Oxford Resources For IB: Structure 3.1 - The Periodic Table: Classification of Elements
Oxford Resources For IB: Structure 3.1 - The Periodic Table: Classification of Elements
Oxford Resources For IB: Structure 3.1 - The Periodic Table: Classification of Elements
Answers
As the atomic number and hence the number of protons in the nucleus increase, the outermost electrons are
held closer to the nucleus by the increasing nuclear charge. At the same time, the shielding effect remains
nearly constant because the number of inner electrons does not change. Therefore, ionic radii of both cations
and anions decrease across the period (from left to right).
The discontinuities in this trend are caused by the fact that for early elements in each period (Li to C and
Na to P), the ionic radii in the data booklet are given for cations while for later elements (N to F, S and Cl),
they are given for anions. Anions have more electrons than protons, so their ionic radii are higher because
© Oxford University Press 2023 1
of the increased mutual repulsion between electrons.
Noble gases (Ne and Ar) do not form stable cations, so their ionic radii are not given in the data booklet.
Activity (page 237)
Property Sr or I Mg or C or Si Li or F Ba or K or Br C or Pb Cs or F
Ca Cl
atomic radius Sr Ca Si Li Ba K Pb Cs
ionic radius I Ca Si F Cl Br Pb Cs
electron affinity I Ca C F Cl Br C F
ionization energy I Mg C F Cl Br C F
electronegativity I Mg C F Cl Br C F
1 to 5. Example data:
Example graph:
6. Answers will vary. Guidance: the idea of a repeating pattern across periods should be mentioned, with the
group 1 elements having a large atomic volume, which decreases across the period.
7. Answers will vary. Guidance: you should notice that the law of octaves is only apparent until argon.
F– Cl– Br– I–
Cl2 No reaction No reaction Cl2 + 2Br– ® 2Cl– + Br2 Cl2 + 2I– ® 2Cl– + I2
The first five ionization energies of vanadium are relatively low, and they increase very gradually, so vanadium
shows a variety of oxidation states, from +1 to +5, in its compounds. The oxidation state +5 corresponds to the
most stable valence electron configuration, [Ar], so vanadium(V) compounds are the most common. The sharp
rise in ionization energy from IE5 to IE6 makes the removal of the sixth electron very unfavourable, so the
compounds of vanadium in oxidation states greater than +5 are unknown.
The stability of certain oxidation states for other transition elements can be explained in a similar manner. The
successive IE plots and oxidation states of chromium and copper are discussed in the main text.
Practice questions (page 250)
6. Mn2+ is formed from Mn by losing the two 4s valence electrons, leaving the ion with a
particularly stable half-filled 3d sublevel, [Ar] 3d5. To become Mn3+, this ion will have
to break this stable configuration by losing one of the 3d electrons. This is
unfavourable, so Mn3+ is less stable than Mn2+.
Fe2+ is formed from Fe by losing the two 4s valence electrons, leaving the ion [Ar] 3d6.
The paired electrons in one 3d orbital experience extra repulsion, so one of these
electrons is easily removed to form the Fe3+ ion with a more stable [Ar] 3d5
configuration.
7. a. [Ar] 4s2 3d3
b. In oxidation state +5, vanadium formally loses all its valence electrons and gains a
particularly stable configuration of a noble gas, [Ar].
Practice question (page 253)
8. The chloride ions can replace water molecules in the complex, for example:
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) ⇌ [Cu(H2O)5Cl]+(aq) + H2O(l)
Chloride ions will produce less splitting between the two non-degenerate d-orbitals of
Cu than did water. This means that light of lower energy, lower frequency, and longer
wavelength will be absorbed when electrons are promoted between the two non-
degenerate d-orbitals. The complementary colour transmitted by the copper(II)–
chloride complex will be different than that of the copper(II)–water complex.
Skills question (page 253)
Answers will vary depending on the data collected. The guidance on graphs and
20. a.
∆E = (6.63 × 10–34 J s) × (5.5556 × 1014 s–1) = 3.68 × 10–19 J (3 sf)
b. [CoCl4]2– complex is blue and absorbs longer-wavelength photons / any value
between 585 and 647 nm than the [Co(H2O)6]2+ complex;
Therefore chloride ions cause a smaller ∆E than water molecules;
21. The first two IE of calcium (590 and 1145 kJ mol–1, respectively) are low, so calcium
readily lose its two valence electrons to form Ca2+. The jump from IE2 to IE3 (4912 kJ
mol–1) is very sharp, so the third electron cannot be removed from calcium by
chemical forces.
In contrast, the first four IE of titanium (659, 1310, 2653 and 4175 kJ mol–1) are closer
to one another, and their increase is more gradual, so titanium can lose two, three or
four electrons in chemical reactions.
b.
2. B
3. D
Practice questions (page 267)
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. D
8. C
Skills questions (page 270)
Answers will vary widely depending on the homologous series chosen and database(s)
used. The guidance in Tool 3 should be followed.
b.
b.
c.
b.
d.
e.
14. a. hept-3-ene
b. 2,4-dimethylpent-2-ene
c. 2,2-dimethylpropan-1-ol
d. 3-methylpentan-2-one
e. 3,3-dimethylbutanal
Activity (page 280)
b. The carbon atom that is attached to the hydroxyl group is also attached to two
alkyl groups, hence it is a secondary alcohol.
propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH
propan-2-ol CH3CH(OH)CH3
methoxyethane CH3CH2OCH3
18. a. trans-pent-2-ene
; No
b.
; Yes
c.
; Yes
d.
; No
e.
; Yes
f.
; No
Activity (page 289)
a. The chiral carbon is bonded to four different groups, as shown in b.
b. i.
ii.
pentan-3-one
b. A is pentan-3-one, CH3CH2COCH2CH3
peak at 29 due to (CH3CH2)+
peak at 57 due to (CH3CH2CO)+
B is pentan-2-one, CH3COCH2CH2CH3
peak at 43 due to (CH3CH2CH2)+ or (CH3CO)+
Practice question (page 299)
21. For structure a (2-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoic acid):
There are five different hydrogen chemical environments for this compound. The ratio
for area under the signals for HA : HB : HC : HD : HE is 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 6, with the
hydrogen atoms being labelled along the chain from the –COOH group.
For structure b (3-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoic acid):
There are four different hydrogen chemical environments for this compound. The ratio
for area under the signals for HA : HB : HC : HD is 2 : 1 : 6 : 1, with the hydrogen
atoms being labelled along the chain from the –COOH group.
Skills questions (page 303)
2.
1
Isomer H NMR spectrum Selection of IR spectrum Major mass
features features spectrum peaks
propan-1-ol 4 signals O—H at 3200 to 3600 cm–1 31 (loss of
3:2:2:1 (broad) CH2CH3)
triplet (0.9–1.0 ppm) C—H at 2850 to 3090 cm-1
multiplet (1.3–1.4 C—O at 1050–1410 cm-1
ppm)
triplet (3.3–3.7 ppm)
singlet (1.0–6.0
ppm)
propan-2-ol 3 signals O—H at 3200 to 3600 cm–1 45 (loss of CH3)
6:1:1 (broad)
doublet (0.9–1.0 C—H at 2850 to 3090 cm-1
OR
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
b. 2 signals
0.9−1.0 AND triplet
3.3−3.7 AND quartet