EE8215 High Voltage Engineering

(Program Elective)
B.E. / VII Semester / EEE

Prem Prakash

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi-835215
 Module – IV

Conduction and Breakdown in

Solid Dielectrics
• Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical apparatus and
devices

• insulate one current-carrying part from another when they operate at

different voltages.
A good dielectric should have:
• low dielectric loss,

• high mechanical strength,

• should be free from gaseous inclusions, and moisture, and

• be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.

Solid Dielectrics:
• Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength compared to liquids and
gases.

• Solid insulating materials, which are generally used, are of two types:
• The organic materials, such as paper, wood and rubber, and
• the inorganic materials, such as mica, glass and procelain, and synthetic
polymers, such as perspex, PVC, epoxy resins, etc.

Studies of the breakdown of solid dielectrics are of extreme importance in

insulation studies.

When breakdown occurs, solids get permanently damaged while gases

fully and liquids partly recover their dielectric strength after the applied
electric field is removed.
The mechanism of breakdown is a complex phenomenon in the case of solids
and varies depending on the time of application of voltage.

Variation of breakdown strength with time after application of voltage

Breakdown Mechanisms in Solid Dielectrics

(a) intrinsic or ionic breakdown,

(b) electromechanical breakdown,

(c) failure due to treeing and tracking,

(d) thermal breakdown,

(e) electrochemical breakdown, and

(f) breakdown due to internal discharges.

INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
When voltages are applied only for short durations of the order of 10 -8s, the
dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to an upper limit
called the intrinsic electric strength.

the value depends only on the structure of the material and the temperature.

The maximum electrical strength recorded is 15 MV/cm for polyvinyl-

alcohol at -196°C.
The maximum strength usually obtainable ranges from 5 MV/cm to 10
MV/cm.
Intrinsic breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons which are
capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectric.

a small number of conduction electrons are present in solid dielectrics, along

with some structural imperfections and small amounts of impurities.

The impurity atoms, or molecules, or both, act as traps for the conduction
electrons up to certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures.

When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to trapped

electrons are released, and these electrons participate in the conduction process.

Based on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms have been
proposed.

• Electronic Breakdown
• Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
Electronic Breakdown

Intrinsic breakdown occurs in time of the order of 10-8s and therefore is

assumed to be electronic in nature.

The initial density of conduction (free) electrons is also assumed to be large,

and electron-electron collisions occur.

When an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from the electric field
and cross the forbidden energy gap from the valence to the conduction band.

When this process is repeated, more and more electrons become available in the
conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.
Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization.

Conduction electrons gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric

field and cause liberation of electrons from the lattice atoms by collisions.

Under uniform field conditions, if the electrodes are embedded in the

specimen, breakdown will occur when an electron avalanche bridges the
electrode gap.

An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift
towards the anode and during this motion gains energy from the field and
loses it during collisions.

When the energy gained by an electron exceeds the lattice ionization

potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of the first
electron.
This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an electron
avalanche.
Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical size.

In practice, breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single avalanche

itself, but occurs as a result of many avalanches formed within the dielectric
and extending step by step through the entire thickness of the material
ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN

When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields, failure occurs
due to electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the mechanical
compressive strength.

If the thickness of the specimen is d and is compressed to a thickness d

under an applied voltage V, then the electrically developed compressive
stress is in equilibrium if

where Y is the Young’s modulus

Usually, mechanical instability occurs when

the highest apparent electric stress before breakdown,

The above equation is only approximate as Y depends on the mechanical
stress.

Also, when the material is subjected to high stresses the theory of elasticity
does not hold good, and plastic deformation has to be considered.

Recently, this theory has been modified based on the concept of fracture
mechanics.

In the new mechanism, filamentary shaped cracks propagate through the

dielectric material releasing both the electrostatic energy and the
electromechanical strain energy stored in the material due to the applied
electric field.

This is analogous to the conventional mechanical crack propagation in brittle

materials, whereby the cracks propagate spontaneously, if the strain energy
released is greater than that required to overcome the toughness of the
material.
THERMAL BREAKDOWN
The breakdown voltage of a solid dielectric should increase with its thickness.

This is true only up to a certain thickness above which the heat generated in
the dielectric due to the flow of current determines the conduction.

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however

small it may be, flows through the material.

The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.

The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction

through the solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces.

Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the temperature of the
dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated.
The heat generated under dc stress E is given as

where, σ is the dc conductivity of the specimen.

Under ac fields, the heat generated

where, f = frequency in Hz,

d = loss angle of the dielectric material, and
E = rms value.

The heat dissipated (W T) is given by

where Cv = specific heat of the specimen,

T = temperature of the specimen,
K = thermal conductivity of the specimen, and
t = time over which the heat is dissipated.
 BREAKDOWN OF SOLID DIELECTRICS IN PRACTICE

1. Certain types of breakdown do not come under either intrinsic

breakdown or thermal breakdown but actually occur after prolonged
operation.

2. These are, breakdown due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks are
formed on the surface of the insulation.
3. These tracks act as conducting paths on the insulator surfaces leading to
gradual breakdown along the surface of the insulator.

4. Another type of breakdown is the electrochemical breakdown caused by

chemical transformations such as electrolysis, formation of ozone, etc.

5. In addition, failure also occurs due to partial discharges which are

brought about in the air pockets inside the insulation.
6. This type of breakdown is very important in the impregnated paper
insulation used in high-voltage cables and capacitors.
Chemical and Electrochemical Deterioration and Breakdown

In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo
chemical changes when subjected to continuous electrical stresses. Some of
the important chemical reactions that occur are:

(a) Oxidation In the presence of air or oxygen, materials such as rubber

and polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks.

(b) Hydrolysis When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface

of a solid dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the materials lose their electrical
and mechanical properties. Electrical properties of materials such as paper,
cotton tape, and other cellulose materials deteriorate very rapidly due to
hydrolysis. Plastics like polyethylene undergo changes, and their service life
considerably reduces.
(c) Chemical Action Even in the absence of electric fields, progressive
chemical degradation of insulating materials can occur due to a variety of
processes such as chemical instability at high temperatures, oxidation and
cracking in the presence of air and ozone, and hydrolysis due to moisture
and heat. Since different insulating materials come into contact with each
other in many practical apparatus, chemical reactions occur between these
various materials leading to reduction in electrical and mechanical strength
resulting in failure.
• The effects of electrochemical and chemical deterioration could be
minimized by carefully studying and examining the materials.

• High soda-content glass insulation should be avoided in moist and damp

conditions, because sodium, being very mobile, leaches to the surface
giving rise to the formation of a strong alkali which will cause
deterioration.

• It was observed that this type of material will lose its mechanical
strength within 24 hours, when it is exposed to atmospheres having
100% relative humidity at 70°C.

• In paper insulation, even if partial discharges are prevented completely,

breakdown can occur due to chemical degradation.

• The chemical and electrochemical deterioration increases very rapidly

with temperature, and hence high temperatures should be avoided.
Breakdown due to Treeing and Tracking

Polymeric insulation is widely used for many engineering applications as they

are tough, light in weight and possess excellent dielectric properties.

they can be easily fabricated in any complicated shape as required in practical

use.

their life when used in high-voltage systems gets severely reduced by the
degradation processes.

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time fails,
normally two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric
materials.

(a) the presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation; and
(b) a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting path
finally leading to the formation of a spark. Insulation deterioration occurs
as a result of these sparks.
The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the
branches of a tree is called treeing.

Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting paths across the

surface of the insulation mainly due to surface erosion under voltage
application.

hile in use, the insulator progressively gets coated with moisture that
causes increased conduction leading to the formation of surface tracks.
When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes, there is a possibility
for two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric, to come in
series.

The voltages across the two media are (V1 across the air gap and V2 across
the dielectric).

Where V is the applied voltage.

Since e2 > e1 most of the voltage appears across d1. Sparking will occur in
the air gap and, charge accumulation takes place on the surface of the
insulation.

Sometimes the spark erodes the surface of the insulation.

As time passes, breakdown channels spread through the insulation in an

irregular ‘tree’ like fashion leading to the formation of conducting
channels. This kind of channeling is called treeing.

Under ac voltage conditions treeing can occur in a few minutes or several

hours. Hence, care must be taken to see that no series air gaps or other
weaker insulation gaps are formed.
tracking occurs even at very low voltages of the order of about 100 V,
whereas treeing requires high voltage.

For testing of tracking, a number of international standard testing methods

have been used.

At present, the method that is generally preferred is the liquid contaminant

inclined plane tracking method as described in the standards IEC 587 (1984)
and ASTM-D-2303 (1984).

IEC method is preferred as it can differentiate between two materials having

the same initial tracking voltage but different times to track.

Another method, which is also widely used, is described in the standard

ASTM-D-495 (1973). In this method, no contaminant is used.

The numerical value of the voltage that initiates tracking is called the
‘tracking index’ and is used to qualify the surface condition of the material
under test.
Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces and
a clean environment.

The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking.

Sometimes moisture-repellant greases are used.

But this needs frequent cleaning and regreasing.

Increasing creepage distances should prevent tracking, but in practice the

presence of moisture films defeat the purpose.

Usually, treeing phenomenon is observed in capacitors and cables, and

extensive work is being done to investigate the real and natural causes of this
phenomenon.
Breakdown due to Internal Discharges
 Composite Dielectrics

Composite insulating materials are generally composed of different chemical substances or

they come into contact with materials of different compositions.

Commonly encountered composite dielectric is the solid/liquid combination or liquid

impregnated flexible solid like thin sheets of paper or plastic.

This type of composite dielectric is widely used in a variety of low and high voltage
apparatus such as cables, capacitors, transformers, oil-filled switchgear, bushings, etc.

In recent years, solid/SF6 gas technology has become more acceptable.

Properties of Composite Dielectrics
A composite dielectric generally consists of a large number of layers arranged one
over the other.
This is called ‘the layered construction’ and is widely used in cables, capacitors and
transformers.

Important properties of composite dielectrics:

(a) Effect of Multiple

(b) Effect of Layer Thickness

(c) Effect of Interfaces

Properties of Composite Dielectrics

(a) Effect of Multiple Layers

The simplest composite dielectric consists of two layers of the same material.

Two thin sheets have a higher dielectric strength than a single sheet of the same
total thickness.

The advantage is particularly significant in the case of materials having a wide

variation in dielectric strength values measured at different points on its surface.
Properties of Composite Dielectrics

(b) Effect of Layer Thickness:

Increase in layer thickness normally gives increased breakdown voltage.

In a layered construction, breakdown channels occur at the interfaces only and not
directly through another layer.

A discharge having penetrated one layer cannot enter the next layer until a part of
the interface also attains the potential which can produce an electric field stress
comparable to that of the discharge channel.

The use of layered construction is very important in the case of insulating paper
since the paper thickness itself varies from point to point and consequently the
dielectric strength across its surface is not homogeneous.

The differences in the thickness impart a rough surface to the paper which can
produce an electric field stress comparable to that of the discharge channel.

The rough surface of the paper also helps in better impregnation when tightly
wound.
Properties of Composite Dielectrics

(b) Effect of Layer Thickness:

On the other hand, the existence of areas with lower thickness in the paper can
cause breakdown at these points at considerably lower voltages.

Various investigations on composite dielectrics have shown that

i. the discharge inception voltage depends on the thickness of the solid
dielectric, as well as on the dielectric constant of both the liquid and solid
dielectric, and
ii. the difference in the dielectric constants between the liquid and solid
dielectrics does not significantly affect the rate of change of electric field
at the electrode edge with the change in the dielectric thickness.
Properties of Composite Dielectrics

(c) Effect of Interfaces

The interface between two dielectric surfaces in a composite dielectric system plays
an important role in determining its pre-breakdown and breakdown strengths.

Discharges usually occur at the interfaces and the magnitude of the discharge
depends on the associated surface resistance and capacitance.

When the surface conductivity increases, the discharge magnitude also increases,
resulting in damage to the dielectric.

In a composite dielectric, it is essential to maintain low dielectric losses because

they normally operate at high electric stresses.

However, even in an initially pure dielectric liquid, when used under industrial
conditions for impregnating solid dielectrics, impurities arise, resulting in increased
dielectric losses.
Mechanisms of Breakdown in Composite Dielectrics

(a) Short-Term Breakdown

(b) Long-Term Breakdown
(a) Short-Term Breakdown

If the electric field stresses are very high, failure may occur in seconds or even faster
without any substantial damage to the insulating surface prior to breakdown.

(b) Long-Term Breakdown

• Long-term breakdown is also called the ageing of insulation.

• The principal effects responsible for the ageing of the insulation which eventually leads to
breakdown arise from the thermal processes and partial discharges.

• Partial discharges normally occur within the volume of the composite insulation systems.

• In addition, the charge accumulation and conduction on the surface of the insulation also
contributes significantly towards the ageing and failure of insulation.
i) Ageing and Breakdown due to Partial Discharges

During the manufacture of composite insulation, gas-filled cavities will be

present within the dielectric or adjacent to the interface between the conductor
and the dielectric.

When a voltage is applied to such a system, discharges occur within the gas-
filled cavities.

These discharges are called the ‘partial discharges’ and involve the transfer of
electric charge between the two points in sufficient quantity to cause the
discharge of the local capacitance.

At a given voltage, the impact of this charge on the dielectric surface produces
a deterioration of the insulating properties, in many ways, depending on the
geometry of the cavity and the nature of the dielectric.

The degree of ageing depends on the discharge inception voltage, Vi and the
discharge magnitude.

It has been shown that Vi is strongly dependent on the permittivity of the

dielectric e and the thickness of the cavity.
Where E is the breakdown stress of the cavity air gap of thickness g and t is the
thickness of the dielectric in series with the cavity.

For the breakdown of the gas in the cavity to occur

the discharge has to start at one end and progress to the other end.

As the discharge progresses, the voltage across the cavity drops due to charge
accumulation on the cavity surface towards which it is progressing, and often
the discharge gets extinguished.

The discharge extinction voltage depends on the conditions inside the cavity.

The discharge causes a rise in the temperature and pressure of the gas in the
cavity and gaseous deterioration products are also formed.

At high frequencies, when the discharges occur very rapidly, these may cause
the extinction voltage levels to reach lower values in spite of the erosion of the
cavity walls.
From the above analysis:

(i) for very small cavities, Vi decreases as the cavity depth increases, following the
Paschen curve of gas breakdown.

(ii) in spite of the erosion in the cavity walls, breakdown will not occur and the life
of the insulation is very long if the applied voltage is less than 2Vi.

(iii) for applied voltages greater than 2Vi, erosion is faster and therefore ageing of
the insulation is quicker.

(iv) the total capacitance of the cavity is not discharged as a single event but as a
result of many discharges, each discharge involving only a small area of the
cavity wall determined by the conductivity of the cavity surface in the region of
the discharge.
(ii) Ageing and Breakdown due to Accumulation of Charges on Insulator Surfaces

During discharges at the solid or liquid or solid-gas or solid-vacuum interfaces,

certain quantity of charge (electrons or positive ions) gets deposited on the solid
insulator surface.
The charge thus deposited can stay there for very long durations, lasting for days or
even weeks.
The presence of this charge increases the surface conductivity, thereby increasing
the discharge magnitude in subsequent discharges.
Increased discharge magnitude in subsequent discharges causes damage to the
dielectric surface.
Transverse discharges occur on the faces of the dielectric, and these discharges
cause a large area to be discharged instantaneously.
Charges that exist in surface conductivity are due to the discharges themselves such
that changes in discharge magnitude will occur spontaneously during the life of a
dielectric.
It has been generally observed that the discharge characteristics change with the life
of the insulation. This can be explained as follows: for clean surfaces, at the
discharge inception voltage V
,
the discharge characteristic depends on the nature of the dielectric, its size and
shape. The discharge
normally consists of a large number of comparatively small discharges originating
(ii) Ageing and Breakdown due to Accumulation of Charges on Insulator Surfaces

It has been generally observed that

the discharge characteristics change with the life of the insulation.

This can be explained as follows:
 for clean surfaces, at the discharge inception voltage V, the discharge
characteristic depends on the nature of the dielectric, its size and shape.
 The discharge normally consists of a large number of comparatively small
discharges originating from sites on the insulator surface where the
necessary discharge condition exists.
 After some time, erosion at these sites causes the discharges to decrease in
number as well as in magnitude, and consequently total extinction may
occur.
 With the passage of time, the phenomena involved become complex
because the charges from the surface-induced conductivity add to the
charge accumulation in the bulk due to partial discharges.
 SOLID DIELECTRICS USED IN PRACTICE

1. organic materials,

2. inorganic materials and

3. synthetic polymers.
1. thermoplastic and
2. the thermosetting plastic types
Classification Based on Temperature range

classes O, A, B, and C with temperature limits of 90°C, 105°C, and 130°C for the
first three classes and no specific limit fixed for class C.
Classes O and A cover the various organic materials without and with
impregnation respectively,
while classes B and C cover inorganic materials, respectively with and without a
binder.
Classification Based on Temperature range

As per IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission):

Class Y (formerly O) 90°C Paper, cotton, silk, natural rubber, polyvinyl chloride, etc., without impregnation.

Class A 105°C Same as class Y but impregnated, and nylon.

Class E 120°C Polyethylene terephthalate (terylene fibre, melinex film), cellulose triacetate, polyurethanes,
polyvinyl acetate enamel.

Class B 130°C Mica, fibreglass (alkali free alumino borosilicate), bitumenized asbestos, Bakelite, polyester
enamel.

Class F 155°C As class B but with alkyd and epoxy-based resins.

Class H 180°C As class B with silicone resin binder, silicone rubber, aromatic polyamide (nomex paper and
fibre), polyimide film (enamel, varnish and film), and estermide enamel.

Class C Above 180°C As class B, but with suitable non-organic binders; Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene), and
other high-temperature polymers. Sub-groups in class C are 200°C, 220°C and 250°C and above.
 Commonly used Solid Dielectrics
• Paper and Boards
• Fibres
• Mica and Its Products
• Glass
• Ceramics
• Rubber
• Plastics
– Polyethylene
– Fluorocarbon Plastics
– Nylon
– Polyvinyl Chloride
– Polyesters
– Polystyrenes
 Epoxy Resins
 High-Temperature High-Performance Polymers
 Perfluoro Carbon Films
 Imidepolymers: Polyimide Film
 Polycarbonate (PC) and Imide Polymers