12.

3 Exploring Space: Past,

Present, and Future

Telescopes allow humans to extend their ability to observe space. Different

telescopes study different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, including optical,
radio, infrared, and X-ray waves. Satellites and probes visit regions in space too
difficult for humans to explore. New technology is quickly making ideas such as
colonization and terraforming possible.

Our success in learning about the sky and beyond has long depended
Words to Know on the tools available to extend our vision. Observation improved
ethics greatly after the invention of the first optical telescope in the 17th
geosynchronous orbit century. Suddenly, people were able to see details they could never have
optical telescope imagined were there before. This was how they came to realize that the
probe Moon has craters, stars exist in the millions rather than thousands, and
radio telescope Earth is not the centre of the universe (Figure 12.19).
rover Constant improvement of a range of tools and technologies has
satellite helped astronomers continue to make new discoveries, both from Earth
terraforming and by going into space.
Physically exploring outside Earth’s atmosphere is more than just an
activity to answer scientific curiosity. Humans are now pushing the
limits of technology to travel into
space for fun and profit. Since the
first astronaut was sent into space
in 1961, more than 400 people
have successfully journeyed there
and back again. In the next 50
years, even average citizens may
be regularly paying for the
opportunity to take the trip of a
lifetime.

Earth-based Observation
Technology
The first telescope was invented
by the Dutch eyeglass maker
Hans Lippershey in 1608. Since
then, many changes to its design
have improved its light-collecting
capabilities. There are two types
of optical telescopes: refracting
Figure 12.19 The mysteries of the universe have long captured the curiosity and and reflecting.
imagination of humans.

432 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Optical telescopes
Refracting optical telescopes use lenses to gather and focus light to
provide a magnified view. Reflecting telescopes use a series of mirrors to Did You Know?
collect light and project the image to an eyepiece lens for the viewer. The Building large telescopes can be
largest reflecting telescopes in the world today are the twin Keck difficult and expensive. Another
telescopes built at an altitude of 4200 m on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. The strategy is to use two or more
main mirror of each Keck telescope is 10 m in diameter. Each is smaller telescopes to create the
composed of 36 individual hexagonal segments. Even bigger than the power of a single large one.
two Keck telescopes will be the Thirty Metre Telescope, with a 30 m Combining a series of telescopes
diameter mirror. It is now under construction by an international group to imitate the sensitivity of a
that includes Canada and is to be completed in 2015. The Thirty Metre single, larger telescope is called
Telescope is expected to be able to see objects more than 150 times interferometry.
fainter than can be seen by the Hubble Space Telescope.

12-3A Build Your Own Telescope Find Out ACTIVITY

In a refracting telescope, an objective lens gathers light from 3. Insert one of the lenses into the opening you made in
a distant object and focusses the image in the telescope. the toilet paper tube. Use the tape to secure the lens
The light of the image is then magnified by an eyepiece to the outside of the tube. Repeat this step for the
lens, which is where you see the image with your eye. In paper towel tube.
this activity, you will build your own refracting telescope. 4. Slide the empty end of the toilet paper tube (the end
without the lens) into the empty end of the paper
Safety
towel tube.
5. Have a partner hold the page of text about 1 m away
from you. Look through your telescope at the page. To
• Handle scissors carefully. focus the image, slide the inner tube back and forth
• Glass lenses are breakable. Handle them carefully. inside the outer tube.

Materials 6. Test your telescope by having your partner hold the

page at different distances from you.
• ruler
7. Repeat step 6 until you cannot see a clear image.
• pencil
Measure this distance using the metre stick and record
• one toilet paper tube (~4 cm in diameter)
the number.
• one paper towel tube (~4.3 cm in diameter)
• scissors What Did You Find Out?
• two convex lenses, approximately 4.5 cm in diameter 1. What did you notice about the image you observed
• clear adhesive tape when you were 1 m from the page?
• metre stick 2. Explain what you had to do to the telescope to make
• page of small-print text (such as the page of a the image clearer when you were:
newspaper or magazine) (a) closer to the page
(b) farther from the page
What to Do
3. What was the maximum distance at which you could
1. Use the ruler and pencil to mark a line about 2.5 cm
still see a clear, magnified image?
from one end of the toilet paper tube. Do the same on
the paper towel tube. 4. Suggest a change to the design of the telescope that
would allow you to see a clear image of the page from
2. With the scissors, carefully cut an opening in each tube
farther away.
along the line you drew, but only halfway around.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 433
 Non-optical telescopes
internet connect The first telescopes collected only light for observing the universe.
Eventually, however, astronomers realized that they could use other
Many secrets of the universe wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum for their telescopes. Many
are revealed when we use objects in space produce energy that is not visible to the human eye,
instruments that search for including X rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Non-optical telescopes
energy from all parts of the were developed to view these wavelengths. However, Earth’s atmosphere
electromagnetic spectrum, not blocks some of this incoming electromagnetic radiation, so telescopes
just the narrow part of visible operating at these wavelengths must be sent into space. An example of an
light. Research how different X-ray telescope is the Chandra X-Ray Observatory.
types of telescopes obtain To collect wavelengths that are longer than those of light and infrared
“non-visible” information radiation, radio telescopes are used. Radio telescopes are large receivers,
about celestial objects. Start similar to satellite dishes you can often see attached to people’s homes.
at www.bcscience9.ca. Radio signals coming from a distant object are collected and focussed on
a receiver. The electric signals are then converted into data and
interpreted. Radio telescopes reveal characteristics of celestial objects that
could not be studied using optical telescopes.
A photograph of the world’s largest radio receiver, located at Arecibo,
Puerto Rico, appears in the “www science” feature in section 10.2. Data
collected from a radio telescope receiver is shown in Figure 12.20.

Figure 12.20. A radio telescope image showing two galaxies that astronomers believe collided
about 50 million years ago.

434 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

 As with optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be joined
electronically to produce the results of one very large telescope. The
Very Large Array radio astronomy observatory, located in New Mexico,
is made up of 27 antennas that are each 25 m across (Figure 12.21). The
result simulates one giant radio telescope that would be 36 km wide.

Figure 12.21 The Very Large Array

facility is used by astronomers from all
over the world to study galaxies, black
holes, planetary nebulae, and other
areas of astronomy.

Reading Check
1. How has the invention of the telescope helped the science of
astronomy?
2. Name the two types of optical telescopes.
3. What is the advantage of using several small telescopes combined
rather than one large telescope?
4. What is the main difference between reflecting and refracting
telescopes?
5. Why were non-optical telescopes developed?

Space-based Observation Technology

Earth-based telescopes, as sophisticated as they are, are affected by a number
of conditions that can make observing difficult or impossible. These
conditions include cloudy weather, air and light pollution, and distortion
caused by heat and atmosphere. Furthermore, telescopes are limited in
their ability to analyze the data from the objects they are studying.
For all these reasons, scientists have spent the last 50 years developing
ways of getting telescopes and other data-collecting instruments off
Earth’s surface and into orbit. As well, truly remarkable efforts have
permitted humans to walk on the Moon, live in space, and consider
visiting other planets. Experience has taught us that this approach is very
expensive, time-consuming, and dangerous for humans. Fortunately, other
options for space exploration have been developed to overcome some of
these challenges. The most successful of these advanced technologies are
satellites, probes, and robotic rovers.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 435
 Satellites
Artificial satellites are electronic devices put in orbit around Earth to
relay information. “Satellite” means any body that orbits around another
body in space. Our Moon orbiting Earth, for example, is Earth’s natural
satellite. It is usual when talking about space technology to refer to
artificial satellites simply as satellites.
Satellites are a very important part of your everyday life. When you
decide what clothes to wear based on a weather report, or when you
watch television, phone a friend, or check out a website, satellites are
likely playing some role (Figure 12.22). Satellites used for
communications tend to be stationary above a fixed point on Earth. This
is called a geosynchronous orbit. These satellites orbit Earth at the same
rate that Earth is rotating. As a result, the satellite appears to be staying
in one position. Television satellites do this so that ground-based satellite
dishes can be aimed at the transmitting satellite.

Figure 12.22 Canada has been in

the field of space communications for
nearly 50 years. Whether you are
aware of it or not, you benefit every
day from such technology. Satellites are also used for many other purposes besides providing
communications services. Through remote sensing, for example, satellites
are used to monitor forest fires, track migrating salmon, calculate the
depth of oceans, and measure ground movement in an effort to predict
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Remote sensing is a technique of
collecting information about Earth from satellites, aerial photographs, or
other means by “sensing” the planet from high above it.

436 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

 One of the Canadian Space Agency’s first remote sensing satellites
was RADARSAT 1. RADARSAT 1 has been used for mining
exploration, urban planning, and even hurricane tracking.
RADARSAT 2, shown in Figure 12.23, is the newer version.

Figure 12.23 RADARSAT 2 orbits at

an altitude of 798 km and has many
uses, such as geological mapping,
forest mapping, iceberg detection, and
marine surveillance.

Archaeologists, people who

Probes study ancient life, sometimes
A space vehicle sent to other celestial bodies is called a probe. Probes are use satellites to detect
designed to travel millions of kilometres, carrying scientific instruments evidence of past civilizations
to analyze distant objects in space. They may fly past, orbit, or land on a deep beneath surface layers
planet, moon, comet, or asteroid and send back information about its of water, soil, and even
atmosphere and surface features. Every planet in our solar system has jungle. Follow the links at
been visited by a probe. The New Horizons probe, launched in 2006, is www.bcscience9.ca to
learn more about this
destined for Pluto. It expected to reach that dwarf planet in 2015.
unusual archaeological tool.
Space probes do not need a crew, which eliminates the risk to human
life. They also do not need to return to Earth. From the late 1960s to
early 1980s, for example, the Soviet Union landed several Venera probes
on Venus. The planet’s sulphuric acid clouds, 467°C temperature, and
extreme surface pressure meant that most of the
probes lasted less than half an hour before
communication was lost. Despite that, the data
and images the probes were able to transmit have
been invaluable.
Two of the most successful American space
probes have been Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.
Launched in the late 1970s, the two interplanetary
explorers were the first to fly past the gas giants and
the moons of the outer solar system (Figure 12.24).
Today the probes continue to send back data from
the farthest reaches of our solar system.
Figure 12.24 Jupiter and one of its moons as viewed by Voyager 2

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 437
 Rovers
Sending human explorers on long space journeys to distant, dangerous
planets is not a practical idea. One reason is the risk to human life.
Another reason is the enormous cost. Robot space explorers offer a better
option. These robotic devices, or rovers as they are commonly known,
can be programmed to carry out tests that humans would otherwise
make. Rovers are small, sophisticated, movable probes designed to land
on a planet, explore and test the surface, and send the
information back to Earth. Because of the length of time
it can take for radio signals to travel between Earth and
a remote location, rovers must be programmed to solve
many problems on their own, without help from
scientists at mission control.
Robotic space rovers work all day long, pausing only
at night to conserve their battery strength. They operate
in hostile environments that can range from the freezing
surface of Mars to the furnace-like surface of Venus. The
work they do includes conducting experiments in
geology, meteorology, and biology.
The latest rovers to explore another planet are twins
called Spirit and Opportunity. Sent to Mars, these “robotic
geologists” have been testing rock samples and looking for
evidence of water since January 2004 (Figure 12.25).
They continue to send data, long past their original three-
month mission.
Figure 12.25 Spirit and Opportunity,
shown here, have travelled several
kilometres from their landing sites on Reading Check
opposite sides of Mars.
1. Define the term “satellite.”
2. Besides communication, list three ways satellites help scientists.
3. How are interplanetary probes different from satellites?
4. What do interplanetary rovers do that probes do not do?
5. Give two reasons why a probe would be sent to another planet
before a human would.

12-3B Roving Mars Think About It

NASA has documented the journey of its twin surface rovers, footage of the rovers Spirit and Opportunity as they
Spirit and Opportunity, on Mars. In this activity, you will explore the surface of Mars.
watch the rovers at work and write about Mars exploration. 2. Write a short story describing what you would see and
feel on a typical day if you were a space scientist sent
What to Do
out instead of the rovers to explore Mars.
1. Research information about the conditions on Mars.
Start your search at www.bcscience9.ca. Watch film

438 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Technology of Space Travel
Breaking the hold of Earth’s gravitational pull was the first challenge for
scientists wishing to send telescopes, other instruments, or humans out
into space. This is done with rockets. Rocket technology has advanced
dramatically since its humble beginnings in China in the first century C.E.
The establishment of a space-based research facility on the International
Space Station has taken space exploration to the next level.

Rockets
A rocket is a system used for transporting materials and astronauts into
space. Much of the body of a rocket is filled with explosive fuels that Suggested Activity
combine to create thrust (Figure 12.26). Conduct an Investigation
Thrust is the force that pushes against the rocket, causing it to move. 12-3C on page 446
A similar reaction occurs when you blow up a balloon and release it. The
air escapes from the neck of the balloon and produces thrust, which
forces the balloon to fly away. As fuel is used up, parts of the propulsion
system are released from the rocket to make the body lighter.

Did You Know?

On its 3.8 billion km journey to
Jupiter, the Galileo spacecraft
had to adjust its direction from
time to time with small bursts
from its rockets. Doing this used
only about 254 L of fuel for the
whole trip, a fuel use of
15.6 million km/L.

Figure 12.26 All rockets have four main systems: structural (the frame), payload, guidance, and
propulsion. The payload is the cargo that the rocket carries. It could be astronauts, satellites, or other
objects. The propulsion system produces thrust, the force needed to launch the rocket.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 439
 Space shuttle program
Besides a rocket’s payload, not much of the structure is
saved or used again. Most of the material falls back to
Earth, burning up during re-entry into the atmosphere or
crashing into the ocean. For this reason, space shuttles
were designed to be reusable spacecraft. Each shuttle is
rocketed into space, completes its mission, and returns to
Earth, gliding in on a runway like a regular airplane
(Figure 12.27). The only discarded materials are the
external fuel tanks.
In addition to launching and retrieving satellites,
the shuttle is used as a means of delivering astronauts,
supplies, and equipment to the International
Space Station.
Figure 12.27 A space shuttle, such
as Discovery shown here, reaches its International Space Station
orbital speed of 27 200 km/h in just
Since construction began in 1993, the International Space Station has
under 8 min.
been built piece by piece from components delivered by the space shuttle
and from conventional rockets from Russia. Sixteen countries, including
Canada, are involved in this space-based laboratory, which orbits about
350 km above Earth. Travelling at more than 27 000 km/h, the space
station circles Earth in about 90 min. The onboard crew members
conduct numerous experiments in the microgravity environment (Figure
12.28). Microgravity is the condition of weightlessness experienced by all
objects, including spacecraft and humans, in space. It is very weak gravity,
less than one-millionth the effect on Earth. Scientists at the Canadian
Space Agency are known around the world for their work in microgravity
research. The lifetime of the International Space Station is expected to be
about 30 years.

Figure 12.28 Crew in the International Space Station carry out a wide range of experiments, such
as testing new materials and studying the long-term effects of space travel on humans.

440 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Space Travel
The first stages of space travel involved launching uncrewed probes.
Animals were then sent up to test the living conditions required for
space travel. The next phase involved sending up humans. From
there, the Moon became the focus of attention (Figure 12.29). In
1969, the U.S. landed the first person on the Moon, Neil Armstrong.
As countries realized how expensive space exploration was, they
started working together. The International Space Station is an
excellent example of a truly international mission. Numerous
partnerships between private business and governments are now also
working on space projects.

Canadian contributions to space exploration

One of the largest successes in NASA’s space program has been the
Canadian-designed and -built robotic arms. The first “Canadarm”
was used to retrieve and launch many satellites and to provide a stable
platform for astronauts going about their tasks in space.
Canadarm 2, a mobile remote manipulator system designed for the
International Space Station, does everything that Canadarm 1 did, but it Figure 12.29 The first landing of a
is larger and able to move by itself (Figure 12.30). Moving like a human on the Moon, 1969
caterpillar, the system can travel to nearly every part of the space station’s
exterior. The newest development is the robotic manipulator officially
named Dextre (for “dexterous”), a two-armed robot that attaches to the
end of Canadarm 2. It can perform tasks that previously required
astronauts to work outside the safety of the space station.

Find out more about

Dextre, the Canadian Space
Agency’s “Special Purpose
Dexterous Manipulator.”
Start by going to
www.bcscience9.ca.

Figure 12.30 Canadarm 2 is used to move large payloads, dock the shuttle, and assist astronauts
with repair and assembly duties.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 441
 Rewards of Space Travel
Spinoff technology
A great deal of technology that was originally invented and designed for
use in space has found new purpose on Earth. These spinoff
technologies include hundreds of items we use in our day-to-day lives.
The list is long, but some examples are freeze-dried foods, high-tech
running shoes, bicycle helmets, cold weather clothing, light sportswear,
sunglasses, insulin pumps, eye examination systems, locator beacons, and
self-repairing computers (Figure 12.31).

Space tourism
The lure of space travel is not reserved just for highly trained astronauts.
Progress in space travel technology has meant improvements in safety and
significantly lowered costs. As a result, some companies are now coming
up with clever ways to attract adventurous travellers into space such as
charging people to stay at the International Space Station and selling
tickets for a short flight into space.
Another idea related to space tourism is terraforming. Terraforming
is the idea that an extraterrestrial environment, such as Mars, could be
transformed into an Earth-like biosphere that humans could inhabit
(Figure 12.32). An effort like this would, of course, be extremely costly—
Figure 12.31 Many things you use if it were even possible. Most scientists argue that because Mars was not
every day were originally invented by large enough to hold its original atmosphere, it would not be able to
scientists and engineers for use in
space.
maintain a newly created atmosphere.

Figure 12.32 The process of terraforming Mars would require creating large natural systems such as a water cycle and plant life to generate and
maintain an atmosphere like Earth’s. This image shows an artist’s idea of a terraformed Mars.

442 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Risks of Space Travel Word Connect
Equipment failure
The most obvious hazard of space flight is the ever-present risk of “Terraforming” is a modern
equipment failure. This can be caused by a malfunction during takeoff, word that combines two
collision with space debris, or failure of a heat shield to protect the concepts. The first part comes
spacecraft during re-entry. The fuel tank of a space shuttle holds more than from the Latin terra, which
750 000 kg of highly explosive fuel, which is why takeoffs occur only after means Earth. “Forming” is
every safety precaution has been taken. The death of the crews aboard the added to indicate change.
space shuttles Challenger and Columbia are sombre reminders of the risks
in travelling into space and back.

Hazards from orbiting space debris

Despite the care and attention of space
scientists, materials still manage to fall off
shuttles, break off rockets, or rupture from
satellites. NASA estimates that there are more
than a million pieces of debris orbiting Earth
at any one time. These can range in size from
flakes of paint and small bolts to old satellites.
This “space junk,” regardless of size, can
damage anything it hits (Figure 12.33). In
space, an apple-sized metal ball would crash
with the explosive force of two dozen sticks of
dynamite.
Because any collision could be costly and
even fatal for astronauts, the position and path
of travel of the larger debris is closely
monitored by Earth-based radar. Steps are
taken to avoid the objects for takeoffs and
landings of spacecraft. Windshields on the
shuttles have been replaced numerous times
because of the damage caused by the impact Figure 12.33 NASA estimates that
of space debris. at least two collisions a day occur
between operational satellites and
space junk in Earth orbit. This artwork
Hazards from falling space debris
shows a satellite solar panel being
Floating debris in orbit around Earth is constantly affected by Earth’s snapped after colliding with a sliver
gravitational pull. Occasionally, this will cause debris to re-enter the of metal.
atmosphere. Most of the materials falling back to Earth burn up on
re-entry through the atmosphere, although large materials occasionally do
crash to Earth’s surface. In 1978, a Soviet satellite hit the ground in the
Great Slave Lake area of northern Canada. Fortunately, because it is
sparsely populated, there were no injuries. In 2003, the space shuttle
Columbia burst into flames during re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere,
claiming the lives of all the astronauts on board. Nobody on the ground
was hurt, despite debris from the shuttle hitting the ground over three
American states.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 443
 Unethical use of space resources
The term ethics refers to the set of moral principles and values that
Did You Know? guides a person’s actions and helps him or her decide what is right and
In 1979, the first American what is wrong. When discussing space exploration and the use of space
space station, Skylab, broke into resources, it is important to consider the ethical issues related to space
thousands of chunks during re- travel. Closely tied to ethical issues are environmental and political issues.
entry through Earth’s As with any resource, economic matters should be balanced with
atmosphere. These crashed into consideration for the environment and for people. Humans must
the Indian Ocean, and some consider the potential damage their actions might cause to humans’ and
pieces landed in Australia. The Earth’s well-being. The list below outlines some of the questions that
Australian government fined humans will have to answer if we are to prevent the unethical use of space
the U.S. $400 for littering. and its resources in future.

Questions That Must Be Asked About Space Travel

Ethical • How do we ensure that space resources will be used to help all humankind rather than just to provide
an advantage for one country or another?
• Do humans have the right to invade other unique environments around the solar system?
• Do we have the right to take materials from other bodies in the solar system?
• Are there other problems on Earth that could be solved with the money now used for space programs?

Environmental • What will be the effects of space travel on Earth’s natural systems?
• What effect does resource removal have on asteroids, moons, and planets?
• Who is responsible for policing environmental impacts?
• Who must be responsible for cleaning up any damage or debris from space development?

Political • Who has ownership of space resources?

• Should countries share technology and resources?
• Who should decide how space resources will be used?

Because of the rate at which space exploration is proceeding, the

issues facing Earth as a community need to be addressed. One of the
biggest questions to be dealt with is: Should we be thinking about
travelling to space before we deal with problems on our home planet?
These concerns are not for some future generation but are ones that you
will likely confront in the next several years.

Reading Check
1. What is Canadarm 2 and what can it do?
2. Name five spinoffs of space exploration technology that we use
on Earth.
3. What is space junk?
4. Why is debris floating in Earth’s orbit a concern for astronauts?
5. How do ethics apply to space exploration?

444 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

New Ideas for Interplanetary Travel
Because distances in our solar system are so great, the fuel that would be
required to regularly transport equipment and humans from Earth to
other planets would be enormous. To get astronauts safely to Mars and
back, for example, fuel would take up about 95 percent of the payload
space. Even deep space probes require a lot of fuel. Space scientists have
been working on a number of ideas to keep down both costs and fuel
requirements for space exploration. Two ideas at very early stages of
development are described below.

Space sled
Space sleds combine the principle of magnetic repulsion with the slingshot
idea. NASA has designed a system that uses magnets to propel a spacecraft
along a rail and up a ramp at 600 km/h (Figure 12.34). The idea is that
rockets would then help the spacecraft get out of the atmosphere.

Space elevator
Researchers are investigating the possibility of using a space elevator to
transport people and supplies into Earth’s orbit (Figure 12.35). The
technique would rely on a long cable attaching a base on Earth with a
platform, like a space station, in Earth’s orbit. An elevator connected to the
cable would be propelled by a laser beam from Earth’s surface. The cable
Figure 12.34 It is estimated that the
would be made of carbon nanotubes, which would give the cable many times cost to launch a space sled could be as
the strength of steel, and would be about 36 000 km long. What makes the little as $100.
project appealing is the cost of getting materials into space. Currently, it
costs $22 000/kg to transport materials. Using the space elevator, a person
(with one suitcase) would be able to take the 5 h ride for about $200.
Figure 12.35 An artist’s
idea of what a space
elevator might look like

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 445
12-3C Calculating the Thrust of a Conduct an INVESTIGATION
Balloon Rocket
Inquiry Focus
SkillCheck
• Observing In this activity, you will simulate the forces needed to generate thrust in a rocket
engine, and you will determine the maximum thrust of a balloon rocket engine.
• Measuring
• Calculating Question
• Modelling What is the maximum load of a balloon rocket?

Procedure
1. Connect one end of the string to the ceiling. Insert the other end of the string
Materials through the straw, pull the string tight, and tape the end to the floor.
• 4 m of string 2. Copy the following table into your notebook.
• plastic drinking straw
• clear adhesive tape Trial Number Number of Washers Mass of Washers Description of Motion
• balloon 1 0
• twist-tie 2 1
• 10 small washers of the 3 2
same size
4 3
• scale (or triple-beam
balance)
3. Inflate the balloon, twist the neck, and tie it closed with the twist-tie. Use the
• paper clip
tape to attach the side of the balloon to the straw. The clamped end of the
balloon should be facing the floor.
4. Release the twist-tie and observe the motion of the balloon. Record your
observations in the table.
5. Measure the mass of a washer using the scale. Record the mass in the table.
6. Inflate the balloon again to the same size it was for step 3. Tie it closed as before.
Using the paper clip to make a hook, attach it to the bottom of the balloon and
hang a washer from the hook. Release the balloon, and record your observations.
7. Repeat step 6 several times, adding one washer each time, until your balloon rocket
can no longer take off. At that point, the weight of the rocket equals the thrust.

Analyze
1. In step 4, you released the twist-tie on the balloon attached to the string.
(a) In what direction did the air in the balloon move?
(b) In what direction did the balloon rocket move?
2. Why does the air in the balloon move the way it does?
3. What happened to the speed of the rocket as the load (mass) was increased?
4. Besides load, what other factors might affect the balloon rocket’s motion?

Conclude and Apply

Hint: You will need to convert 1. Explain how the balloon rocket’s motion is similar to the motion of a real rocket.
the mass of the washers into 2. Use the data you collected to determine the thrust of your balloon rocket.
kilograms to complete the
F⫽m⫻g where g ⫽ the acceleration lost because of gravity ⫽ 10 N/kg
calculation.
m ⫽ the mass of the washers
446 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration
12-3D The Great Space Debate Conduct an INVESTIGATION
Decision-Making Focus

SkillCheck
The Issue
• Communicating
Should large amounts of money be spent on space exploration rather than being
• Evaluating information used for projects on Earth?
• Working co-operatively
Background Information
• Identifying ethical issues
As technology opens up the “space age,” new issues arise about the nature of
space exploration. What was once the scientific pursuit of knowledge is quickly
becoming a race to see who can make the most money from space. There is no
doubt that space can provide limitless opportunity. However, as we have seen on
Earth, exploitation of resources usually comes at some environmental cost. Humans
need to assess the risks and rewards of space travel before making decisions that
cannot be reversed. For some people thinking about the matter, the question “Can
we go?” should be replaced with “Should we go at all?” This chapter focusses on
the risks and rewards of space travel.

Identify and Analyze Alternatives

In this unit, you have been learning how humans use technology to observe, study,
and explore space. The benefits and spinoffs of space exploration include great
advances in health, communications, and Earth observation. However, as you have
also learned, space exploration requires great amounts of resources and money. The
drive to improve our understanding of the universe must be balanced with concern
for the space environment, financial costs, and even the potential for battles over
military control of space. Each year, it seems that “outer space” is becoming
increasingly more accessible to humans. Hotels in orbit, vacations on the Moon, and
even interplanetary travel are ideas that used to be considered science fiction.
The question constantly faced by the space industry is whether humans should
be spending so much money on space exploration or instead putting these
resources into solving Earth-bound issues and problems. Your goal in this activity is
to choose a position, either for or against investing large sums of money in space
exploration, and to support it with evidence. Conduct your research using the
following resources.
1. Begin your research at www.bcscience9.ca to determine both the costs and
benefits of space exploration.
2. Search print materials such as journals, magazines, and newspapers for articles
relating to the positive and negative effects of space exploration.
3. Choose a viewpoint based on your research. Summarize your information in a
short report.
4. Share your opinion with your classmates in the form of a presentation or a
Science Skills
debate. It is important for you to be able to defend your point of view with
Go to Science Skill 4 for appropriate data.
information about developing
societal decision-making skills. Evaluate
Present your opinion and findings to your classmates as a presentation or a debate.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 447
 Visualizing Rocket Motion

n the afternoon of July 16, 1969, Apollo 11

O lifted off from Cape Kennedy, Florida, bound

for the Moon. Eight days later, the spacecraft
returned to Earth, splashing down safely in the Pacific
Ocean. The motion of the spacecraft to the Moon and
back is governed by Newton’s laws of motion.

▼
Apollo 11 roars
toward the Moon.
▼
As Apollo rises, it burns fuel and
At launch, a rocket’s ejects its rocket booster engines. This
engines must produce decreases its mass, and helps Apollo
enough force and move faster. This is Newton’s second
acceleration to law in action: As mass decreases,
overcome the pull acceleration can increase.
of Earth’s gravity.
A rocket’s liftoff is an
illustration of Newton’s
third law: For every
action there is an
equal and opposite
reaction.
▼

The lunar module uses

other engines to slow
down and ease into a soft
touch-down on the Moon. A
day later, the same engines
lift the lunar module again
into outer space.

▼
After the lunar module returns to Apollo, the rocket fires
its engines to set it into motion toward Earth. The rocket then
shuts off its engines, moving according to Newton’s first law.
As it nears Earth, the rocket accelerates at an increasing rate
because of Earth’s gravity.

448 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Checking Concepts 10. Why did the Mars robotic explorers Spirit
and Opportunity have to be programmed to
1. State the difference between:
solve problems on their own rather than be
(a) optical and non-optical telescopes
totally controlled by scientists on Earth?
(b) satellites and probes
11. (a) On its journey from Earth to Saturn, the
2. What is the main purpose of a rocket?
Cassini spacecraft was considered to be a
3. Why is the International Space Station called
probe. Now that it has reached Saturn, it
“international”?
is considered to be a satellite of Saturn.
4. Name two items you use in your daily life that
Explain the name change.
were originally designed for use in space.
(b) Cassini dropped the Huygens spacecraft
5. Explain why it is unlikely that terraforming of
onto the surface of Titan, Saturn’s largest
Mars will occur in your lifetime.
moon. Why is Huygens called a probe
6. Most of the debris floating around Earth is
rather than a satellite or a rover?
smaller than a softball. Why should objects that
12. Imagine you are an astronaut about to travel
small concern astronauts aboard the
to a base on the Moon. What are three
International Space Station?
hazards that could affect your flight?
13. Why should ethics be discussed before space
Understanding Key Ideas resources are claimed and space exploration
7. Describe a disadvantage of using a telescope takes place?
positioned in space. 14. Thirty-five different nations have sent their
8. Match the systems of a rocket in column A citizens into space. In your opinion, how
with their description in column B. should we determine who owns space?

A B
Systems of Rocket Description
(i) structure ___ (a) provides fuel to
P ause and R eflect
power the rocket
In this section, you have learned about the
(ii) payload ___ (b) controls the direction
various opportunities awaiting adventurous
of the rocket
space explorers. You have also learned that
(iii) guidance ___ (c) frame for holding all
such adventure does not come without a
the rocket systems
degree of risk. If you were given a chance to be
(iv) propulsion ___ (d) the material, one of the first astronauts to journey to Mars,
including astronauts, would you go or not? Write a short paragraph
carried by a rocket that explains what your decision would be and
why you came to that conclusion.
9. What advantage is there to doing laboratory
experiments on the International Space Station
rather than doing the same experiments on
Earth?

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 449
 Chapter
12
Prepare Your Own Summary 12. (a) What is the name of the force that causes
a rocket to move?
Create your own summary of the key ideas from
(b) How is this force applied to a rocket?
this chapter. You may include graphic organizers
13. (a) What is a space “spinoff”?
or illustrations with your notes. (See Science Skill
(b) Name two space spinoffs you use in your
5 for help with using graphic organizers.) Use the
daily life.
following headings to organize your notes:
1. Interactions Between the Sun and Earth
2. The Moon and Earth Understanding Key Ideas
3. Aboriginal Perspectives on the Solar System 14. Compare and contrast the geocentric model
4. Technologies for Observing Space with the heliocentric model of the solar
5. Human Space Travel and Exploration system.
15. Scientists believe the Moon formed as a
Checking Concepts result of a Mars-sized object colliding with a
young Earth. What do you think might have
1. Why was recording the movement of stars in
occurred if the object had been larger than
the night sky important to ancient people?
Earth?
2. Why did early astronomers name the dark
16. Because the Moon rotates at about the same
areas of the Moon mare after the Latin word
rate as it revolves, Earth always sees the same
for seas?
side of the Moon. Would a person living in a
3. Why does the Moon have phases?
lunar colony experience day and night?
4. Explain why people in the northern
Explain.
hemisphere experience seasons.
17. Explain why landing a spacecraft on the
5. (a) What is a solstice?
surface of a Jovian planet would be very
(b) Why was it important for ancient peoples
difficult.
to know when the summer and winter
18. Describe an advantage of conducting
solstices occurred?
experiments on the International Space
6. Why is the entire Earth not dark during a
Station.
total solar eclipse?
19. Explain why scientists are considering using a
7. What causes “shooting stars,” the streaks of
space sled or a space elevator to transport
light that cross the night sky?
humans and materials into space.
8. How have Aboriginal hunters and mariners
20. Imagine that a country on Earth decided to
traditionally used the positions of stars to
claim as its own territory one of the moons
help them?
of Jupiter. Describe the ethical issues
9. What advantages do orbiting telescopes, such
associated with such an action.
as the Hubble Space Telescope, have over
21. Describe some problems that could occur if
telescopes located on Earth?
the only requirement for a person who
10. What are the advantages of using a number
wished to go into space were having enough
of small telescopes together rather than one
money for the ticket.
single, large telescope?
22. What might be some hazards associated with
11. Explain why it is less expensive to send
having a hotel on the surface of the Moon?
robotic explorers to another planet than it is
to send human astronauts.

450 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

23. Guests in an orbiting space hotel, such as the
one shown in the drawing below, would P ause and R eflect
experience microgravity, the sensation of
weightlessness. Describe how weightlessness You have learned how technology is at a point
might affect the following activities where space travel is accessible to more people
associated with hotels on Earth. than just astronauts. Companies are preparing
(a) eating at a restaurant to make a business out of different aspects of
(b) sleeping in your room space travel by offering, for example, rides in
(c) moving from your room to the lobby spacecraft, visits to orbiting hotels, and a
area chance to live in colonies on the Moon.
(d) taking a shower Imagine you are in charge of the United
Nations task force for space exploration. In a
(e) playing an indoor game of tennis or
paragraph or two, write a space treaty that
basketball
discusses the rules of conduct for any nation or
company that wishes to explore space.

Chapter 12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through observation and exploration. • MHR 451
 UNIT
4
10 Scientific evidence suggests the universe formed about
13.7 billion years ago.
• The universe is believed to have formed • A shift in the spectra of galaxies shows that
about 13.7 billion years ago in a moment of all galaxies are moving away from each other.
sudden, rapid expansion. This is the Big Bang (10.1)
theory of the universe’s formation. (10.1) • Galaxies have many different shapes and
• Much evidence collected today by characteristics. (10.2)
astronomers supports the Big Bang theory. • Within galaxies, stars often form in distinct
(10.1) patterns called star clusters. (10.2)

11 The components of the universe are separated by unimaginably vast distances.

• Stars go through different stages in their life • Distances between stars and galaxies are
cycles. (11.1) measured in light-years. (11.3)
• A shift toward the red part of the spectrum • Triangulation and parallax are techniques
indicates a star is moving away from Earth. used to calculate distances to stars. (11.3)
(11.1)
• The Sun is the centre of our solar system,
and eight planets revolve around it. (11.2)
• Earth spins, or rotates, on its axis as it
revolves around the Sun. (11.2)

12 Human understanding of Earth and the universe continues to increase through

observation and exploration.
• Models of the solar system have improved as • Technology extends humankind’s ability to
better technology has been developed. (12.1) explore space. (12.3)
• The appearance of the Moon changes as it
revolves around Earth. (12.1)
• Seasons are created by Earth’s tilt and
revolution. (12.1)
• Aboriginal peoples of British Columbia have
long observed the nature of celestial bodies
and used this knowledge to guide many
activities in their daily lives. (12.2)

452 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Key Terms
• Big Bang theory
• galaxy
• nebulae
• spectroscope
• star clusters

Key Terms
• asteroid
• comet
• moons
• planet
• revolution
• rotation
• Sun

Key Terms
• axis tilt
• constellations
• Copernicus
• Kepler
• probe
• Ptolemy
• satellite
• solar and lunar eclipses
• optical and radio telescopes
• terraforming

Unit 4 Summary • MHR 453

Designing a Mining Town for the Moon
Procedure
Part 1 The Design
1. With your group, brainstorm ideas about all
the things you think people in a lunar mining
base would need to live and work for several
months at a time.
2. Think about the challenges for humans living on
the Moon and decide how the various sections
of your base will address those challenges. Ask
your teacher for guidance if you require it, or
go to www.bcscience9.ca for suggestions.
3. Draw a sketch of your model plans, using a
In this unit, you have learned much about the suitable scale for your model. For example, a
nature of space, developments in space exploration, shoe box may be the right scale to represent
and ideas about space travel. Many scientists believe the living quarters.
that our nearest celestial neighbour, the Moon, 4. Make a list of the materials you could use to
build the model of the base. Choose easy-to-
offers large quantities of valuable resources such as
find materials to represent the objects you
iron and numerous other minerals.
want to add to each section or consider
Imagine that you are part of a design team
making the model and objects from cardboard
that has been asked by a private company to assist
or paper. Before you begin collecting materials,
it in designing and building a scale model of a
ask your teacher to review your list.
modern mining town for colonists on the Moon.

Part 2 Building Your Model

Problem
5. Using your sketch as a guide, gather your
What needs in a Moon-based colony must be met construction materials and build the scale model.
to ensure humans can safely live there and 6. Once you have completed your model, review
successfully mine minerals to send back to Earth? the criteria listed at the beginning of this
project. Your model should be able to
Criteria accommodate the moon colonists and should
Your lunar base model must have a number of also be able to function as a mining operation.
sections that are all connected together. The size,
shape, and number of sections should be decided Report Out
by your group, but your design and model must 1. After you have completed your drawings and
show that you have considered the following: scale model, your teacher will provide you with
• living quarters instructions for presenting your project to the
• transportation at the base class. In your presentation, you will need to
• recreation describe how you addressed all the items listed
• excavation strategies and technology for the above under “Criteria.” Compare your group’s
minerals to be mined design with that of other groups. What was
• the physical and mental health of the colonists similar, and what were the differences?

454 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

“It’s a Bird, It’s a Plane, It’s an Asteroid!”
“Near Earth Objects” are what astronomers call What would happen if astronomers discovered a
asteroids, comets and similar-size bodies whose large asteroid headed for Earth? In a best-case
orbits have brought them closer to Earth as a scenario, the warning would come years before the
result of the planet’s gravitational pull. A subset of collision. That still leaves the enormous problem of
Near Earth Objects is a group of asteroids known how to divert the asteroid from its collision course.
as Potentially Hazardous Asteroids. These Many scientists, engineers, and technologists have
asteroids are larger than 2 km wide and have the been thinking of a solution to the challenge for
potential to strike Earth with a force that would years. Ideas include using miniature robots or
generate as much energy as millions of nuclear explosions to break up the asteroid before it
megatonnes of explosives. reaches Earth or attaching rockets to the incoming
asteroid to push or pull it off course.
Background A small asteroid could
Collisions between Earth and another large object cause much localized
from space are estimated to occur about once damage on Earth. A
Potentially Hazardous
every 100 million years. That means the risk of
Asteroid could cause
Earth being struck is extremely low. When a damage on a global
collision does occur, however, the consequences level. Fortunately,
are catastrophic. Past impacts are believed to have Earth-asteroid
set off earthquakes around the world and to have collisions are
extremely rare.
ejected so much dust and debris into the
atmosphere that sunlight was blocked and global
climate patterns changed for years. Some scientists Find Out More
believe that an asteroid impact 65 million years Research a range of techniques scientists have
ago led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. proposed for protecting Earth from Near Earth
Objects, particularly asteroids. Use the Internet
(start at www.bcscience9.ca), magazines, journals,
20 mass extinctions and newspapers. You may also wish to contact a
(life form families per million years)

university astronomy department or the nearest

15 chapter of the Royal Astronomical Society of
Extinction rate

Canada for relevant information.

10
Report Out
5 1. Choose one of the techniques you researched
and prepare a report, poster, or model to
0
present your findings.
600 400 200 2. Whichever form of presentation you use, be
Millions of years ago sure to answer each of the following questions.
(a) Does the technology exist, or is it still
This graph shows five mass extinctions that have occurred in the being researched?
past 600 million years. Scientists believe that asteroid impacts
(b) How much warning of an incoming
contributed to at least two of these mass extinctions.
asteroid would be required before the
technique could be put into action?

Unit 4 Integrated Research Investigation • MHR 455

 UNIT
4
Visualizing the Key Ideas

1. Copy the concept map below into your notebook, and complete it by filling in the correct vocabulary
words that describe the life cycle of stars.

Birth All stars begin in a...

Early Stage Fusion leads to the

formation of a...

Near Near the end of its life, Near the end of its life,
a low mass star will
Final form a...
a high mass star will
form a...
Stage

Final
Stage After that it will After that it will
evolve into a...
evolve into a...

or

456 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Using Key Terms 4. American astronomer Edwin Hubble noticed
that the light from distant galaxies was shifted
2. In your notebook, state whether each of the
toward the red part of the spectrum. What
following statements is true or false. If false,
explanation did he give for this?
rewrite the statement to make it true.
5. What type of galaxy is shown below?
(a) The Big Bang theory suggests the
moment at which Earth formed.
(b) A star’s core is like a nuclear furnace.
(c) A group of millions or billions of planets
is called a galaxy.
(d) Most stars form in a swirling cloud of gas
and dust called a star cluster.
(e) Black holes have such intense gravitational
force that not even light can escape from
them.
(f) A collection of planets that forms a
pattern in the sky is called a constellation.
(g) The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is used
to compare the temperature of stars with
6. (a) How are galaxies and globular clusters
their distance from Earth.
similar?
(h) The Doppler effect indicates the direction
(b) How are they different?
a star is moving relative to Earth.
(i) Revolution describes a planet spinning on 11
its axis.
7. What nuclear process creates energy in stars?
(j) There are eight planets in our solar
8. Which type of star, in terms of mass,
system.
becomes a red giant in its life cycle?
(k) Distances between planets are measured
9. What is the name of the part of the Sun that
in light-years.
we see as its yellow surface?
(l) An eclipse occurs when the Moon passes
10. Why do sunspots appear darker than the
between the Sun and Earth.
areas surrounding them?
(m) Aboriginal knowledge of the solar system
11. Early astronomers suggested that planets
and the universe is communicated from
orbited the Sun in circular paths. What is the
generation to generation by oral (spoken)
true shape of the planets’ orbits?
traditions.
12. List four ways in which Mercury and Jupiter
(n) Rovers are sent to orbit distant planets.
differ.
13. Why do scientists not use astronomical units
Checking Concepts
to measure the distance to stars?
10 12
3. (a) What is the name of the most widely 14. Ancient people built large structures such as
accepted theory of how the universe Stonehenge and Chichén Itzá as sites to
formed? hold traditional ceremonies. What other
(b) How long ago do astronomers believe the purpose were these structures used for?
universe formed? 15. (a) What is the geocentric model of the
solar system?
(b) Why do we now know that the geocentric
model of the solar system is incorrect?

Unit 4 Review • MHR 457

 UNIT
4
16. How is the Moon believed to have formed? 33. Why did Aboriginal people need to
17. Why does the Moon have phases? understand how the Moon affects Earth?
18. What is the difference between a solar 34. (a) Explain the difference between an
eclipse and a lunar eclipse? optical telescope and a non-optical
19. What is the length of a lunar month? telescope.
20. List two rewards and two risks of space (b) List two advantages of using a radio
travel. telescope rather than an optical
21. Explain what terraforming means. telescope.
35. (a) How are probes, satellites, and rovers
Understanding Key Ideas similar?
(b) How are they different?
22. (a) Which of the following events occurred
first?
(b) Which occurred most recently? Thinking Critically
Formation of galaxies 36. An astronomer is using parallax to calculate
Formation of solar system the distances between Earth and two stars.
Formation of the universe She uses the same reference star for both
23. Astronomers believe that the universe is observations and notices that star A shifts far
expanding. What does this statement mean? more than star B.
24. Earth-based telescopes and satellites in space (a) What could the astronomer conclude
observe solar storms very carefully. How can about how the distance to one star
storms on the Sun affect people on Earth? compares with the distance to the other
25. What would an astronomer conclude if he one?
or she observed the spectral lines of a star (b) Explain how she is able to make this
shifted to the red end of its spectrum? conclusion.
26. Imagine that a new planet has been 37. Like planets, some comets orbit the Sun in
discovered between Mercury and Venus. regular periods of time. Why do
Describe the characteristics you would astronomers not consider these comets to be
expect this planet to have. planets?
27. Name two characteristics that an astronomer 38. Part of Earth is closer to the Sun in January
can tell from a star’s spectrum. than in July.
28. Why does it make more sense to try to land (a) Explain why the northern hemisphere
a rover on a moon of an outer planet rather experiences summer in July.
than on the planet itself? (b) How might seasons on Earth be affected
29. Explain why constellations appear to move if Earth were twice as far from the Sun
through the night sky. as it is now?
30. How did British Columbia’s Aboriginal (c) Explain why the order of seasons would
peoples use their knowledge of the position not change if the situation in (b) were
and movement of the Sun and planets? true.
31. Draw a sketch to show the difference 39. Imagine that a group of people wanted to
between rotation and revolution. colonize a moon of Jupiter. Describe three
32. Explain why oceans experience high and low problems they would have to overcome to
tides. be successful.

458 MHR • Unit 4 Space Exploration

Developing Skills Example: How much greater is the gravity
on Jupiter than on Earth?
40. The figure below shows a solar system many
light-years from ours. Astronomers have
Assume that Earth’s gravity ⫽ 1
classified the five planets as shown and
determined their distances from the star they
mass of person on object
mass of person on Earth ⫽ gravity on object
orbit. Astronomers believe there is a sixth
planet in the solar system located somewhere compared with
in the region marked X. gravity on Earth
837 kg
70 kg ⫽ 2.5
(a) What type of planet would you expect to
find in this region?
(b) Explain your answer to (a). (a) Copy the table below into your
(c) At what distance would you expect the notebook and calculate the gravity
new planet to be found? relative to Earth for the asteroid, Moon,
(d) Why did you choose this distance? Sun, and a neutron star.
(e) How is this solar system arrangement
different from ours? Object Mass on Object Gravity Relative
(kg) to Earth
Earth 70.00 1.0
1 000
Jupiter 837.00 2.5
(millions of kilometres)

asteroid 0.05
Distance from star

800
Moon 12.00
600 Sun 1 913.00
neutron star 19 000 000.00
400

200 (b) Explain what factors determine whether

the gravity of an object in space will be
0
gas giants rocky planets more or less than the gravity on Earth.
Planet type

P ause and R eflect

41. On Earth, if you drop something it falls to
the ground. The rate at which it falls is In this unit, you have learned about the
called the acceleration due to gravity. If you commercialization of space travel. To date,
were to drop something while standing on there have only been a few space tourists
another object in space, the rate of willing to pay tens of millions of dollars each
acceleration due to gravity would be for a travel opportunity that is usually only for
different. The table in the next column astronauts. Should space travel be available to
shows what the mass of a 70 kg person only astronauts and the rich, or should it be
would be if he or she stood on a variety of accessible to the general public?
different objects in space. You can calculate
how gravity on Earth compares with gravity
on the different objects. The example of
Jupiter is provided for you.

Unit 4 Review • MHR 459