Breakdown in Insulations 2012 Update

Dr
Digitally signed
by Dr Rie
DN: cn=Dr Rie,
c=MY, o=UTHM,
BEK 4113/BEX 44503

ou=JEK FKEE,
Rie
email=ramdon@u
thm.edu.my
Date: 2012.03.02
17:10:25 +08'00'
High Voltage Engineering

‘‘Breakdown
Breakdown in Dielectrics
Dielectrics’’
Dr Rie
1
BEE 3243 Electric Power Systems – Module 1
What are you going to learn?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this subject, the student should have the

ability to adopt the knowledge as follows:
(1) analyse the important elements of breakdown in

dielectric materials
(2) perform high voltage experiment setup or project to
complete a specific measurement
(3) show concern to safety regulations in high voltage
measurement and testing works
(4) formulate solutions to high voltage engineering
problems
2
What is Dielectrics?
Dielectrics also called as electrical ‘insulating

materials’, are materials in which electrostatic
fields can remain almost indefinitely. The
materials thus offer a very high resistance to
the passage of direct current. They can be as
formed of gaseous, solid and liquid.
3
The Purpose of Dielectric
The purpose of dielectric is normally to control the flow of

current between two conductors, or between a conductor
and its ill-defined surroundings.
In the context of engineering applications, dielectrics can

be found everywhere, from power cables insulation to
printed circuit board substrates to radar domes.
The desired features of dielectric materials are often very

similar, however the ‘non-electrical properties required’
often dominates the choice of materials (e.g. gases
insulation inside a circuit breaker, liquid/oil inside a power
transformer, polymer composites for insulator core,
silicone rubber for insulator sheds and etc.)
4
Elements of Dielectrics
Dielectric plays an important roles in separating the

electrical potential object with the earthed object
(indoor and outdoor insulators). Use as a medium in
insulating the electrodes (e.g. papers insulating
winding transformers, PVC in cable).
The lower thermal conductivity in dielectric is used in

preventing breakdown (e.g. oil for cooling). High
dielectric strength material is used as a medium inside
the circuit breakers (oil, Sulfur-Hexafluoride - SF6)
5
Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials in

Power Transformers
Oil immersed transformer
Papers insulating winding coils
6
Transformer oils
Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials

Insulating Power Cables
Power cables
7
Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials In

Switchgears
ABB’s 550kV Indoor SF6 Gas Insulator Switchgear for Three Gorges Outdoor SF6 Circuit Breakers
Project in China
8
Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials In

Insulators
Polymeric Insulators
Insulators Used on Power Lines 9

Characteristics and Examples

• Chemical Stability
Data logger cable insulation in oil well application (e.g. PTFE, PEEK)
• Thermal Resilience
Power electronics (e.g. silica, ceramics)
• Low Density
Areal system (e.g. blown polyethylene)
• Thermal Conductivity
Transformers (e.g. oils to allowing convection, ceramics)
• Mechanical Strength
HV insulators (e.g. composites, ceramics, glass)
• Processibility
Cables and housing (e.g. polymers, thermosets)
• Cost
Power cable insulation (e.g. PVC, LLDPE, minerals as fillers)
• Low Smoke Emission
Plenum cables (e.g. compounded polymers with ATH)
10
Problems with Dielectrics
For the purpose of discussing the flow of current, all

substances may be placed in one of two categories –
insulator and conductor.
An insulator is a substance in which is practically

impossible to cause any current to flow. In this case, all
negative charge (i.e. electrons) are firmly attached to their
corresponding positive charges. No net flow of charges
can takes place in insulators.
A conductor is a substance in which a certain number of

electrons can be easily made free from their associated
positive charges, and made to move under influence of
electric potential difference.
11
Problems with Dielectrics

However, under certain conditions free electrons and
positive charges can also be made available in an
insulating materials, which then starts behaving like
conductor. Such transition is known as the breakdown of
insulator.
The level of breakdown process of the materials may be

influenced by mechanisms such as the chemistry / physic
bonding of the materials itself, electrical fields, stress,
temperature, pressure etc.
Thus, there are no perfect insulator (also conductor).

Each of the material has its own electrical withstand /
conduction strength and weakness characteristic (i.e.
permittivity(εr) and dissipation factor (tanδ) etc.) due to its
nature polarisation process.
12
Breakdown in Dielectrics
Can be categorised into three groups:
1. Breakdown / failure of gases

2. Breakdown of solid dielectrics
3. Breakdown of liquids
13
Failure of Gasses: Summary Process
• The gasses we met are generally excellent insulators.

Air is also the combination gasses and is used to
separating the potential electrodes. High arc
resistance gas is used inside circuit breaker (e.g.
Sulfur-Hexafluoride - SF6).
• However, at high fields, the discharge and breakdown

may also takes place.
• Why? This is because high fields charge particle can

gain energy in their ‘mean free path’ and cause
further ionisation (particle ionise) by impact.
14
Failure of Gasses: Summary Process
• In an earlier stage for ion movements, such a process

must begin with a first free charge particle.
• This normally be an electrons. Why?
• Have a look at in the physic of atoms map. Since

electrons have a longer mean free path than ions so thus
can absorbs more energy before collisions, and so more
likely to create further ionisation process.
• An electrons might come from cosmic radiation, or from

emission from a cathode (charge).
15
Breakdown in Gas: Atoms
16
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation
• Ionisation is a physical process of converting an atom

or molecule into an ion by adding or removing
charged particles such as electrons or other ions.
• The process works slightly different depending on

whether an ion with a positive or negative charge is
being produced.
• A positively-charged ion is produced when an

electron bonded to an atom (or molecule) absorbs
enough energy to escape from the electrical potential
barrier that originally confined it, thus breaking the
bond and freeing to move.
17
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation
• The amount of energy required is called the ionisation

energy Wi.
• Usually, it is customary to measure the Wi with the help of

potential Vi, through which an electron has been
accelerated in an electric field in order to acquire energy
equal to the ionisation energy. Therefore, Wi generally
expressed in electron volt (eV) and known as ionisation
potential.
1 eV = ε x 1V
where ε = charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
so 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
18
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Principle
19
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation cont.
• A negatively-charged ions is produced when free

electron collides with an atom and its subsequently
caught inside the electric potential barrier, releasing
any excess energy.
• It is necessary that the energy of the electron
exceeds the energy difference of the potential barrier
(bond) it is trying to pass.
• An inspection of periodic table shows that the
ionisation potential (eV) is a periodic function of the
atomic weight.
20
Failure of Gasses: Ionisation cont.
• eV is low for the first element of the each period and

increases to the maximum for the last element of the
period.
• So, if the outermost orbit of an atom of a gas has
much less number of electrons than permissible, the
ionising energy is less, as the atom will have a
tendency to give away one or two electrons from the
outermost orbit and become stable.
• On the other hand, nobles gases (e.g. Helium (He),
Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr) etc.) have high
ionising potential as the outmost orbits of such
gasses are completely filled and stable.
21
Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses
Source: Wikipedia ‘http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ionization_energies.svg’ 22

Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses
Source: Wikipedia ‘http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ionization_energies.svg’ 23

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process
The ionisation progression can be

obtained from three processes below:
• Ionisation by collision
• Photo-ionisation
• Ionisation on the surface of electrodes
24
Ionisation by Collision
• The interchange of energy between the particles or gas

mainly by collision.
• The encounter between the molecules that involved with
an elastic collision generally provides a kinetic energy
that equal the kinetic energy before the encounter (e.g.
interaction between gravity in space).
• In this process, no molecular structure remains

unchanged and no ionisation or excitation takes place
(rarely in gas and liquid case).
• On the other hand, the encounter involving with an
inelastic collision involves an interchange of the kinetic
energy of translation and the internal energy of excitation
or ionisation. 25
Ionisation by Collision cont.
• The ionisation process may took place when the

encounter kinetic energy is higher than the ionisation
energy (Wi or eV) of the atom molecule.
• For instance, during inelastic collision, if the moving

electron with a kinetic energy mv2/2, collides with a
neutral atom or molecule in gas, then the ionisation
of the neutral particle may occur if mv2/2 >Wi
• In the case of occurrence in air (next figure), the

probability of the ionisation process is zero for
electron energies less than Wi, but increases almost
linearly at first then gradually with electron energy up
to 150 eV (approaching a maximum ionisation
occurrence probability).
26
Ionisation by Collision cont.

• Any further the electron energy decreases the
probability.
• This happens (less energy at higher eV) due to the
fact that at higher electron speed the collision time
decrease, and therefore the probability transfer the
kinetic energy of the electron to internal energy of the
colliding particle becomes less.
Ionisation probability curve in air
27
“Step Ionisation”
• In some number of cases, the so called “step ionisation”

may takes place due to collision of a neutral atom or
molecule with electron having a energy less than the
ionisation energy.
• The following processes can bring about the step
ionisation.
(a) An electron having energy less than the ionising energy
may bring a neutral atom to an excited state by collision.
Immediately after this, the excited atom may collide with
another electron which supplies the rest of ionising
energy.
(b) Collision of two excited atoms may result ionisation of
one atom with the help of energy released by other
excited atom, which return to its normal state.
28
Photo-ionisation
• An atom in the ground state can be ionised by action

of short-wave radiation (e.g. the use of Ultraviolet
(UV) light sources)
• The photon having a frequency ‘f’ from the radiation

can cause ionisation by imparting its energy ‘hf’ to an
uncharged atom, provided hf > eVi
• The wavelength of radiation ‘λw’ (λw = c/f, where c is

the speed of light) should be less than ch/eVi
• The concept of photo-ionisation have been used in

the Townsend study of pre-breakdown current test
(will be discussed later)
29
Ionisation in the Surface of Electrodes

• Electrons can appear in a gas by emission from the cathode.
Their liberation (releasing) from the metal surface requires
definite amount of energy called the ‘work function’ which varies
from metal to metal.
• This energy can be imparted to metal by:

• Bombardment of the surface of the material by particle (like
positive ions), which posses sufficient energy
• Irradiating the surface of metal by short wave radiation (photo-

ionisation)
• Superposition of strong external electric field (field emission)
• Heating the cathode that causes an increase in the velocity and

the kinetic energy of electrons. If the kinetic energy of an
electron is greater than the ‘work function’ of the cathode
material, it can overcome the barrier of the cathode material
(thermo-ionic emission) 30
Breakdown Mechanisms of Gaseous
• Any or more of the mentioned ionising processes

(collision, photo-ionisation, on the surface of
electrodes) may free electrons available in an
insulating gaseous medium (start up the process).
• For more self-sustainable ionising processes that will

make the insulating medium turn into conducting
state (and may cause a breakdown) involves
mechanisms as explained in the Townsend and
Streamers breakdown methods.
31
Self-Sustainable Ionising Process
32
Townsend’s Mechanism
Townsend’s mechanism is based upon:
• Ionisation collision in the gas
• Ionisation collision on the surface of the cathode
• Photo-ionisation
33
Basic:
• Anode: positive polarity (+ve)
• Cathode: negative polarity (-ve)
• Positively charge moves towards cathode
• Negatively charge moves toward anode
34
Townsend’s Mechanism: Current Voltages

Relationship In Discharge Region
(a) Townsend test setup for study of (b) Current-voltage characteristic as

pre-breakdown currents observed from the Townsend test
35
Townsend’s Test Method
• Figure (a) shows the Townsend’s original experiment that

involved measurement of the growth of current a the uniform
field gap with static voltage applied.
• The test setup comprised with a parallel plate electrode
system enclosed in a glass chamber containing a gas at a low
pressure.
• The used of parallel plate is to ensure a uniform field is
applied to the electrodes system.
• An Ultra-Violet (UV) light was used to irradiate the cathode
surface to emits photoelectrons in the gaseous medium.
• A variable source of potential was connected externally across
the electrodes in series with an electrometer to measure small
leakage current.
• The measurement results were plotted as the current-voltage
growth characteristic such as shown in figure (b)
36
Townsend’s Process
• The illustrated steady develop process shown in (b)

is called the ‘Townsend Process’.
• The curves obtained based on the tests shown in
(a) in different gap settings to determine the
Townsend’s First Coefficient ‘α’ (alpha), and the
Townsend’s Second Coefficient ‘γ’ (gamma).
• ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by
one electron per unit drift in the direction of the field
• ‘γ’ is an average number of secondary electrons
produced at the cathode per ionising collision in the
gap.
37
Summary Process in Region-I:
• From the curves, it is shown that at low voltages, the current

increases linearly (not steady) with the gap voltage up to a
saturation level (i0), when all electrons available are
conducting.
• This i0 can be increased by increasing the number of electrons
available, such as by illuminating the cathodes with UV light
(photo-ionisation).
• In this case, with increasing gap voltage, more and more
emitted photoelectrons from cathode reach the anode.
• The anode current increases as ‘I = εn’, where ‘n’ is the
number of electrons reaching the anode per-second.
38
Summary Process in Region-II:
• From the curves, it is seen that the current i0 through the gap
effectively remains constant between the voltage level V1 and
V2
• In this case, all the photoelectrons emitted per-second from

the cathode reach anode per-second giving the saturation
current ‘i0 = εN0’
• N0 is the number of photoelectrons liberated per-second from

cathode where ε is the charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19
coulomb
• Also in this case, no charged particle is yet produced by

ionisation in the gap (current constant)
39
Process in Region-III:
• Afterward beyond V2, the current grows exponentially.

• In this region, Townsend ascribed the exponential current
growth to ionisation of the gas by electron collision.
• As the gap voltage V increases in the gap d, the electric field
stress E (E=V/d usually defined in kV/cm) increases. Hence an
electron leaving the cathode experience more force (εE) and
acceleration.
• This result in a higher kinetic energy of the electron as its travel
to anode.
• Thus the probability of the ionisation increases due to the
collision of electron with uncharged particle.
• The rapid increases of ionisation (electron multiplication)
processes in the gap region are called the ‘avalanche’ process
(to be studied later).
40
Summary Process in Region-IV:
• As the voltage reaches V4, the anode current increases

very sharply
• Theoretically the current magnitude could reaching
infinity and the value is limited only by the external
resistance.
• Even the current behaviour would not change even if
the UV light source is removed. The process is
independence now.
• The gas is now said to be broken down (in breakdown
state).
41
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche
• Bear in mind, at the first stage, medium (gas including

electrodes) in the chamber has got the positive and negative
ions statically ready in their position (no interaction)
• In Region-I, the current level will increase linearly as the

voltage in the gap increases until reach a saturation level Io
• In this level (Region-II) no current increment as increases the

voltage level. More emitted photoelectron moved toward
anode. However no charge particle is yet produced by
ionisation in the gap.
• The start-up ionisation process begins in the gap with a single

electron (require less energy than other ion) in the gas ion
removed from the barrier and moving towards other ion to
anode. This movement requires a collision between another
single ‘external’ electron that may liberated from the emission
in cathode (by electric potential E) or from photo ionisation
(sources of UV light)
42
• The rapid ionisation processes are occurred in the gas

(Region-III) when more negative ion moved towards
anode and positive ion move towards cathode.
• This due to more collisions occurs (creating enough

kinetic inelastic energy to overcome the barrier) between
the ion electrons in the gas due to increases of the
voltage (electric stress) in the gap and from photo-
ionisation. The current level increases exponentially as
increases the gap voltage.
• More rapid collisions occur in the ions ‘creating a

conducting path’ as more voltage is applied to the
electrodes. The current increases very sharply and the
gas is categorised as breakdown (Region-IV).
43

• Figures below show schematic representation of
electron multiplication so called the ‘electron
avalanche’
• The analysis is based on the phenomena as
occurred in the ‘Region- III’ of the Townsend
current-voltage curve
44
Townsend’s Process Reminder
Summary Process in Region-I:
• From the curves, it is shown that at low voltages, the current

increases linearly (not steady) with the gap voltage up to a
saturation level (i0), when all electrons available are
conducting.
• This i0 can be increased by increasing the number of electrons
available, such as by illuminating the cathodes with UV light
(photo-ionisation).
• In this case, with increasing gap voltage, more and more
emitted photoelectrons from cathode reach the anode.
• The anode current increases as ‘I = εn’, where ‘n’ is the
number of electrons reaching the anode per-second.
45
Summary Process in Region-II:
• From the curves, it is seen that the current i0 through the gap
effectively remains constant between the voltage level V1 and
V2
• In this case, all the photoelectrons emitted per-second from

the cathode reach anode per-second giving the saturation
current ‘i0 = εN0’
• N0 is the number of photoelectrons liberated per-second from

cathode where ε is the charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19
coulomb
• Also in this case, no charged particle is yet produced by

ionisation in the gap (current constant)
46
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche: Analyse for Region III
• To analyse the current growth quantitatively in the

Region-III, Townsend introduced a quantity ‘α’ (alpha), or
known as Townsend’s first ionisation coefficient.
• ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by one
electron per cm drift in the direction of electric field E
• Based on the relationship between the ‘α’ with the gap

distance (d), the number of photoelectrons liberated per
second from cathode (N0) and the number of electrons
reaching the anode per-second (NA), the current level in
anode (IA) can be determined as:
NA = N0 eαd (1.1)
Multiplying (1.1) by ε;
IA = anode current = εNA = εN0eαd = I0 eαd (1.2)
47
Current-voltage characteristic as observed from the Townsend test 48

• The term eαd is called the ‘electron avalanche’ and

eαd -1 represent the number of electrons produced
by one electron while travelling from cathode to
anode.
• The electron multiplication is shown in figure (b)
• The electrons in avalanche move towards the

anode while the positive ions move towards the
cathode.
• As if N0 = 0, IA = 0. Thus it is clear that the current

cannot be sustained without the present of the UV
light source.
49
Townsend’s Electron Avalanche: Analyse for Region IV
• The current-voltage characteristic

occurred in the Region-IV of the
Townsend curve postulated
(suggested idea of) three secondary
mechanism processes that affecting
the current in addition to the primary
discussed ‘α’ process that occurred in
the Region-III.
50
Current-voltage characteristic as observed from the Townsend test 51

The following three secondary processes may

answer the case that the current will maintain
increases in Region IV as the voltage increases
even when the UV light source is removed from the
test.
i. The positive ions liberated in an avalanche may cause

ionisation by collision while moving towards the cathode.
ii. These positive ions may liberate electrons from the cathode
surface when they impinge on it.
iii. The excited atoms or molecules in the avalanche may emit

photons when these atoms return to normal state and these
photons then may cause photo-ionisation (self-
made/propagating process).
52
• Out of the mentioned secondary processes, the
bombardment of cathode by positive ions plays the
significant role in Townsend’s Mechanism
• The Townsend’s second coefficient conditions that

satisfied the breakdown or self-sustained discharge
in gas (Region-IV) involved with additional
elements N+ and ‘γ’ (gamma) together with the
primary ‘α’, No and N elements.
• N+ is a number of electrons released from cathode

surface per-second by positive ion bombardment
• γ is a number of electrons emitted from cathode by the

bombardment of one positive ion.
• Relationship of these elements results the number of

electrons reaching the anode per-second N, in steady
state condition as:
αd
N 0e
N= αd
1− γ e −1( ) (1.3)
54
• The steady-state current is given by:
N 0 eα d eα d
I = εN = ε = I0
( αd
1− γ e −1 ) (
1 − γ eα d − 1 ) (1.4)
• α and γ both depend on the electric field stress. Thus if reach

such value so that the denominator becomes zero (0), the
current becomes independent of N0 and indeterminate
(infinity).
• Thus we therefore get the Townsend criterion for the
breakdown of gases as:
γ (eαd − 1) = 1 (1.5)
• Normally eαd is very large, hence equation (1.5) reduces to:

αd 1
e ≈ (1.6)
γ
55
• For voltages above V3 and less than V4 as seen in the curve,

equation (1.5) that is γ(eαd -1)>1.
• Hence, the condition for breakdown is not satisfied but the

current is contributed by electron produced by both α and γ
process, and later being significant beyond V4.
• At V4, the denominator of equation (1.5) tends to be zero and

steady-state electron flow ceases.
• V4 is denoted as the breakdown voltage of the gap and the

corresponding field stress is known as the breakdown field
stress.
• For the voltage more than V4, the circuit current is

determined by the external resistance only (without that the
current goes indeterminate (infinity) and the situation is
similar to the short circuit state). 56
• When the condition given in equation (1.5) is satisfied, the gaseous

gap is filled with a large number of electrons and positive ion called
plasma.
• This will offer a very high conducting path to the flow of current
through the gap and possibly cause the breakdown.
• Rearranging the equation (1.5), the Townsend’s breakdown

criterion relationship between an average number ionising collision
made by one electron per cm drift in the direction of electric field (α)
and the distance d may be expressed as:
⎛1 ⎞
αd = ln⎜⎜ + 1⎟⎟ = K (1.7)
⎝γ ⎠
• Whereas K can be treated as a constant.

57
Townsend’s Mechanism: Tutorial 1
Problem 1:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air

gap’ at 100 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates
that ensure a uniform field. α/p as a function of E/p is
shown in next figure. Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident
positive ion. The gap distance is 1 cm. Estimate the static
breakdown voltages for N2, H2, A and Ne gases as well.
Neglect recombination and attachment.
58
Townsend’s Mechanism: Tutorial
59

Solution:
Here, pd = gap pressure multiply gap distance = 100 mm.Hg/cm. At this pd
value the Townsend’s mechanism holds good. The Townsend’s criterion is
⎛ 1⎞
αd = ln⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ γ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
αd = ln⎜1 + −3 ⎟ = 6.908ion. pairs
⎝ 10 ⎠
6.908ion. pairs
α= = 6.908ion. pairs / cm
1.0cm
α 6.908ion. pairs / cm
= = 0.06908ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p 100
α
= 0.069ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p
Refer from the graph, for Air:
Eb
= 54V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb = 54 × pressure = 54 ×100 = 5400V / cm = 5.4kV / cm
Vb = Eb × d = 5.4kV / cm × 1.0cm = 5.4kV 60
For other gases, the breakdown voltages are calculated

likewise and tabulated in table below:
Gas N2 H2 A Ne
E/p (V/cm.mm.Hg) 60 29 19.5 12
Eb (V/cm) 6000 2900 1950 1200
Vb (V) 6000 2900 1950 1200
61
Problem 2:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air

gap’ at 75 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates
that ensure a uniform field. α/p as a function of E/p is
shown in next figure. Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident
positive ion. The gap distance is 3.5 cm. Estimate the
static breakdown voltages for N2, H2, A and Ne gases as
well. Neglect recombination and attachment.
62
Townsend’s Mechanism: Tutorial
63

Solution:
⎛ 1⎞
αd = ln⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ γ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
αd = ln⎜1 + −3 ⎟ = 6.908ion. pairs
⎝ 10 ⎠
6.908ion. pairs
α= = 1.974ion. pairs / cm
3.5cm
α 1.974ion. pairs / cm
= = 0.0263ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p 75
α
= 0.03ion. pairs / cm.mm.Hg
p
Refer from the graph, for Air:
Eb
= 44V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb = 44 × pressure = 44 × 75 = 3300V / cm = 3.3kV / cm
Vb = Eb × d = 3.3kV / cm × 3.5cm = 11.55kV
64

Continue:
For N2:
Eb
= 50V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb = 50 × pressure = 50 × 75 = 3750V / cm
Vb = Eb × d = 3750V / cm × 3.5cm = 13125V = 13.13kV
For A:
Eb
= 14V / cm.mm.Hg
p
Eb = 14 × pressure = 44 × 75 = 1050V / cm
Vb = Eb × d = 1050V / cm × 3.5cm = 3675V = 3.68kV
For Ne and H2 are out of range.
65
Townsend’s Mechanism: Quiz
Quiz:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of

an ‘Ne’ and ‘A’ gases at 9 mm.Hg pressure
between two parallel plates that ensure a uniform
field. α/p as a function of E/p is shown in next
figure. Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident positive
ion. The gap distance is 4.5 cm. Neglect
recombination and attachment.
66
Townsend’s Mechanism: Quiz 1
67
Time Lag for Breakdown

• Based on the Townsend’s mechanism, from the instant of the
breakdown voltage (i.e. V4), the breakdown takes place in the gap
requires sufficient time breakdown process. This is called as the
‘total time for breakdown’ or tb
tb = t s + t f
• whereas ts is the statistical time lag and tf is the formative time lag.
• The concept is based on the fact that the gaseous cannot
breakdown at the instant once the gap field stress exceed its
breakdown value.
• Firstly, an initiating electron has to appear in the gap. For this
requires some average time, which is the ts
• Secondly, the positive charges created in the gap by the initiating
electron have to cross the gap and impinge on the cathode to
produce at least one more electron. This will require an additional
time lag, which is the tf
68
Time Lag for Breakdown: Problem with

• Townsend’s mechanism stated the time lag for breakdown

occurrence will be in order of 10-5 seconds (t + 10us).
• However, experimental result from other researches had

found that that the breakdown may occur at very short time
of the order of 10-8 seconds or t + 0.01us (much faster than
that indicated by Townsend)
• A very fast short time lags of breakdown may occur when

the gap is subjected to short duration (transient) impulse
voltage
• The transient impulse voltage (e.g. lightning) is a

unidirectional voltage, which rises to peak value very
rapidly (of the order of 1us) and decay to zero at slower
rate. The transient voltage study will be covered later in
other subject. 69
Time Lag for Breakdown: Problem with

• The impulse breakdown phenomena under transient

voltages (especially breakdown in long air gap) cannot
be explained by the Townsend’s mechanism
• As a result, around 1940, Rather, Meek and Lab

independently proposed the streamer theory to explain
this phenomena
70
Streamer’s Mechanisms
Streamer breakdown theories consider three

formation mechanisms which are:
a) Formation of an avalanche by initiating electron by

Townsend’s α process (primary process)
b) Large local enhancement of the electric field by the

ion space at the head of the avalanche
c) Large amount of photo-ionisation of gas molecules in

the space at the head of avalanche (secondary
process)
71
• Involved with:
Fig.3 Secondary
avalanches formation by
Fig.2 Distortion of electric photo electrons
field by space charge
72
Streamer’s Mechanisms: Process I
• An initiation of electron placed in the gap

will be accelerated towards the anode
and during its flight will cause ionisation of
gaseous molecules by collisions.
• This will create avalanche of electrons

and positive ions such as shown in Fig. 1
• As the avalanche developed in the gap,

the electrons being much lighter will have
higher mobility in comparing with the
positive ions.
• Therefore, the head of avalanche will be

filled with the fast moving electrons , and
the positive ions will occupy the tail.
73
Streamer’s Mechanisms: Process II
• The space charge created by the

ionisation processes we have described
will distort the uniform field initially applied
across the gaseous insulator.
• This can be simplified as the two

spherical volumes having a concentration
of negative charge at the head and of
positive charge at the tail of avalanche,
such as shown in Fig. 2.
• In this case, a space charge Er will be

created and the field behind and ahead of
avalanche is increase by the space
charge.
• This will cause the field between the Fig.2 Distortion of electric field
electron and the ion cloud is reduced. by space charge
74
Streamer’s Mechanisms: Process II cont.
• The field distortion will be increased with

the increase in αd. When the ad is attain
a critical value (e.g. 18 to 20), the space
charge field is comparable to E0
• The condition will create an intense

ionisation and excitation of the gas
particles in front of the avalanche head.
• Then the excited atoms return to normal

state immediately.
• The process will releasing of photons

(elementary particles for electromagnetic
interaction) in the gas ahead of the
avalanche head, which in turn generate
secondary electrons by the photo- Fig.2 Distortion of electric field
ionisation process. by space charge
75
Streamer’s Mechanisms: Process III
• The generated secondary electrons from

the photo-ionisation then will generate
further auxiliary avalanches.
• The process is as shown in Fig. 3.
• Since photons travel with the speed of

light, the process leads to rapid
development of conduction channel
across the gap and develop as self-
propagating streamer.
• The streamer proceeds across the gap

and to form a conducting filament of high-
ionised gas between electrodes. Fig.3 Secondary avalanches
formation by photo electrons
• The gap therefore, breakdown!!!!

76
Streamer Growth Model
Fig.4 Model of streamer growth near a rode electrode
i. Positive streamers development from ii. Negative streamers development from

free electron a, avalanche b, streamer free electron a, avalanche b, streamer
initiation c, further avalanche d to initiation c, further avalanche d to
further streamer growth e space stem e
77
Potential Distributions During Streamer
a. Potential distribution before streamer b. Potential distribution during

initiation from an electrode development of positive streamer
from an electrode (streamer has
progressed about 23mm in 54ns 78
Comparison between the Townsend and

• The Townsend’s mechanism is based upon

successive generation of avalanche initiated from
the cathode surface, aid by primary α process and
the secondary γ process.
• The streamer’s mechanism is based upon the
formation of auxiliary avalanche in the gap, helped
by the primary α process and the secondary photo-
ionisation process
• The steamer’s mechanism is much faster than the
Townsend’s mechanism process
• The streamer theories can used to explain the
mechanism involving with the impulse breakdown
phenomena under transient voltages
79
Tutorial Streamers Mechanism:
Problem 3:
A uniform static field was created in Methane at 102

mm.Hg pressure by a parallel plate electrode system
with a gap distance of 3 cm. With an externally applied
electric field E0 of 3.9 kV/cm, it was found that the space
charge created by an avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of
radius rd = 0.08 cm. Estimate the value of αd for
favourable condition for the formation of streamers in the
methane gap.
80
Tutorial Streamers Mechanism: Answer

Solution:
If the space charge in an avalanche is assumed to be in a sphere of
radius rd, then the electric field of this charged sphere at its surface is
q eα d
Er = =ε
4π K 0 rd2
4π K 0 rd2
Where
q = charge in this sphere
= ε x (no. of charged particles in sphere) = εeαd
ε = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb (charge of an electron)
Favourable condition for the formation of streamer is Er ≈ external

applied field ≈ E0
Absolute permittivity of air or vacuum =
1
K0 = ε 0 = = 8 .854 × 10 −12
Farad / m
36π × 10 9
= Calculator CONST 32 81
Therefore,
1.6 × 10−19 eα d 1
Er = × V /m
1
( )
2
4π × 0.08 × 10−2
36π × 109
= 2250 ×10−6 eα dV / m = 2250 × 10−8 eα dV / cm
Favourable condition for the formation of streamer is Er ≈ external

applied field ≈ E0, i.e.
2250 x 10-8 eαd = 3.9 x 103
Giving eαd = 1.733 x 108
So αd = ln(1.733 x108) = 18.97 ion.pairs/cm
Therefore α =18.97/3cm = 6. 32 ion.pairs/cm 82


Actual solution: 1.6 × 10 −19 eαd 1
Er = × V /m
(
4π × 8.8542 −12 0.08 × 10 − 2 2 )
1.6 × 10 −19 eαd 1
Er = −10
× −7
V /m
1.1127 × 10 6.4 × 10
− 9 αd
Er = 1.438 × 10 e ×1.5625 × 106 V / m
Er = 2.2469 × 10 −3 eαdV / m
2.2469 × 10 −3 eαd
Er = V / cm
1× 10 2
Er = 2.2469 × 10 −5 eαdV / cm
E0 = E r
αd 3.9 × 103
e =
2.2469 × 10 −5
eα d = 173.57 × 106
αd = ln(173.57 ×106 )
αd = 18.97ion _ pairs
18.97
α= = 6.32ion _ pairs / cm 83
3
Tutorial Streamers Mechanism:
Problem 4:
A uniform static field was created in Methane at 115

mm.Hg pressure by a parallel plate electrode system
with a gap distance of 4 cm. With an externally applied
electric field E0 of 2.5 kV/cm, it was found that the space
charge created by an avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of
radius rd = 0.5cm. Estimate the value of αd for
favourable condition for the formation of streamers in the
methane gap. The constant absolute permittivity K0 of
the test area is 8.854x10-12 and the charge of electron ε
is 1.6x10-19
84
Post-Breakdown Current-Voltage Characteristic
• Fig. 6 shows the voltage and current

variations with the time during
development of a discharge through a
gap.
• Vb (shown as Vs in the graph) is the

breakdown voltage. At this case, the gas
insulates well at a potential at only few
volt less than Vb
• When the applied voltage V exceed the

Vb , the insulation (i.e. gas) breaks down,
a flash occur, and large current flow
(depending on source impedance)
• In the initial phase of the breakdown, the Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-
potential across the gap (Vgap) is high (~ time relationships of a discharge
Vb ) but falls as the current produce a
glow with Vgap = Vg 85

Cont.
• In extend to the glow process, the
potential can falls further to the arc value
(= Va).
• Once the breakdown current begins to

rise rapidly to significant magnitude, it will
be cleared that the potential across the
electrodes must depend on the
characteristics of the external circuit.
• The static volt-ampere characteristic of

the gap in the post-breakdown period can
be determined by decreasing the current
limiting resistance at constant applied
voltage.
• For instance, a discharge current of 1mA Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-

to 100mA in the glow region drop time relationships of a discharge
between the electrodes could remain
substantially constant in the region of 100
86
to 300V.

Cont.
• The properties of the glow discharge have

extensive applications like voltage
regulation (VR) tubes, amplifiers,
relaxation oscillator etc.
• If the discharge current is increased to

more than one ampere, it would cause
sudden drops of potential voltage to a
very low value of the order of tens of
volts.
• The discharge then become very

luminous (intense arc produced) and
noisy.
Fig.6 Voltage-time and current-

• The study of arc discharge is extremely time relationships of a discharge
important in the design of circuit breaker
and other switching devices.
87
Recovery of Electric Field Strength
• Usually the current through an arc will be interrupted

(isolated) by switching of the voltage via circuit
breaker or other switching devices.
• Immediately after this process, the gas remains

ionised and is at high temperature.
• However, with time increases (a few tens of

millisecond) the gas de-ionised due to recombination
of electrons and positive ions and diffusion of charge
particles from the gaseous gap (process settledown)
• In the absent of the charged particles, the gas

regains its normal insulation strength.
88
Recovery of Electric Field Strength
• The ability to recover their insulating property has

made gasses attractive to insulator designers.
• Solid cannot recover their insulating characteristic

and liquids recover only after necessary purification.
• So after breakdown, a solid material need to be

replace by a new one. However some new type solid
materials such as silicone rubber may regain back its
insulation strength property after having some
relaxation period (e.g. 2 – 3 days).
• Liquid insulator progressively deteriorates after each

breakdown as far its dielectric strength is concerned.
89
Paschen’s Law
• In the breakdown mechanism in a gap, the breakdown voltage

level Vb is also depending upon the pressure p and temperature
T conditions.
• Paschen’s Law states that the breakdown voltage Vb is a

function of the product of pressure p (as T is relates to the
pressure), and electrode separation d
Vb = f ( pd ) (1.8)
• A feature of the curve is shown in the Fig. 7 as the solid line, is

that is passes through a minimum.
• The dotted line in Fig. 7, which shows the breakdown fields

divided by pressure, shows that at the constant pressure the
breakdown field is reduced as the gap increases.
90
Paschen’s Law
Fig. 7: Paschen’s Curve

91
Paschen’s Law Continue
• The minimum of the Paschen curve is

explained by considering the efficiency of
ionisation of the electrons travelling
across the gap.
• On the right hand side of the minimum,

electrons makes more collision than they
do at the minimum of the curve, but
energy attained between the collision is
less.
• Hence the probability of ionisation is less

unless the voltage is increased.
• On the left hand side of the minimum,

Fig.7 Paschen Curve
electrons can cross the gap without so
many collisions, and so ionisation is less
efficient, as breakdown tends towards the
vacuum condition. 92
Paschen’s Law Continue
• To the right hand side of Paschen’s

minimum, where at atmospheric pressure
gaps larger than 1mm, the breakdown
voltage increases approximately linearly
with the product Pd.
• In air, the Paschen’s breakdown formula

Vb in kV is given by:
293 p ⎛ 293 p ⎞
Vb = 24.22 d + 6.08 ⎜ d⎟
760T ⎝ 760T ⎠ (1.9)
• where p is the pressure in mmHg, T is
temperature in Kelvin and d is the gap in
cm Fig.7 Paschen Curve
• So for long gaps the breakdown field

tends to constant value of 24 kV/cm 93
Tutorial Paschen’ Law:

Problem 5:
Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb in

kV during the breakdown process using the
Paschen’s Law equation shown below. The test
was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at
p = 1.5 bar filled with normal air. The tests
temperature area is 120°C. The electrodes gap
is 3.5cm. Use 1 bar = 750.06 mm.Hg.
293 p ⎛ 293 p ⎞
Vb _ kV = 24.22 d + 6.08 ⎜ d⎟
760T ⎝ 760T ⎠
94
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Answer

Solution:
293 p ⎛ 293 p ⎞
Vb _ kV = 24.22 d + 6.08 ⎜ d⎟
760T ⎝ 760T ⎠
293(750.06 ×1.5) ⎛ 293(750.06 × 1.5) ⎞
Vb _ kV = 24.22 3.5 + 6.08 ⎜⎜ 3.5 ⎟⎟
760(120 + 273) ⎝ 760(120 + 273) ⎠
293(1125.09) ⎛ 293(1125.09 ) ⎞
Vb _ kV = 24.22 3.5 + 6.08 ⎜⎜ 3.5 ⎟⎟
760(393) ⎝ 760(393) ⎠
Vb _ kV = 24.22(3.8629 ) + 6.08 (3.8629 )
Vb _ kV = 93.559 + 11.9498
Vb _ kV = 105.51kV
Vb _ kV = 106kV
95
Tutorial Paschen’ Law: Bring Home Quiz:

The test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber
at p1 = 1bar and p2 = 2.5bars filled with normal air.
Both tests temperature area are 80°C. The electrodes
with a gap of 0.35m.
i. Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb1 and

Vb2 in (in kV) during the breakdown process using the
Paschen’s Law equation shown below. Use 1 bar =
750.06 mm.Hg.
ii. Comment by comparing both results in terms of
percentage increment / decrement.
iii. Also sketch the output graph of p(mm.Hg) vs. Vb(kV).
293 p ⎛ 293 p ⎞
Vb _ kV = 24.22 d + 6.08 ⎜ d⎟
760T ⎝ 760T ⎠ 96
Note References
• Subir Ray, An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering,

Prentice Hall India, 2004
• Haddad & Warne, Advance in High Voltage

Engineering, IET Power and Energy Series, 2004
• S.M.Rowland, Breakdown in Gaseous, Solid and Liquid

Dielectrics, MSc. Lecture Note, The University of
Manchester, 2006
97

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Dr

BEK 4113/BEX 44503

High Voltage Engineering

What are you going to learn?

At the end of this subject, the student should have the

(1) analyse the important elements of breakdown in

Dielectrics also called as electrical ‘insulating

The Purpose of Dielectric

The purpose of dielectric is normally to control the flow of

In the context of engineering applications, dielectrics can

The desired features of dielectric materials are often very

Dielectric plays an important roles in separating the

The lower thermal conductivity in dielectric is used in

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials in

Oil immersed transformer

Papers insulating winding coils

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials In

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials In

Insulators Used on Power Lines 9

Characteristics and Examples

Problems with Dielectrics

For the purpose of discussing the flow of current, all

An insulator is a substance in which is practically

A conductor is a substance in which a certain number of

Problems with Dielectrics

The level of breakdown process of the materials may be

Thus, there are no perfect insulator (also conductor).

Can be categorised into three groups:

1. Breakdown / failure of gases

Failure of Gasses: Summary Process

• The gasses we met are generally excellent insulators.

• However, at high fields, the discharge and breakdown

• Why? This is because high fields charge particle can

Failure of Gasses: Summary Process

• In an earlier stage for ion movements, such a process

• This normally be an electrons. Why?

• Have a look at in the physic of atoms map. Since

• An electrons might come from cosmic radiation, or from

Breakdown in Gas: Atoms

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation

• Ionisation is a physical process of converting an atom

• The process works slightly different depending on

• A positively-charged ion is produced when an

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation

• The amount of energy required is called the ionisation

• Usually, it is customary to measure the Wi with the help of

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Principle

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation cont.

• A negatively-charged ions is produced when free

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation cont.

• eV is low for the first element of the each period and

Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses

Source: Wikipedia ‘http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ionization_energies.svg’ 22

Ionisation Potential of Some Common Gasses

Source: Wikipedia ‘http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ionization_energies.svg’ 23

Failure of Gasses: Ionisation Process

The ionisation progression can be

• The interchange of energy between the particles or gas