2V) charging technol-
ogy (a.k.a. peer-to-peer charging) is proposed to offer solutions
to the increased energy demand. It is considered as a new way
Manuscript received April 8, 2020; revised September 3, 2020, December 20, of transferring energy between vehicles without directly relying
2020, and March 25, 2021; accepted May 18, 2021. Date of publication May 27, on the utility grid. Some car manufacturers, such as Rivian
2021; date of current version July 16, 2021. Paper 2019-TSC-1372.R3, presented
at the 2019 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo, Detroit, and Hyundai, announced to include this feature in their new
MI, USA, Jun. 19–21, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS EV models [16]–[18]. In this study, we propose a V2V charge
ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Transportation Systems Committee of the sharing network (CSN) philosophy to provide an alternative,
IEEE Industry Applications Society. This work was supported in part by the
National Science Foundation under Award 1755996 and in part by the Center for more convenient, and flexible way of conducting EV charging.
Advanced Vehicle Technologies, The University of Alabama. (Corresponding The design and implementation of V2V CSN will greatly reduce
author: Mithat Kisacikoglu.) the range anxiety of EV owners with minimal infrastructure cost.
Emin Ucer, Ramona Buckreus, and Mithat Kisacikoglu are with the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of The proposed solution has the potential to provide an invaluable
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 USA (e-mail: eucer@crimson.ua.edu; rbuck- service that will benefit EV owners, local communities and
reus@crimson.ua.edu; mkisacik@ua.edu). municipalities, and the utility grid. Another major feature of
Md Ehsanul Haque, Yilmaz Sozer, and Salman Harasis are with the De-
partment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Akron, the proposed V2V scheme is that V2V is an indirect demand
Akron, OH 32816 USA (e-mail: mh248@zips.uakron.edu; ys@uakron.edu; response management tool that works mainly during peak times.
skh60@uakron.edu). Such a scenario is very viable since most EV owners charge
Mustafa Guven is with the Caterpillar, Inc., Mossville, IL 60015 USA (e-mail:
guven_mustafa_k@cat.com). their EVs daily at home after only using it for 25–30 mi of
Luigi Giubbolini is with the Andromeda Power, LLC, Long Beach, CA 90815 commute. Therefore, they have, on average, about 50%–60% of
USA (e-mail: luigi@andromedapower.com). their battery capacity available to sell [19]. V2V CSN will allow
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at https:
//doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2021.3084576. users (either battery EV, plug-in hybrid, or fuel-cell EV) with
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2021.3084576 unused electric energy on their board to connect with users who
0093-9994 © 2021 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4144 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
need to charge their vehicles at comparable transfer rates to fast of the total system to increase the volumetric and gravimetric
charging stations. power densities of the charger.
V2V charging requires an analysis to figure out how to For the comparison of conventional Si devices and WBG SiC
pair suppliers to receivers with efficient matching algorithms devices, the available literature is explored. In [34] and [35], the
and how to enable energy exchange with current EV charging performance of Si and SiC MOSFET based isolated interleaved
technologies. Authors previously developed a Java-based sim- boost dc–dc converter is compared for a microinverter applica-
ulation tool to analyze the viability of the proposed V2V CSN tion. Ho et al. in [36] have shown the performance of interleaved
technology [1], [20], [21]. The tool generates a customizable boost converter using Si and SiC diodes for PV application,
simulation environment with different parameters, including where higher efficiency is achieved due to absence of reverse
EV types and counts, charging station types and locations, and recovery current in SiC schottky diodes. In [37], Öztürk has
user mobility patterns. Some recent papers also addressed the shown different design steps for three-phase interleaved boost
challenges surrounding energy sharing between EVs. In [22], converter using SiC devices for an EV application. In [38] and
Zhang et al. present a matching algorithm to facilitate V2V coop- [39], multiphase bidirectional dc–dc converters are proposed for
erative energy transfer. It compares two different V2V matching two energy storage systems of different levels, and several ad-
algorithms with traditional grid-based charging. In [23], the vantages are discussed for the interleaving feature. Neutral point
matching of demander EVs to both V2V suppliers and existing clamped three-level interleaved nonisolated dc–dc converter is
charging stations has been studied in an efficient and privacy proposed for EV charging system as another converter topology
preserving manner. In [24], an authentication protocol between with reduced stress on the devices [40].
vehicles before they actually start V2V charging has been pre- The unique challenge of this study differs from the literature
sented. in that the supplier and receiver voltages vary greatly depending
On the other hand, the concept of dc–dc power conversion on the battery state-of-charge (SOC) levels and can even overlap
for automotive applications has been addressed in the liter- each other during the energy sharing. Furthermore, the V2V
ature for various applications [25], [26]. Recently, three dif- charger needs to be directionally agnostic providing utmost
ferent solutions for V2V energy transfer have been compared flexibility for the customer usage so that any side of the V2V
in [27]: vehicle-to-grid and grid-to-vehicle (V2G+G2V), V2V charger can be supplier/receiver.
over direct ac interconnection, and V2V over dc interconnection Our main contributions in this article can be summarized as
(dcV2V). It is shown that dcV2V is more efficient than the follows.
other options due to the reduced number of energy conversions. 1) Performing a complete analysis for the considered topolo-
Moreover, a combined half-bridge (CHB) type converter is gies in terms of total effective inductor current ripple based
used for dcV2V, which has previously been reported in [28]. on passive components at different switching frequencies.
In [28], mobile charging with an energy storage device using 2) Designing bidirectional interleaved single-phase, two-
a three-phase, interleaved, bidirectional, cascaded buck–boost phase, and three-phase converters (buck–boost) for flexi-
dc–dc converter was reported and compared with CHB design ble V2V charging and discussing their application specific
counterpart. However, the study does not completely outline operation modes.
technical challenges and design procedures specific to V2V 3) Presenting the closed-loop current controller design and
energy transfer. A converter design is also proposed in [29], their respective simulation results.
which allows four common energy transfer modes, namely V2G, 4) Verifying the operation by performing hardware experi-
G2V, vehicle-to-home, and V2V. The authors focus on higher ments for single- and two-phase boost–buck interleaved
power density design with efficient operation for the afore- converters.
mentioned operation modes. V2V operation in [29] proposes Section II of this article presents an analysis of V2V energy
to use on-board chargers, which limits the speed of energy transfer for different dc–dc converter topologies. Section III
transfer. presents the converter design and comparison study for different
The efficiency of the power conversion is another critical options. Section IV presents simulation results to verify the
factor to consider for the adaptation and wide-spread usage of analysis performed in Section III. Section V demonstrates the
V2V charging. This vital requisite can be accomplished by using controller design for the experimental setup. Section VI presents
wide band-gap (WBG) devices, which have faster switching the experimental verification for Si insulated-gate bipolar tran-
and lower loss capability [28], [30]. The availability of WBG sistor (IGBT) design. Finally, Section VII concludes this article.
devices enables the fulfillment of highly efficient, reliable, and
compact power electronic systems [31]–[33]. High switching
frequency operation of WBG devices helps to reduce the size II. ANALYSIS OF V2V ENERGY TRANSFER USING
of passive components, which, in turn, increases the volumetric DC–DC CONVERTERS
power density of the charging stations. Designing a high volu- Three bidirectional (interleaved) dc–dc converter topologies
metric power density and lighter power converter are significant shown in Fig. 1 are reported in the literature as candidates for
features for the V2V operation. Furthermore, the overall loss of similar applications [28], [41], [42]. Each V2V charger solution
WBG devices, such as silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFET, is lower, presented in Fig. 1 consists of a power stage with an appropriate
the efficiency is higher, and the required heat sink size is smaller. set of gate-drive circuits, a digital signal processor (DSP), volt-
These features reduce the thermal requirement and the weight age sensing circuits to measure the local EV battery voltages
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
UCER et al.: ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND COMPARISON OF V2V CHARGERS FOR FLEXIBLE GRID INTEGRATION 4145
Fig. 1. Bidirectional dc–dc converters for V2V charger. (a) Single phase. (b) Two phase. (c) Three phase. (d) Hardware setup.
TABLE I TABLE II
OPERATION MODES OF SINGLE-PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTER DUTY CYCLE, INDUCTOR CURRENT RIPPLE, AND INDUCTANCE FOR
CONTINUOUS BOOST AND BUCK OPERATION MODES
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4146 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
TABLE IV
FOR DIFFERENT CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS WITH
INDUCTANCE NEEDED
Δ IL ÷ IOUT = 10% AND POUT =27 KW
N (and thus the phase shift angle) and the duty A. Inductor Design
cycle d. This
relationship between the effective ripple Δ IL and the rip- The modeling considers the operating voltages that require
ple at an inductor ΔIL is denoted as f (N, d). The function the highest inductance values illustrated in Fig. 2 for the three
f (N, d) is equal to unity for single-phase topology. It can be different converters. The phase inductor values are calculated for
seen that the required inductance for a given ripple specification different switching frequencies considering 10% peak-to-peak
at input (boost mode) and output (buck mode) is reduced by ripple current. Accordingly, the largest inductor values required
using interleaved multiphase converter topology. However, the to meet the design specifications are listed in Table IV. The
current ripple and required inductance highly depend on the current ripples will be less than 10% at all other voltages in
particular operation point. As battery voltages of today’s EVs the analyzed operating regions. The input and output voltage
can vary greatly, and they show an increasing trend, a case ripples are assumed to be small and negligible. As can be seen
analysis is done for 250 V V < Vin < 800 V and 250 V < Vout < from Table IV, increasing the switching frequency from 20 to
800 V to allow flexible usage of the V2V charger with a wide 100 kHz reduces the inductance requirements to 20% of the orig-
range of EV battery voltages. The required inductance for an inal value (i.e., L100 kHz /L20 kHz = 20%) as expected. Therefore,
output power of 27 kW, a switching frequency of 20 kHz, and a high switching frequency operation offers a competitive solution
peak-to-peak ripple of 10% is shown in Fig. 2 for three different
converter cases. This figure shows that the required inductance 1 The energy efficiency of the EV is assumed to be 30 kWh/100 mi. This is
does not strictly decrease with the number of phases but depends equal to 112 MPGe assuming that 33.7 kWh of energy is equivalent to one gallon
on the particular operation point. The highest reduction in the of gas.
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
UCER et al.: ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND COMPARISON OF V2V CHARGERS FOR FLEXIBLE GRID INTEGRATION 4147
TABLE V
DESIGN SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT INDUCTOR MODELS
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4148 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
All the parameters are extracted from the datasheets for a blocking voltage of 800 V.
TABLE VII
COMPARISON OF TOTAL LOSS ESTIMATION
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
UCER et al.: ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND COMPARISON OF V2V CHARGERS FOR FLEXIBLE GRID INTEGRATION 4149
Fig. 7. Average model results for the voltage transition simulation: SOC,
current, voltage, and power for supplier/receiver vehicles.
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4150 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
Vout 1 + sRC
id (s) =
Gbuck · (4)
dR 1 + s R
L
+ s2 LC IL (s)
Fig. 10. Frequency response curves of d(s)
for multiple-phase configu-
where R is the load resistor value that emulates the behavior rations for buck operation.
of a battery, d is the duty ratio, L = 260 μH is the inductor,
and C = 100 μF is the output capacitor of the converter. For
the two-phase interleaved configuration, the phase inductors
are selected the same, i.e., L1 =L2 = 260 μH to compare the closed-loop dynamics in the interleaved configuration. We also
ripple reduction. R can be adjusted based on the operating observe that the buck converter requires faster control compared
point of the converter. 2.5 kW of output power approximately to the boost converter as it has higher frequency poles.
corresponds to an R value of (300 V )2 ÷ 2.5 kW = 36 Ω, and With the frequency responses in hand, we can design the
(250 V )2 ÷ 2.5 kW = 25 Ω based on the operating input and closed-loop current controller. First, we need to choose a desired
output voltages for boost and buck operations, respectively. Note crossover frequency for each configuration. The phase plots
that the control to output transfer functions (4) slightly change as show that the phase of each loop transfer function for each
a new interleaving phase is added to the converter. The frequency mode flattens at −90◦ nearly after 1 kHz. By inspection, we
responses of the controlled variable ( IL ) for the single- and can choose the crossover frequencies above this point such that
two-phase interleaved configurations are presented in Figs. 9 1φ
fxo = 4 kHz and fxo2φ
= 6 kHz considering the switching fre-
and 10 for boost and buck modes, respectively. As seen, the quency fsw = 20 kHz. The controller transfer function contains
additional phase causes the system pole to shift to a higher one zero and two poles, and its transfer function is given in (5).
frequency. This means that the controller has to be faster as the One of the poles is located at the origin (integrator) providing
number of phases increases. Therefore, the crossover frequency a −90◦ phase shift. The locations of the other pole-zero pairs
of the controlled system needs to be shifted to right to get similar for a desired phase margin of 60◦ are calculated and listed in
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
UCER et al.: ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND COMPARISON OF V2V CHARGERS FOR FLEXIBLE GRID INTEGRATION 4151
TABLE IX
POLE-ZERO LOCATIONS OF THE CONTROLLER TRANSFER FUNCTION
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4152 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
Fig. 13. Comparison of (a) single- and (b) two-phase boost mode of operation
results, and (c) single- and (d) two-phase buck mode of operation results (voltage:
100 V/div, current: 5 A/div, and t: 20 µs/div).
Fig. 16. Transient response of the controller in (a) single-phase and (b) two-
phase boost mode.
Fig. 17. Transient response of the controller in (a) single-phase and (b) two-
phase buck mode.
by 30%. Table VI summarizes the test results and compares them
with the calculation results acquired by the analysis done in Sec-
tion II and the simulation results presented in Section V. There the commanded currents. We see that the experimental results
is a small difference between the experimental and theoretical verify our theoretical and simulation results in that the current
results. The actual operating duty ratios can be slightly different ripple is being reduced by each additional phase.
than the calculated ones in the analysis due to nonideal operating
conditions. This results in a slight difference in the calculated
VII. CONCLUSION
and actual duty ratio of the system. However, the experimental
results are within a reasonable margin of error with the analysis The study carried out in this article envisions the viability
results. Furthermore, the expected ripple reduction is attained. of a V2V energy sharing using compact and flexible charging
To test the performance of the closed-loop controller designed infrastructure. Such infrastructure will help facilitate widespread
in Section V, we commanded different current values as our penetration of EVs into the market reducing the reliance on
reference. The resulting currents are recorded at the sampling expensive and nonubiquitous DCFC infrastructure. The overall
frequency of 20 kHz and demonstrated along with the reference merit of this study lies in the design of a V2V charger to
current in Fig. 14(a) and (b) for the boost single- and two-phase, be used in CSN. The study presents the design of a compact
and in Fig. 15(a) and (b) for the buck single- and two-phase bidirectional two-way buck–boost dc–dc converter to provide
converters. The transient performance of the controllers is also a proof of concept for energy transfer between two different
demonstrated within 1-s interval in Fig. 16(a) and (b) for the battery packs of any typical voltage level. We analyzed three
boost single- and two-phase, and in Fig. 17(a) and (b) for the candidate options to transfer energy between two wide battery
buck single- and two-phase converters. The small overshoots voltage levels and compared their advantages. A significant
observed especially in the two-phase results are caused mainly improvement in inductor ripple current is observed when multi-
due to not having enough sampling speed in the digital controller phase bidirectional dc–dc converters are used as opposed to the
and the filtering delays that are present in the feedback path. single-phase counterpart at the expense of increased complexity.
Nevertheless, the controller works stable and the system follows To quantitatively compare the design topologies for Si and SiC
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
UCER et al.: ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND COMPARISON OF V2V CHARGERS FOR FLEXIBLE GRID INTEGRATION 4153
based converters, we carried out a design comparison using effi- [18] “Hyundai Kona to get V2V charging.” 2019. [Online]. Available: https:
cient and compact over-the-shelf power modules and magnetic //gomechanic.in/blog/hyundai-kona-to-get-v2v-charging/
[19] “Plugged in: How Americans charge their electric vehicles,” 2015.
cores. The comparison shows how multiphase interleaved SiC Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://avt.inl.gov/sites/
converter topologies enable high switching frequency operation. default/files/pdf/arra/PluggedInSummaryReport.pdf
This way the inductance requirements and the converter size [20] E. Bulut and M. C. Kisacikoglu, “Mitigating range anxiety via vehicle-
to-vehicle social charging system,” in Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf.,
significantly reduce while maintaining high system efficiency. Jun. 2017, pp. 1–5.
The proposed work aims to enable significant spread of V2V [21] E. Bulut, M. C. Kisacikoglu, and K. Akkaya, “Spatio-temporal non-
technology to help the flexible integration of EVs into the power intrusive direct V2V charge sharing coordination,” IEEE Trans. Veh.
Technol., vol. 68, no. 10, pp. 9385–9398, Oct. 2019.
grid. This allows to mitigate the EV charging loading impact on [22] R. Zhang, X. Cheng, and L. Yang, “Flexible energy management protocol
the grid and provides indirect grid services. for cooperative EV-to-EV charging,” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst.,
vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 172–184, Jan. 2019.
[23] F. Yucel, K. Akkaya, and E. Bulut, “Efficient and privacy preserving
supplier matching for electric vehicle charging,” Ad Hoc Netw., vol. 90,
REFERENCES 2019, Art. no. 101730.
[24] B. Roberts, K. Akkaya, E. Bulut, and M. Kisacikoglu, “An authenti-
[1] E. Ucer et al., “A flexible V2V charger as a new layer of vehicle-grid
cation framework for electric vehicle-to-electric vehicle charging appli-
integration framework,” in Proc. IEEE Transp. Electrific. Conf. Expo.,
cations,” in Proc. IEEE MASS REU Res. Netw. Syst. Workshop, 2017,
2019, pp. 1–7.
pp. 565–569.
[2] E. Veldman and R. A. Verzijlbergh, “Distribution grid impacts of smart
[25] S. Dusmez, A. Hasanzadeh, and A. Khaligh, “Comparative analy-
electric vehicle charging from different perspectives,” IEEE Trans. Smart
sis of bidirectional three-level dc-dc converter for automotive appli-
Grid, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 333–342, Jan. 2015.
cations,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 3305–3315,
[3] L. P. Fernandez, T. G. S. Roman, R. Cossent, C. M. Domingo, and
May 2015.
P. Frias, “Assessment of the impact of plug-in electric vehicles on dis-
[26] O. Garcia, P. Zumel, A. de Castro, and A. Cobos, “Automotive dc-dc
tribution networks,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 206–213,
bidirectional converter made with many interleaved buck stages,” IEEE
Feb. 2011.
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 578–586, May 2006.
[4] S. Shafiee, M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad, and M. Rastegar, “Investigating the
[27] T. J. C. Sousa, V. Monteiro, J. C. A. Fernandes, C. Couto, A. A. N.
impacts of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on power distribution systems,”
Melendez, and J. L. Afonso, “New perspectives for vehicle-to-vehicle
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1351–1360, Sep. 2013.
(V2V) power transfer,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc. Annu. Conf.,
[5] F. Erden, M. C. Kisacikoglu, and O. H. Gurec, “Examination of EV-grid
Oct. 2018, pp. 5183–5188.
integration using real driving and transformer loading data,” in Proc. Int.
[28] M. O. Badawy et al., “Design and implementation of a 75-kW mobile
Conf. Elect. Electron. Eng., 2015, pp. 364–368.
charging system for electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 52,
[6] E. Sortomme, M. M. Hindi, S. J. MacPherson, and S. Venkata, “Coordi-
no. 1, pp. 369–377, Jan./Feb. 2016.
nated charging of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles to minimize distribution
[29] M. Nasr, K. Gupta, C. da Silva, C. H. Amon, and O. Trescases, “SiC
system losses,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 198–205,
based on-board EV power-hub with high-efficiency DC transfer mode
Mar. 2011.
through AC port for vehicle-to-vehicle charging,” in Proc. IEEE Appl.
[7] N. Leemput, F. Geth, J. Van Roy, A. Delnooz, J. Buscher, and J. Driesen,
Power Electron. Conf. Expo., 2018, pp. 1–7.
“Impact of electric vehicle on-board single-phase charging strategies
[30] S. Zeljkovic, R. Vuletic, A. Miller, and A. Denais, “A three phase bidirec-
on a Flemish residential grid,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 5, no. 4,
tional V2G interface converter based on SiC JFETs,” in Proc. 17th Eur.
pp. 1815–1822, Jul. 2014.
Conf. Power Electron. Appl., Sep. 2015, pp. 1–10.
[8] K. Clement-Nyns, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen, “The impact of charging
[31] A. Hilal and B. Cougo, “Optimal inductor design and material selection
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid,” IEEE
for high power density inverters used in aircraft applications,” in Proc. Int.
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 371–380, Feb. 2010.
Conf. Elect. Syst. Aircr., Railway, Ship Propulsion Road Veh. Int. Trans.
[9] O. Sundstrom and C. Binding, “Flexible charging optimization for electric
Electrific. Conf., Nov. 2016, pp. 1–6.
vehicles considering distribution grid constraints,” IEEE Trans. Smart
[32] M. Gjelaj, C. Træholt, S. Hashemi, and P. Andersen, “Optimal design of
Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 26–37, Mar. 2012.
DC fast-charging stations for EVs in low voltage grids,” in Proc. IEEE
[10] N. Leemput, F. Geth, J. Van Roy, P. Olivella-Rosell, A. Sumper, and
Transp. Electrific. Conf. Expo., Jun. 2017, pp. 684–689.
J. Driesen, “MV and LV residential grid impact of combined slow and
[33] L. Albiol-Tendillo, E. Vidal-Idiarte, J. Maixé-Altés, J. M. Bosque-
fast charging of electric vehicles,” Energies, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1760–1783,
Moncusí, and H. Valderrama-Blaví, “Design and control of a bidirectional
2015.
DC/DC converter for an electric vehicle,” in Proc. 15th Int. Power Electron.
[11] “Global EV outlook: Beyond one million electric cars,” Tech. Rep.,
Motion Control Conf., Sep. 2012, pp. LS4d.2-1–LS4d.2-5.
2016. Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.iea.org/
[34] F. M. Almasoudi, K. S. Alatawi, and M. Matin, “Design of isolated
publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.
interleaved boost DC-DC converter based on SiC power devices for
pdf
microinverter applications,” in Proc. North Amer. Power Symp., Sep. 2016,
[12] W. Kempton and S. Letendre, “Electric vehicles as a new power source
pp. 1–6.
for electric utilities,” Trans. Res., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 157–175, Sep. 1997.
[35] G. R. Chandra Mouli, J. H. Schijffelen, P. Bauer, and M. Zeman, “Design
[13] “Charging forward: The state of EV charging in 2016,” 2016. Ac-
and comparison of a 10-kW interleaved boost converter for PV application
cessed: Apr. 18, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.chargepoint.com/
using Si and SiC devices,” IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power Electron.,
charging-forward-2016
vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 610–623, Jun. 2017.
[14] N. Nigro and M. Frades, “Business models for financially
[36] C. N. Ho, H. Breuninger, S. Pettersson, G. Escobar, and F. Canales, “A
sustainable EV charging networks,” Center for Climate and
comparative performance study of an interleaved boost converter using
Energy Solutions, Tech. Rep., 2015. Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019.
commercial Si and SiC diodes for PV applications,” IEEE Trans. Power
[Online]. Available: http://leg.wa.gov/JTC/Documents/Studies/EV/
Electron., vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 289–299, Jan. 2013.
FinalReport_EVChargingNetworksWEB.pdf
[37] S. Öztürk, “Design of three phase interleaved DC/DC boost converter with
[15] J. Leeder, “Ontario’s electric-vehicle charging network hits speed
all SiC semiconductors for electric vehicle applications,” in Proc. 10th Int.
bumps,” 2017. Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019. [Online]. Available: https:
Conf. Elect. Electron. Eng., Nov. 2017, pp. 355–359.
//www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/ontarios-electric-vehicle-
[38] R. Mayer, M. Berrehil El Kattel, M. D. Possamai, C. Bruning, and
charging-network-hits-speed-bumps/article34441795
S. V. Garcia Oliveira, “Analysis of a multi-phase interleaved bidirectional
[16] “Rivian confirms V2V charging, auxiliary batteries.” 2019. [Online].
DC/DC power converter with coupled inductor,” in Proc. Brazilian Power
Available: https://www.autoblog.com/2019/06/08/rivian-confirms-v2v-
Electron. Conf., Nov. 2017, pp. 1–6.
charging-auxiliary-batteries/slide-1282136
[39] Z. Kan, P. Li, R. Yuan, and C. Zhang, “Interleaved three-level bi-directional
[17] “Hyundai introduces vehicle to vehicle charging facility.” 2019. [Online].
DC-DC converter and power flow control,” in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Intell.
Available: https://www.autocarindia.com/car-news/hyundai-introduces-
Green Building Smart Grid, Apr. 2018, pp. 1–4.
vehicle-to-vehicle-charging-facility-415144
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4154 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 57, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2021
[40] T. Kang, C. Kim, Y. Suh, H. Park, B. Kang, and D. Kim, “A design and [45] D. Baba, “Under the hood of a multiphase synchronous rectified boost
control of bi-directional non-isolated DC-DC converter for rapid electric converter,” Texas Instruments, Tech. Rep., 2014. Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019.
vehicle charging system,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. [Online]. Available: https://www.ti.com/seclit/wp/slup323/slup323.pdf
Expo., Feb. 2012, pp. 14–21. [46] C. Parisi, “Multiphase buck design from start to finish (Part 1),” Texas In-
[41] B. Vural, S. Dusmez, M. Uzunoglu, E. Ugur, and B. Akin, “Fuel consump- struments, Tech. Rep., 2017. Accessed: Apr. 18, 2019. [Online]. Available:
tion comparison of different battery/ultracapacitor hybridization topolo- http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva882/slva882.pdf
gies for fuel-cell vehicles on a test bench,” IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics [47] “Express 100 DC commercial charging stations.” 2018. [Online]. Avail-
Power Electron., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 552–561, Sep. 2014. able: https://www.chargepoint.com/files/datasheets/ds-cpe100.pdf
[42] Y. Du, X. Zhou, S. Bai, S. Lukic, and A. Huang, “Review of non-isolated [48] A. Anthon, Z. Zhang, M. A. E. Andersen, D. G. Holmes, B. McGrath, and
bi-directional dc-dc converters for plug-in hybrid electric vehicle charge C. A. Teixeira, “The benefits of SiC mosfets in a T-type inverter for grid-tie
station application at municipal parking decks,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 2808–2821,
Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 2010, pp. 1145–1151. Apr. 2017.
[43] C. Chang and M. A. Knights, “Interleaving technique in distributed power [49] L. Callegaro, M. Ciobotaru, D. J. Pagano, E. Turano, and J. E. Fletcher,
conversion systems,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Fundam. Theory Appl., “A simple smooth transition technique for the noninverting buck-boost
vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 245–251, May 1995. converter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 4906–4915,
[44] M. Gerber, J. A. Ferreira, I. W. Hofsajer, and N. Seliger, “Interleaving Jun. 2018.
optimization in synchronous rectified dc/dc converters,” in Proc. IEEE
Power Electron. Specialists Conf., Jun. 2004, vol. 6, pp. 4655–4661.
Authorized licensed use limited to: The University of Akron Libraries. Downloaded on July 20,2021 at 13:30:01 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.