Unit 3-Notes

UNIT – III Database Management Systems
UNIT – III
SQL
Databases
A database is structured collection of data. Databases may be stored on a computer and examined
using a program. These programs are often called ‘databases’ and examined using a program.
These programs are often called ‘databases’, but more strictly are database management systems
(DMS). There are many ways that a printed catalogue can be organized, there are many ways, or
models, by which a computerized database may be organized. One of the most common and
powerful models is the relational model and programs which use this model are known as
relational database management systems (RDMS).
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
What is SQL?
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language

• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
• SQL is a syntax for executing queries. But the language also includes a syntax to update,
insert and delete records.
What Can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database 2i 39 h 0
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
• SQL works with database programs like MS Access, DB@, Informix, MS SQL Server,
Oracle, Sybase etc,
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name
(e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Kumari Mounitha VPura Bangalore
2 Kumar Pranav Yelhanka Bangalore
3 Gubbi Sharan Hebbal Tumkur
REVA UNIVERSITY Page 1

The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
With SQL, we can query a database and have a result set returned.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons ;
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Keep in Mind That...
• SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?
Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
SQL DML and DDL
SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data
Definition Language (DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
• SELECT - extracts data from a database

• UPDATE - updates data in a database
• DELETE - deletes data from a database
• INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes
(keys), specify links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important
DDL statements in SQL are:
• CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

• ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
• CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
• ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
• DROP TABLE - deletes a table
• CREATE INDEX - creates an index(search key)
• DROP INDEX - deletes an index

The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in
a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ;
and
SELECT * FROM table_name ;
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
An SQL SELECT Example
The "Persons" table:

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from
the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName, FirstName FROM Persons ;
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName
Kumari Mounitha
Kumar Pranav
Gubbi Sharan
SELECT * Example

Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.

SELECT * FROM Persons ;
Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values.

sometimes you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s) FROM table_name ;
SELECT DISTINCT Example

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table
above.
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons ;

City
Bangalore
Tumkur
The WHERE Clause is used to filter records
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value ;

WHERE Clause Example
Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Bangalore" from the table above.
SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City= 'Bangalore' ;

Quotes Around Text Fields
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double
quotes).
Numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName= 'Pranav' ;
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName= Pranav ;
For numeric values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year = 1965 ;
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Yea r= '1965' ;
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range

LIKE Search for a pattern

IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns
SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
The AND & OR Operators

The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example

WHERE FirstName='Pranav'
AND LastName='Kumar'

OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Pranav" OR the first name
equal to "Mounitha":

WHERE FirstName='Pranav'
OR FirstName='Mounitha'

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Kumar" AND the first
name equal to "Pranav" OR to "Mounitha":
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE

LastName='Kumar'
AND (FirstName='Pranav' OR FirstName='Mounitha')

SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column..
The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default.
If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
ORDER BY Example

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Tumkur
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons
by their last name.

ORDER BY LastName
ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the
persons descending by their last name.

ORDER BY LastName DESC

SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERTINTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERTINTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example
We have the following "Persons" table:

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.
INSERTINTO Persons
VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Tumkur')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Tumkur

Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName"
and the "FirstName" columns:
INSERTINTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)

VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')

5 Tjessem Jakob
SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2
WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which
record or records that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be
updated!
SQL UPDATE Example

5 Tjessem Jakob
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Bangalore'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Bangalore
SQL UPDATE Warning
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above,
like this:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Bangalore'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:

1 Kumari Mounitha Nissestien 67 Bangalore
2 Kumar Pranav Nissestien 67 Bangalore
3 Gubbi Sharan Nissestien 67 Bangalore
4 Nilsen Johan Nissestien 67 Bangalore
SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete records( rows) in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which
record or records that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be
deleted!

SQL DELETE Example

b
Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
DELETE FROM Persons

WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

Delete All Rows
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the
table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name or

DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!

SQL TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a
large number of records can impact on performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.
SQL Server Syntax

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle
MySQL Syntax
FROM table_name
LIMIT number
Oracle Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number
SQL TOP Example

Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons


SQL TOP PERCENT Example

Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons

SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in
a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "B" from the table above.

WHERE City LIKE 'B%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and
after the pattern.


 Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "r" from the "Persons"
table.

WHERE City LIKE '%r'

 Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "mk" from
the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE '%mk%'

 It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that NOT contains the pattern "mk"
from the "Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword.

WHERE City NOT LIKE '%mk%'


SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:
Wildcard Description
% A substitute for zero or more characters
_ A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist] Any single character in charlist
[^charlist] Any single character not in charlist
or
[!charlist]
SQL Wildcard Examples

Using the % Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE 'Ba%'


Using the _ Wildcard
 Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any character, followed
by "ri" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName LIKE '_ri'

 Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "P", followed by any
character, followed by "an", followed by any character, followed by "v" from the "Persons"
table.

WHERE LastName LIKE 'P_an_v'

Using the [charlist] Wildcard
 Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p"
from the "Persons" table.

WHERE FirstName LIKE '[bsp]%'

 Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p"
from the "Persons" table.

WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Kumari" or "Gubbi" from the
table above.

WHERE LastName IN ('Kumari','Gubbi')

SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between
two values. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax

FROMtable_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example


Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Kumari" and
"Gubbi" from the table above.

WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Kumari' AND 'Gubbi'

Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases.
In some databases a person with the LastName of "Kumari" or "Gubbi" will not be listed
(BETWEEN only selects fields that are between and excluding the test values).
In other databases a person with the last name of "Kumari" or "Gubbi" will be listed
(BETWEEN selects fields that are between and including the test values).
And in other databases a person with the last name of "Kumari" will be listed, but "Gubbi" will
not be listed (BETWEEN selects fields between the test values, including the first test value
and excluding the last test value).
Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

WHERE LastName NOT BETWEEN 'Kumari' AND 'Gubbi'


SQL Alias
With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to a column.
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can be a good thing to
do if you have very long or complex table names or column names.
An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.
SQL Alias Syntax for Tables

FROM table_name
AS alias_name
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called "Product_Orders". We will
give the table aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.
Now we want to list all the orders that "Mounitha Kumari" is responsible for.
SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName

FROM Persons AS p, Product_Orders AS po
WHERE p.LastName='Kumari'
WHERE p.FirstName='Mounitha'
The same SELECT statement without aliases:
SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID, Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName

FROM Persons, Product_Orders
WHERE Persons.LastName='Kumari'
WHERE Persons.FirstName='Mounitha'
As you'll see from the two SELECT statements above; aliases can make queries easier to both
write and to read.
SQL Joins

SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship
between certain columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based
on a relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row.
Each primary key value must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together,
across tables, without repeating all of the data in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:

Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two
rows can have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same
name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id"
column refers to the persons in the "Persons" table without using their names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.

Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can use, and the
differences between them.
• JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
• LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the
right table
• RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the
left table
• FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
N Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName
LastName FirstName OrderNo

Kumari Mounitha 22456
Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there
are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there
are no matches in the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example


The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above

FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
Kumar Pranav
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there
are no matches in the right table (Orders).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there
are no matches in the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ONtable_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above.

FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders
ONPersons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there
are no matches in the left table (Persons
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
FULLJOIN table_name2
SQL FULL JOIN Example


The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons.

FROM Persons
FULLJOIN Orders
ONPersons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
Kumar Pranav
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows
from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in
"Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will
be listed as well.
SQL UNION Operator
The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns.
The columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement
must be in the same order.
SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION

UNIT – III Database Management
Systems
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values,
use UNION ALL.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax

UNION ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in
the first SELECT statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example

Look at the following tables:
"Employees_India":
E_ID E_Name
01 Kumari, Mounitha
02 Kumar, Pranav
03 Kumar, Stephen
04 Gubbi, Sharan
"Employees_USA":
E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Kumar, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_India

UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

E_Name
Kumari, Mounitha
Kumar, Pranav
Kumar, Stephen
Gubbi, Sharan
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen

Systems
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in India and USA. In the example
above we have two employees with equal names, and only one of them will be listed. The
UNION command selects only distinct values.
SQL UNION ALL Example
Now we want to list all employees in India and USA:
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_India

UNIONALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result
E_Name
Kumari, Mounitha
Kumar, Pranav
Kumar, Stephen
Gubbi, Sharan
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Kumar, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to create backup copies of tables.
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table.
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax
We can select all columns into the new table:
SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
FROM old_tablename
SQL SELECT INTO Example

Systems
Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an exact copy of the data in our "Persons"
table.
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause
We can also add a WHERE clause.
The following SQL statement creates a "Persons_Backup" table with only the persons who
lives in the city "Bangalore":
SELECT LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Bangalore'
SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables
Selecting data from more than one table is also possible.
The following example creates a "Persons_Order_Backup" table contains data from the two
tables "Persons" and "Orders":
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax

CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example
Now we want to create a database called "my_db".

We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:
CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the
data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types
reference.
CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City.
CREATE TABLEPersons
(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and
City columns are of type varchar with a maximum length of 255 characters.

The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or
after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:
• NOT NULL
• UNIQUE
• PRIMARY KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
• CHECK
• DEFAULT
The next chapters will describe each constraint in details.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you
cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept
NULL values:
CREATE TABLEPersons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255)
)
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a
column or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
Note that you can have have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY
KEY constraint per table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons"
table is created:
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
CREATE TABLEPersons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1

Systems
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the
"Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key
column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is
created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLEOrders
(
O_Id int NOT
NULL, OrderNo
int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint
on
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders

Systems
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself?
Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax
To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column):

DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTERTABLEtable_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype

SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:

Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data
type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data
types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types
reference.
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth

The "Persons" table will now like this:

Systems
Change Data Type Example
Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-
digit or four-digit format.
DROP COLUMN Example
Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
The "Persons" table will now like this:

SQL Views
A view is a virtual table.
This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from
one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if
the data were coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

Systems
CREATE VIEW view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using
the view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default.
The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued)
from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table
with a unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997.
Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

Systems
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the
category "Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View
You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will
update the view with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current ProductList] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name
SQL Date Functions
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you
are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected.
However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most
important built-in functions for working with dates.

SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
• AVG() - Returns the average value

• COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
• FIRST() - Returns the first value
• LAST() - Returns the last value
• MAX() - Returns the largest value
• MIN() - Returns the smallest value
• SUM() - Returns the sum
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
• UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

• LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
• MID() - Extract characters from a text field
• LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
• ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
• NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
• FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the
next chapters.
SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SQL AVG() Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL AVG() Example
We have the following "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 we want to
Now 2008/10/04 100"OrderPrice" fields.
find the average value of the Nilsen
SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders

OrderAverage
950
Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice
value.
SELECT Customer FROM Orders

WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

Customer
Kumari
Nilsen
Jensen
SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be
counted) of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified
column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with
Microsoft Access.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen".
SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders

WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in
total:
CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*) Example

If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:
SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders
NumberOfOrders
6 which is the total number of rows in the table.
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders

NumberOfCustomers
3
which is the number of unique customers (Kumari, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.
SQL MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MAX() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders


LargestOrderPrice
2000
SQL MIN() Function
The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MIN() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column.
SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders
SmallestOrderPrice
100
SQL SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL SUM() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields".
SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders

OrderTotal
5700
SQL GROUP BY Statement
Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the
result-set by one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name,aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
SQL GROUP BY Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
43 2008/09/02 700 Kumari

2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders GROUP BY Customer
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Kumari 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000
Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
Kumari 5700
Nilsen 5700
Kumari 5700
Kumari 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700
The result-set above is not what we wanted.
Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement
above has two columns specified (Customer and SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)"
returns a single value (that is the total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer"
returns 6 values (one value for each row in the "Orders" table). This will therefore not give us the
correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY statement solves this problem.
GROUP BY More Than One Column
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate

SQL HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be
used with aggregate functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax

SELECT column_name,aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
SQL HAVING Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice)FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000
Nilsen 1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Kumari" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

WHERE Customer='Kumari' OR Customer='Jensen'
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500


Kumari 2000
Jensen 2000
SQL UCASE() Function
The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.
SQL UCASE() Syntax

SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL UCASE() Example

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and
convert the "LastName" column to uppercase.
SELECT UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM

Persons
LastName FirstName
KUMARI Mounitha
KUMAR Pranav
GUBBI Sharan
SQL LCASE() Function

The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.
SQL LCASE() Syntax

SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LCASE() Example

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and
convert the "LastName" column to lowercase.
SELECT LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
LastName FirstName
Kumari Mounitha
Kumar Pranav
Gubbi Sharan
SQL MID() Function
The MID() Function
The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.
SQL MID() Syntax

SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM
table_name
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract characters from.
start Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1).
length Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function
returns the rest of the text.
SQL MID() Example


Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.
SELECT MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons
SmallCity
Bang
Bang
Tumk
SQL LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
SQL LEN() Syntax

SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LEN() Example

Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column above.

SELECT LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons

LengthOfAddress
5
8
6
SQL ROUND() Function
The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified.
SQL ROUND() Syntax

SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM
table_name
column_name Required. The field to round.
decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
SQL ROUND() Example
We have the following "Products" table:
Prod_Id ProductName Unit UnitPrice

1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 GorgonzMounitha 1000 g 15.67
Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
SELECT ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice FROM Persons

ProductName UnitPrice
Jarlsberg 10
Mascarpone 33
GorgonzMounitha 16
SQL NOW() Function
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax

SELECT NOW()FROM table_name
SQL NOW() Example

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM Persons
ProductName UnitPrice PerDate

Jarlsberg 10.45 30/09/2012
Mascarpone 32.56 30/09/2012
GorgonzMounitha 15.67 30/09/2012
SQL FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() Syntax

SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM
table_name
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.
format Required. Specifies the format.
SQL FORMAT() Example


Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in
the following format "YYYY-MM-DD").
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') as PerDate

FROM Persons
ProductName UnitPrice PerDate

Jarlsberg 10.45 2012-09-30
Mascarpone 32.56 2012-09-30
GorgonzMounitha 15.67 2012-09-30
SQL Statement Syntax

AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype
or

DROP COLUMN column_name
SELECT column_name AS
AS (alias) column_alias
FROM table_name
or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name

BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE CREATE DATABASE

DATABASE database_name
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name

(
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)
or
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX
index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE DELETE FROM table_name

or
DELETE FROM table_name
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE * FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DATABASE

DROP DATABASE database_name
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE table_name

DROP TABLE
GROUP BY SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
HAVING SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)

FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
or
INSERT INTO table_name

(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2

FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
SELECT INTO SELECT *

FROM old_table_name
or
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

TRUNCATE TABLE
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1

UNION ALL
UPDATE UPDATE table_name

SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

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UNIT – III Database Management Systems

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language

What Can SQL do?

Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

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SELECT * FROM Persons ;

Keep in Mind That...

• SQL is not case sensitive

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

SQL DML and DDL

• SELECT - extracts data from a database

• CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

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The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The result is stored in

a result table, called the result-set.

SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name ;

Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

An SQL SELECT Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

SELECT LastName, FirstName FROM Persons ;

The result-set will look like this:

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We use the following SELECT statement:

Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values.

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT Example

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons ;

The result-set will look like this:

The WHERE Clause is used to filter records

SQL WHERE Syntax

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WHERE Clause Example

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

Quotes Around Text Fields

For numeric values:

Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

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LIKE Search for a pattern

The AND & OR Operators

AND Operator Example

SELECT * FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

SELECT * FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City